Mundinga Kenias

BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE ECUCATION FACULTY OF SCIENCE GEOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION STRATEGIES IN

ENSURING FOOD SECURITY IN ZVIMBA DISTRICT, WARD 7

MUNDINGA KENIAS

B1335877

DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE HONOURS DEGREE IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

APRIL 2017

APPROVAL FORM

The undersigned certify that they have read and understood this dissertation and have approved its submission to the department for marking confirming that it conforms to the departmental requirements.

Supervisor …...... Date ………………………...

DECLARATION FORM I Mundinga Kenias declare that this research project is my own work and has not been copied or lifted from any source without acknowledgement of the source.

Signature ………………………. Date ………………………...

DEDICATION I dedicate this research project to my mother Ms. P Manyange.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Lord Almighty, your guidance has continued to give me strength and wisdom exceedingly and abundantly. With you, I know I have my feet on higher ground. Further acknowledgements go to the late Dr. I Mberengwa who has been my project supervisor until he passed away before the completion of this research project. I also sincerely appreciate the guidance I received from Dr. A Manyani who took over as my project supervisor from where Dr. I Mberengwa left and devoted his time to my attention whenever I needed it. The completion of this research project is testimony of the support of a number of individuals and organisations. I would like to thank the people of Ward 7 Zvimba District, especially Mr J. Safari the councillor of the Ward, AGRITEX Officers and the village heads for their support for their support.

To my mother Ms. P Manyange, my grandmother, my aunt and my uncles who labored tirelessly to gather resources together for my education despite the economic constraints and other responsibilities they have, I salute you.

LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Questionnaire Respondents……………………………………………………………27

Table 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents………………………………………...33

Table 4.2 Number of beneficiaries and quantities received under the Government Input Scheme for vulnerable households in Ward 7, Zvimba District…………………………………………..43

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Map of Study Area……………………………………………………………………6

Figure 4.1 Household sizes of the respondents…………………………………………………..36

Figure 4.2 Respondents perceptions on the contribution of government intervention strategies in household food security in Ward 7, Zvimba District…………………………………………….48

LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX I: Household Questionnaire……………………………………………………….59

APPENDIX II: Interview Guide………………………………………………………………..62

APPENDIX III: Observation Guide…………………………………………………………….63

APPENDIX IV: Focus Group Discussion Guide………………………………………………..64

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ACRONOMYS AGRITEX Agriculture and Extension

DSS Department of Social Services

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation

FGDs Focus Group Discussions

HIV Human Immune-deficiency Virus

LEDCs Less Economically Developed Countries

MPSLSW Ministry of Public Service Labour and Social Welfare

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

WFP World Food Programme

ZRDC Zvimba Rural District Council

ZIMSTAT Zimbabwe National Statistical Agency

ZIMVAC Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee

ZIMASSET Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents APPROVAL FORM ...... i DECLARATION FORM ...... ii DEDICATION...... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv LIST OF TABLES ...... v LIST OF FIGURES ...... vi LIST OF APPENDICES ...... vii ACRONOMY ...... viii ABSTRACT ...... xiii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Background of study ...... 1 1.3 Statement of the problem ...... 3 1.4 Objectives of the study ...... 4 1.4.1 Specific objectives ...... 4 1.5 Research questions ...... 4 1.6 Significance of the study ...... 4 1.7 Description of the Study Area ...... 5 1.8 Organisation of the study ...... 6 1.9 Definition of terms ...... 7 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8 2.1 Introduction ...... 8 2.2 Food security ...... 8 2.3 Global overview of food security...... 10

2.4 Regional overview of food security ...... 11 2.5 Local overview of food security...... 12 2.6 GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION STRATEGIES IN ENSURING FOOD SECURITY ...... 13 2.6.1 Zimbabwe Agricultural Policy Framework (ZAPF) 1995-2020...... 13 2.7 Agricultural Schemes adopted by the Government of Zimbabwe to boost food production ...... 15 2.7.1 GMB Input Credit Facility ...... 15 2.7.2 Operation Maguta ...... 16 2.7.3 Agricultural Mechanization Programme ...... 16 2.7.4 Government input scheme for vulnerable households ...... 17 2.7.5 Command Agriculture ...... 18 2.8 Food aid ...... 20 2.9 Challenges emanating from relying on government assistance as a food security measure ...... 21 2.9.1 Dependency ...... 21 2.9.2 Political interference ...... 22 2.9.3 Corruption ...... 22 2.9.4 Generation of Conflicts ...... 23 2.9.5 Inadequacy of the government assistances ...... 24 2.10 Summary ...... 24 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGIES ...... 24 3.1 Introduction ...... 24 3.2 Research Design...... 25 3.3 Target population ...... 26 3.4 Sampling ...... 26 3.5 Primary data collection instruments ...... 28 3.5.1 Questionnaires ...... 28

3.5.2 Interviews ...... 29 3.5.3 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) ...... 29 3.5.4 Observation ...... 30 3.6 Secondary data collection ...... 30 3.7 Data Collection Errors ...... 31 3.7 Challenges faced during the survey ...... 31 3.8 Summary ...... 31 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ...... 32 4.1 Introduction ...... 32 4.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents ...... 33 4.2.1 Gender of the Respondents ...... 33 4.2.2 Age of the Respondents ...... 34 4.2.3 Marital Status of the Respondents ...... 34 4.2.4 Educational Level of the Respondents ...... 35 4.2.5 Household Size of the Respondents ...... 35 4.3 GOVERNMENT INTERVENTIONS EMPLOYED TO ENSURE FOOD SECURITY IN ZVIMBA DISTRICT, WARD 7 ...... 36 4.3.1 Land Reform and Resettlement Programme (LRRP) ...... 36 4.3.2 Government Agriculture Input Credit Facilities ...... 38 4.3.3 Operation Maguta ...... 39 4.3.4 Agricultural Mechanization Programme ...... 41 4.3.5 Government Input Scheme for Vulnerable households ...... 42 4.3.6 Drought Relief Food Aid Programme ...... 44 4.4 Overall contribution of government interventions in ensuring food security in Zvimba District, Ward 7 ...... 47 4.5 Challenges of relying on government assistance in food security ...... 49 4.5.1 Creation of dependency syndrome ...... 49

4.5.2 Political interference ...... 49 4.5.3 Corruption ...... 50 4.6 Summary ...... 50 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 51 5.1 Introduction ...... 51 5.2 Conclusion ...... 52 5.3 Recommendations ...... 52 5.3.1 Government ...... 52 5.3.2 Households in Zvimba District ...... 53 5.3.3 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) ...... 53 REFERENCES ...... 54 APPENDIX I: Household Questionnaire...... 57 APPENDIX II: INTERVIEW GUIDE ...... 60 APPENDIX III: OBSERVATION GUIDE ...... 61 APPENDIX IV: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE...... 62

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ABSTRACT Food security is one of the pertinent causes of concern issues across the globe. There is a dire need to curb the continuous problem of food insecurity which is mainly affecting the people living in rural areas. Resultantly, there has been a relentless effort by governments, Non-Governmental Organizations, institutions and individuals to intervene and cushion people’s food security. This study henceforth was designed to assess the government intervention strategies in ensuring food security in Zvimba District, Ward 7 through establishing the government intervention strategies. The study also, assessed the effectiveness of each and every government intervention strategy noted as well as the challenges emanating from relying on government assistances as a food security measure. Primary data was obtained from the questionnaire survey, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and observations. Secondary data sources included the Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee reports, Food and Agriculture Organisation reports, World Food Programme reports and reports from the government line ministries. The results of the study revealed that the government intervention strategies that were employed in Ward 7 Zvimba District included the Land Reform and Resettlement Programme (LRRP), Agriculture Input Credit Facility, Agricultural Mechanization Programme, Operation Maguta, Government Input Scheme for vulnerable households and the Drought Relief Food aid Programme. The study also revealed that more than half of the people in Ward 7 Zvimba District acknowledged that the Government Input Scheme for vulnerable households and the Drought relief food Aid programmes contributed more than half to 100% improvement in their household food security and hence these government intervention strategies were effective in ensuring food security. However the LRRP, Agriculture Input Credit Facility, Agricultural Mechanization Programme and Operation Maguta contributed less than half and in some cases less than a quarter in the improvement of people’s household food security in the study area. The study also noted that the challenges that emanated on relying on government assistance as a food security measure included creation of dependency syndrome, corruption and political interference. This implies that government intervention strategies towards ensuring food security should be designed in a way that they ensure accountability during implementation at the same time enhancing community self- sustenance of livelihoods activities.

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction This research seeks to assess the government intervention strategies in ensuring food security in Zvimba District Ward 7. It is explores the various measures and programmes initiated by the government of Zimbabwe in a bid to boost food security within different households in Zvimba District. The research establishes the effectiveness of these intervention measures in achieving food security. This chapter gives background to the study, statement of the problem, aim of the research, objectives, research questions, justification of the study, delimitations of the study as well as operational definitions of key points.

1.2 Background of study Food security is a complex phenomenon that manifests itself in numerous physical conditions resulting from multiple causes. According to Food and Agriculture Organisation (2014), the World Food Summit of 1996 established four dimensions of food security that involves food availability, access, stability and utilization. Moreover, the State of Food Insecurity in the World (2013) introduced a suite of indicators organized around these four dimensions with a view to overcoming the drawbacks that arise from relying solely on the prevalence of undernourishment indicator. Government intervention in food security can be viewed in two ways, namely, macro level intervention and micro level intervention (Samarendu and Peterson, 2000). Macro level intervention refers to steps taken to increase food grains production by:

(i) providing infrastructure such as, irrigation, markets, credit supply,

(ii) setting price policies,

(iii) Distribution of food grains through procurement and buffer stocking operations.

Micro level intervention refers to increasing the physical and economic access to food by providing:

(i) Supply of food at affordable prices through public distribution system,

(ii) Self-employment programmes,

(iii) Wage employment programmes.

These programmes can also be referred to as antipoverty programmes (Samarendu and Peterson, 2000).

A report of the state of food insecurity in the world by FAO (2014) reflected that the number of hungry people in the world was still unacceptably high; at least 805 million people, or one in nine; worldwide were not having enough to eat. The majority of these undernourished people lived in developing countries, where an estimated 791 million were chronically hungry in 2012–14. The report also pointed out that although developing countries also account for most of the improvements over the last two decades with an overall reduction of 203 million undernourished people since 1990–92 about one in eight people in these regions, or 13.5 percent of the overall population, remain chronically underfed (FAO, 2014).

Food security is one of the major causes of concern in Zimbabwe. Food security in Zimbabwe is directly connected to domestic agricultural production, the impact of poverty on access to food and basic services, drought or flooding, related shifting climate patterns, and changing demographics connected to HIV/AIDS and migration (FAO, 1996). Although there are various actors that aim at achieving food security which include a variety of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) operating under their mother body World Food Programme (WFP), it remains a paramount mandate of the government to ensure food security within the country (Songwe, 2012). Since most communal areas in Zimbabwe rely on agriculture as a means of survival and source of income, the government of Zimbabwe has put forth measures to boost agricultural production. This was done through the Government Input Scheme, a programme that was initiated to provide farming inputs to farmers mostly in communal areas (ZIMASSET, 2013). However according to Famine Early Warning System Network (FEWS NET) Zimbabwe Food Security Brief (2016), in the past three years, climate change and variability has been a big blow to the agricultural sector and it suffered lack of adequate rainfall in some areas and excessive flooding in other parts of the country that left crops and livestock dead. In response to that the government has introduced the food aid programme to cushion the people from the extremes of climate change and variability in order to ensure food security (ZIMASSET, 2013). Recently the

2 government has launched the Command Agriculture Programme in order to ensure food security in the country (Herald, 16/08/2016 ).

Zvimba District is one of the biggest Districts in Mashonaland West which carries a total population of 263 020 people as according to Mashonaland West Census Report (2012). The increase in the population versus the food security is inversely proportional, this in a way exacerbate the prevalence of hunger in the area especially in ex-miners compounds and as well as the ex-white famers’ compounds (ZIM-VAC, 2015). Although the government has adopted a number of strategies to curb food insecurity, hunger has become a day to day thing within most parts of the District. An element of donor syndrome is also crystal clear as people are getting used to hand-outs from the government and other various NGOs. Therefore it is against this background that this research would like to assess the effectiveness of the government intervention strategies to ensure food security in Zvimba District, Ward 7.

1.3 Statement of the problem Ward 7 in Zvimba District has been subject to food insecurity associated with severe food shortages that emerged with droughts since 2002, 2008, 2015 and 2016. The area is characterised by communal lands and largely depends on subsistence farming and small livestock production which has been devastated by a combination of economic and political instability, and natural disasters. Despite government interventions in trying to cushion the people’s food insecurity, people are still languishing in poverty. The government input scheme has been severely ineffective and also the delivery of the inputs to farmers usually has been delayed to an extent that farmers would receive the inputs after the planting season since most farmers rely on rain fed agriculture. Moreso, the food aid programmes launched by the government as social safety nets through the Department of Social Welfare, have been inadequate since they attended to only a third of the total people who are food insecure. The recently launched Government Command Agriculture has shown pleasant results in some areas. However, most farmers faced excessive rainfall which has led to crops drowning and the issue of food insecurity might persist even after the harvesting period. This, therefore, implies that there is need to assess government intervention in ensuring food security in Zvimba District, Ward 7.

1.4 Objectives of the study The general objective of this study is to assess the contribution of government intervention strategies in ensuring food security in Zvimba District, Ward 7.

1.4.1 Specific objectives • To establish the government intervention strategies that were employed to achieve food security in Zvimba District.

• To assess the effectiveness of each and every intervention strategy noted.

• To assess the challenges emanating from relying on government assistance in ensuring food security.

1.5 Research questions 1. Which government measures were put in place towards ensuring food security in Zvimba District?

2. How effective were the government intervention strategies in ensuring food security in the Ward?

3. What are the challenges that are encountered on depending on government assistance as a food security measure?

1.6 Significance of the study The lack of adequate literature on the implementation and effectiveness of government spearheaded intervention strategies towards achieving food security in different communities in the Zimbabwe has been the reason to carry out this research. The research gives an opportunity for the correction of mistakes that have been encountered during the adoption of different government intervention strategies in ensuring food security in Zimbabwe, thus helping the future government programmes to be effective and efficient. This study is significant and beneficial to the government of Zimbabwe especially the Ministry of Agriculture, NGOs, households in Zvimba District and also to institutions like Bindura University of Science Education (BUSE), in terms of visibility, where the project is carried out. The study also shows paramount importance in adding more

4 literature on assessment of government intervention strategies in ensuring food security in Zvimba District, Ward 7.

The research is going to reveal to the people and the government on the good and bad that can emerge from government assistance. In addition, existing few researches lack sufficient information on the challenges that emanate from relying on government assistance as a solution to end food insecurity. This research aims at establishing the extent at which government intervention measures towards food security have been effective in achieving their intended targets and the challenges encountered in a bid to ensure food security in Zvimba District, Ward 7. This study gives the government an insight on how to initiate future interventions that yield pleasant results and ensure non-existence of loopholes and totally achieve food security.

1.7 Description of the Study Area The study was conducted in Ward 7 of Zvimba District in Mashonaland West province. Zvimba District is about 100km from Harare and shares borders with Norton, Chegutu, Makonde, and Guruve. It is comprised of communal areas, farming areas, urban and peri-urban areas hence the social composition is heterogeneous. Zvimba is characterised by diverse rainfall patterns in that some areas receive good rainfall perennially (Wards 13-26, 30-35) which are in Banket, Raffingora, Mutoroshanga, Nyabira, Darwendale, Dzivarasekwa Extension and White Cliff. The wards in communal areas receive erratic rainfall which results in poor harvests and this increases the vulnerability of people and food insecurity in the District. Ward 7 is made up of communal and old small-scale resettlement areas. Based on the 2012 ZIMSTATS Census report (ZIMSTATS, 2012), Zimbabwe has a population 12 973 808, made up of 6 234 931 males and 6 738 877 females. Zvimba District has a total population of 245 489 broken down into 11 852 males and 12 227 females. It has 58 304 households, with an average household size of 4, 2. Ward 7, which is the target of this research has a total population of 5 299 (2577 males and 2722 females), and 1 148 households, with an average household size of 4, 6. Accordingly to ZIMVAC Rural Assessment Report (2013), 10 percent of the Zimbabwean population was food insecure for the period 2013- 2014.

Figure 1.1 Map of the study area, Source OCHA 2012

1.8 Organisation of the study The study is organised into five chapters. The first chapter covers the background, the statement of the research problem, objectives of the study, research questions, and significance of the study as well as the delimitations of the study.

Chapter two presents the literature review. This chapter begin by reviewing the different literatures on the issue of food security globally, regionally and locally. It then discusses about the nature of government interventions that were put in place by the government of Zimbabwe to ensure food security.

Chapter three outlines the research methodology and the research design. Following on is a section on data collection and management techniques used in the study. The chapter also highlights the major limitations of the various analytical tools that were applied in this research and the possible solutions that the researcher adopted to address the limitations.

Chapter four is the data presentation and analytical chapter. It includes characterisation of sample households based on food security. It presents the demographic characteristics of the sample, establishes the government intervention strategies that were employed to ensure food security in Zvimba District, Ward 7. It also discusses and analyse the effectiveness of each and every intervention strategy that was initiated in Ward 7, as well as food security status of sampled households. In addition, the chapter presents the challenges that emanated on relying on government assistance as a measure of food security in ward 7, Zvimba District.

Chapter five distils the major conclusions from this research. The chapter concludes with recommendations on the government and the households in Zvimba District on how government intervention strategies would be improved to ensure food security. Recommendations on possible areas of further research are also provided in this chapter.

1.9 Definition of terms Food security- exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (World Food Security Summit, 1996). It comprises of four aspects which are; food availability, food access, food utilization and stability of supply.

Food insecurity - exists when people do not have adequate physical, social or economic access to food (FAO, 2014).

Government Intervention Strategies - government intervention strategies in food security can be understood in two ways; macro level intervention and micro level interventions. Macro level intervention strategies involves steps taken to increase food grains production and micro level intervention strategies consist of ways to increasing the physical and economic access to food (Samarendu and Peterson, 2000).

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction The issue about food security has been a major concern across the globe. This is due to the fact that hunger and starvation have been some of the major hazards that affect many parts of the world since the beginning of the twentieth century. Food insecurity has been triggered by a combination of drought and political instability which is also affecting the economic environment. In response to that issue, the government of Zimbabwe is putting efforts in order to curb the problem of food insecurity across the country and its intervention strategies include the Government Input Scheme, the government food aid and relief programme and the command agriculture among others Food and farming inputs have been distributed in some areas for a period spanning to more than ten years (WFP, 2015). Acknowledgements should be made to the government since such interventions have really saved lives of the people in many communities. Such government intervention strategies are assessed in terms of their effectiveness in the case of Zvimba District, Ward 7.

In the case of this literature review, literatures are reviewed in subheadings which are linked to the aim and research objectives of this study clearly showing the knowledge gap in each and every reviewed literature. The effectiveness of each and every government intervention strategy identified is also discussed. In addition, challenges on relying on government assistance as a food security measure are also highlighted; other important concepts in this work were also considered.

2.2 Food security Food security is attained when all people at all times have physical and economic access to safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (World Food Summit, 1996). According to the World Health Organisation (2012), food security is built upon three major pillars which include:

• Food availability : sufficient quantities of food available on a consistent basis. • Food access : having sufficient resources to obtain appropriate foods for a nutritious diet. • Food use : appropriate utilization of the available food based on knowledge of basic nutrition and care, as well as adequate water and sanitation.

Bremner (2012), also postulates that achieving food security requires that sufficient quantities of appropriate foods are consistently available, individuals have adequate incomes or other resources to purchase or barter for food, food is properly processed and stored, individuals have sound knowledge of nutrition and child care that they put to good use, and have access to adequate health and sanitation services. Basically, food security is concerned with fulfilling each individual’s human right to food and it relates to issues of agricultural policy, economic development and trade (Garwe, 2008).

It should be noted that in most developing countries, the problem of under nourishment is usually related to the lack of access to food and poor distribution (Moyo, 2009). Food security is diminished when food systems are stressed. A food system is referred to as a set of dynamic interaction between and within the bio-geophysical and human environment which result in the production, preparation and consumption of food (FAO, 2014). The availability of sufficient food in a nation cannot be generalized that each and every person has access to sufficient food. Various views show that food security at an individual level can be credited to the fact that people either have enough income to purchase food or they have the capacity to produce their own food through subsistence farming or any other livelihood strategies (Manyeruke et.al , 2013). Despite the aforementioned views about food security, it has to be noted that there is a close link between poverty and food security. This is whereby the poor are more susceptible to food insecurity due to their deprivation of resources and information that strengthens their livelihoods strategies. Garwe (2008) argues that sufficient income is the most significant factor in guaranteeing food security.

However, given a situation of a highly stressed economy where unemployment rate is on climax, like in Zimbabwe and other Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs), government interventions on strengthening food security remain the hope of the people especially those living in rural areas. Few researches that have been carried out in relation to food security particularly in LEDCs lack adequate information on the assessments of government interventions strategies in ensuring food security. This research then seeks to explore in detail how government interventions strategies are actually addressing the issue of food security and with which magnitude in Ward 7 of Zvimba District. This is due to the fact that there is still persistent hunger and food shortages within most LEDCs hence the need to establish more evaluations and literature on the impact

9 government interventions towards ensuring food security. This research also gives recommendations on how the government interventions should be designed and implemented to achieve their intended targets.

2.3 Global overview of food security According to FAO (2015), the first World Food Summit (WFS) goal, at the WFS, held in Rome in 1996, representatives of 182 governments pledged “... to eradicate hunger in all countries, with an immediate view to reducing the number of undernourished people to half their present level no later than 2015”. This was an oath by governments to intervene and put measures, policies and programmes in a bid to ensure food security in their respective countries. The second is the Millennium Development Goal 1 (MDG 1) hunger target in which in the year 2000, 189 nations pledged to free people from multiple deprivations, considering that every individual has the right to dignity, freedom, equality and a basic standard of living that includes freedom from hunger and violence (FAO, 2015). It can be attributed to this pledge which led to the formulation of eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in 2001 in which nations were striving to address the issue of eradication hunger and poverty within people and ensure food security in their respective countries (FAO, 2014).

There is little detailed literature on the magnitude in which countries especially LEDCs have attained the MDGs by 2015 especially per country basis. Various reports by the WFP and FAO only mention that many countries have failed to reach the international hunger targets because of natural and human-induced disasters or political instability have resulted in protracted crises with increased vulnerability and food insecurity of large parts of the population. In such contexts, measures to protect vulnerable population groups and improve livelihoods have been difficult to implement or ineffective (FAO; 2015). This study provides detailed quantitative and qualitative evidence on how the Government of Zimbabwe has strived and put on interventions to ensure food security at the same time trying to eradicate hunger and poverty. This evidence can be used to attain literature of detailed assessments on the MDG 1 achievements in Zimbabwe so as to cover the knowledge gap.

2.4 Regional overview of food security In Sub-Saharan Africa, governments are under pressure to improve performance in the fight against food insecurity (Songwe, 2012). At the same time, African farmers are facing harsh agro ecologies and climate change, characterised by low soil fertility, recurrent droughts and severe floods (Manyeruke et.al, 2013). According to FAO (2015) the African region is also affected by extreme climate events such as unusual rainfall and temperature patterns. Plant and animal diseases are also a growing threat in Africa. Conflicts and political instability have compounded the already existing challenges to food and agricultural production in several countries (FAO, 2014). Conflict, for example, can disrupt the supply and distribution of inputs and outputs to create price shocks and cause massive displacement of labour (Bremner, 2012). Apart from plant and animal diseases, threats to livelihoods due to human diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria and respiratory illness are rampant in Africa (FAO, 2015). Furthermore, a research by FAO (2015), on regional overview of food insecurity in Africa concluded that food insecurity in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) is caused by:

(a) Lack of education

(b) Food price increases

(d) Climate change and variability

(e) Unemployment

(f) Institutional failure

More recently, the severe impact of the Ebola epidemic has resulted in lost human lives and suffering as well as economic losses in terms of foregone output, higher fiscal deficits, rising prices, cost of health care, lower real household incomes and greater poverty (FAO, 2015). According to UNDP (2015), the negative impact of the Ebola outbreak on household incomes and markets, mainly in Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia, has led to food insecurity due to lack of access to food. Economic activities have been seriously disrupted as a result of restrictions that were imposed on movement and trade in order to limit the transmission of the disease. Although substantial progress has been made recently to control the epidemic and to resume productive

11 activities in the affected areas, the Ebola Virus Disease represents a stiff challenge in West Africa and the SSA region as a whole, and likely the world, if not successfully contained (UNDP, 2015). This is one of the major constraints faced by governments in executing their intervention measures to ensure food security.

2.5 Local overview of food security According to WFP (2014), in general, food and nutrition insecurity is persistent in Zimbabwe. Chronic malnutrition as a result of hunger and poverty has remained relatively untransformed in the last decade at over 30 percent. The food security situation similarly has remained fragile and highly subject to wide range of recurrent natural and economic shocks over the years (WFP, 2014). According to the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) Hunger Index computed in 2013, Zimbabwe was ranked 46 out of the 78 listed serious undernourished developing countries.

Zimbabwe has been experiencing problems of declining agricultural production and food security for a period ranging to more than ten years (Mupindu, 2015). The agricultural sector, being the backbone of the economy underpinning economic growth, food security and poverty eradication, continues to experience severe systemic challenges within its entire value chain ranging from lack of agricultural financing to lack of affordable inputs (ZIMASSET, 2013). This has also been exacerbated by prolonged periods of drought caused by climatic changes (ZIMASSET, 2013). Evidence from reports by the ZIMVAC, food security picture for the May 2009/10 and May 2010/11 consumption year showed a food security outcome that was not significantly improving for the two consumption years with an estimate of 18% (1.6 million people) and 15% (1.3 million people) of the rural population being food insecure during the peak hunger period respectively (ZIMVAC, 2010). According to the Rural Livelihoods Assessment conducted in July 2016, about 4.1 million people in the rural areas of Zimbabwe were projected to be food insecure by January 2017 (ZIMVAC, 2016 ). Furthermore, farmers have been trying to increase and expand cropping areas to compensate for previous poor yields. However, sometimes they ended up growing crops that were inappropriate to the area; however accompanied with already limited resources including labour, implementation management and farming inputs (Zimbabwe Food Security Outlook, 2016).

In a bid to combat the extreme effects of food insecurity the government of Zimbabwe through the Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization and Irrigation Development (AMID) and different NGOs concerted efforts have tried to address the problems of unaffordability and unavailability of inputs to the farmers (ZIMASSET, 2013). This was done through the provision of farming inputs to smallholder farmers and reduction of the vulnerability of communal farmers. The farming inputs scheme has been running for a number of years in a bid to address the issue of food insecurity in the country (ZIMVAC, 2016). However, all these efforts lack evaluations on whether they are addressing the problem at hand, which is food insecurity, since despite the provision of these inputs people are remaining food insecure and relying on NGOs or governmental food handouts almost every year. This research reveals the position of government efforts in ensuring food security and how far these interventions has have yielded their targets and strengthening of the livelihoods of the people in need of them.

2.6 GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION STRATEGIES IN ENSURING FOOD SECURITY

2.6.1 Zimbabwe Agricultural Policy Framework (ZAPF) 1995-2020 The Government of Zimbabwe adopted the Zimbabwe Agricultural Policy Framework (ZAPF) for the period 1995–2020 which was aimed at achieving food security as one of the national priority. Before the adoption of the policy, food insecurity was solely a household level issue within the poor and those with inadequate land for farming purposes. Nonetheless, food shortages both at national and household level have since increased over the past two decades. Resultantly, the country has been forced to rely on food aid and commercial grain imports to curb food insecurities. According to Garwe (2008), the country has been subject to droughts caused by climate change and climate variability which propelled to the country’s food shortages. On the other hand, new resettled farmers commenced agricultural activities at a very slow pace and they are also significant contributors to the food insecurity of the country as noted by the National Institute Brief (NIB, 2008). The ZAPF set out the long term policy objectives for the agricultural sector and this policy framework indicated that agricultural development should be hinged upon the following principles:

• Land and agrarian reforms to ensure productive use of land;

• Institutional development focused on efficient delivery of services to farmers; • Increased production to ensure household food security; and • Development of a public sector investment programme to support agricultural development (NIB, 2008: 4-5).

In addition, the Land Reform and Resettlement Programme (LRRP) of 2000 was part and parcel of ZAPF’s objectives. At a national level, the initiative resulted in the widening of the possible agricultural production base through land redistribution to more people. Through the LRRP of year 2000, the Government of Zimbabwe obtained approximately 11 million hectares of land bringing to 14.4 million hectares in total of the land redistributed since independence in 1980 (NIB, 2008: 5). With the LRRP, the Government of Zimbabwe’s aim was to resettle a total of 350,000 indigenous families under the A1 and A2 models. More prominence was given to the A1 settlement model in order to decongest the marginal communal areas (NIB, 2008: 5).

However, according to a research by Stiftung (2004) since the Government of Zimbabwe embarked on its fast track land resettlement programme, the food situation, particularly in respect of the staple maize, has been getting worse every year. In addition, Stiftung research argued that the land policy, on paper was made to appear reasonable, was belied by the reality on the ground of mayhem characterized by murder, assaults, rape, theft, and wanton destruction of infrastructure. More than 250 000 farm workers lost their jobs and livelihoods and in turn a mere 134 400 families were resettled on more than 11m ha (Stiftung, 2004). On the other similar research by Scoones et.al (2010), the LRRP led to improved household food security given focus on the diverse forms of agricultural production by the ‘new farmers’, subdivided by maize cultivation, gardens and irrigation, sugar and more briefly cotton, and, of strategic significance, livestock production.

The above discussion shows that there are a number of contradicting facts and literature concerning the contribution of the LRRP towards food security in different areas in Zimbabwe. Therefore, this research provides further and much detailed study on how much this LRRP as a government intervention contributed in ensuring food security in Zvimba District, in particular, residents of Ward 7.

2.7 Agricultural Schemes adopted by the Government of Zimbabwe to boost food production

2.7.1 GMB Input Credit Facility After the LRRP of 2000, the Government of Zimbabwe launched an input credit facility scheme. This scheme made it feasible for the new farmers to buy farming inputs that is seeds, fertilizers, machinery and agro-chemicals on credit terms. This government input credit scheme was run by the Grain Marketing Board (GMB) with the aim of promoting productivity on the farms and boosting farmers’ confidence in the government’s efforts to ensure food security for the country. However, countrywide, this scheme failed to yield its intended results because of poor coordination in the distribution of these inputs. GMB was given the mandate to distribute the inputs but it had no clear criteria for selecting the beneficiaries of these inputs (Manyeruke and Hamauswa, 2012). This created opportunities for non- farmers to acquire inputs at government controlled prices and channel them on to the informal black- market. In some cases inputs were distributed along political lines not based on the farmer’s ability to effectively utilize the inputs (Manyeruke and Hamauswa, 2012).

The research by Manyeruke and Hamauswa (2012) concluded that government’s efforts were frustrated because of the aforementioned challenges and the Government of Zimbabwe ceased to support farmers who were already beginning to experience the effects of successive droughts that had significantly crippled attempts to increase production on the farms. However, according to the economic blueprint, ZIMASSET (2013) the government opted to recapitalize and capacitate AgriBank and the Grain Marketing Board (GMB), the Agricultural Marketing Authority (AMA) and the Agricultural Rural Development Authority (ARDA). This was done to ensure that other farmers timeously access affordable inputs (ZIMASSET, 2013). After all the above views, there is always a remaining question that “Can it be said that the GMB input scheme was a complete failure?” If yes, then why would the government opt to repeat the same failed intervention? Hence this study has aimed to assess how far did the GMB input credit scheme helped the farmers in Zvimba specifically in Ward 7, since there is no enough literature on the effectiveness of this scheme in most Districts in Zimbabwe.

2.7.2 Operation Maguta Operation Maguta was a government programme that sought to promote food production in agriculture and it was spearheaded by the Zimbabwe Defence Forces (ZDF) in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance. Operation Maguta was launched in 2005 and it was aimed at boosting food security at the same time strengthening the national strategic grain reserves (Manyeruke and Hamauswa, 2012). Maguta is a Shona word referring to the state of being satisfied from the agricultural produce, especially after a good harvest (Mupindu, 2015). Under the scheme farmers were given fertilisers, seeds and herbicides in order for them to grow targeted crops such as maize and wheat. The programme targeted mainly A1 farmers and communal farmers. The farmers were required to pay back after harvesting their produce at an interest rate of 50% but also had an option of paying in the form of produce (through the GMB) or cash. Under the scheme, each beneficiary got 300 kilograms of compound D, 200 kilograms of ammonium nitrate fertilizer and 25 kilograms of maize seed (Mudzonga and Chigwada, 2009). However, this programme lacked proper coordination and ended up failing to achieve its intended goals. Many farmers who benefited from this scheme did not pay off their loans and they side marketed their produce avoiding selling to the GMB whose reputation with farmers had soured due to late payments. This affected the continuity of this programme and led to its collapse. This research provides a further detailed assessment of this government intervention and the views by the community on how programmes like this should be run to avoid failures.

2.7.3 Agricultural Mechanization Programme This government programme was launched in 2007 and its aim was to support farmers by equipping them with farming implements which suited their needs. The programme was conceived as part of government’s efforts to resuscitate and recapitalize the country’s agriculture sector in the long term, at the same time strengthening the gains of the LRRP. Further the scheme significantly transformed the equipment and productive landscape of the agriculture sector by mechanizing both the communal and commercial farmers (Manyeruke and Hamauswa, 2012). Under the programme, various farming implements such as tractors, ploughs, disc harrows and combine harvesters were distributed to selected resettled farmers across the country to enable them to produce at optimal levels and achieve food security and sustenance. This empowerment drive

16 was intended to accelerate economic growth through increased productivity and greater returns from the empowered farmers (Mudzonga and Chigwada, 2009).

However, the mechanization drive was not as effective as it was intended to be due to corruption and shortages of critical resources such as fertilizers and spare parts for the tractors. The distribution of the farming implements especially tractors and combine harvesters were marred by corruption and most individuals benefitted because of their political muscles (Manyeruke et.al, 2013). Similar research by the Solidarity Peace Trust (2009) revealed that the Farm Mechanisation Scheme which was championed by then Reserve Bank Governor, Gideon Gono largely failed as a result of alleged corruption that saw the mechanisation resources distributed largely on political basis, and some of it taken by political elites. Those farmers who were less politically active failed to benefit from this mechanization programme and this made the whole exercise seem like a political gimmick whose aim was to advance a political agenda. The problem that Zimbabwe faced and still faces is that of politicians within government circles who politicize every exercise aimed at increasing productivity in agriculture just to gain political millage. Mudzonga and Chigwada (2009) argued that this has been more pronounced in Zimbabwe’s Government of National Unity (GNU) which has been characterized by mixed feelings and antagonistic views from politicians in ZANU PF and the MDCs on which sectors of the economy the government should prioritize.

Therefore, to ensure that every Zimbabwean has food on the table, the government has to prioritize agriculture by allocating a substantial amount of its fiscal budget towards enhancing production in the sector (Mupindu, 2015). This research therefore, provides information on the effectiveness of such similar government intervention strategies like the Agricultural Mechanization Programme in ensuring food security basing on assessments in Ward 7, Zvimba District. The study also highlights on the different challenges resulting from relying on similar government assistance as the farm mechanization programme as a food security measure in the case of Zvimba District Ward 7.

2.7.4 Government input scheme for vulnerable households The Government of Zimbabwe also adopted the government input scheme where it provided the vulnerable households in Zimbabwe with the farming inputs during the planting season of year

2013 and 2014 (ZIMASSET, 2013). As noted in the economic blueprint the government of Zimbabwe worked out vulnerable groups and smallholder subsidized agriculture input schemes for the 2013 and 2014 cropping season, including the implementation of the Presidential Input Support Scheme for Vulnerable groups. The programme aimed at ensuring food security and the reduction of hunger and poverty. The intervention issued a complete kit of farming inputs to each household identified as vulnerable. The kit comprised of 10kg maize seed, 50kg Compound D fertilizer and 50kg Ammonium Nitrate fertilizer to each and every one of the selected vulnerable households within the Zimbabwe Districts. However according to the ZIMVAC Report (2016) in the last three seasons, the scheme has becoming ineffective as evidence shows that government maize seed support has been declining; 45% in 2013/2014, 30% in 2014/2015 and 19% in 2016/2017.

There are no detailed researches, evaluations and literature on the impact of this government initiative towards improvements in food security within people in Zimbabwe. Basically the research intends to highlight on the impact of the Government input scheme in promoting food security amongst the vulnerable population groups in Zvimba District specifically residents of Ward 7. Also a detailed assessment of the programme is provided in this research on how the intervention contributed to eradicate food insecurity in Zvimba District.

2.7.5 Command Agriculture Command agriculture is an import substitution-led industrialization concept deliberately meant to empower local producers of cereal crops and in the process boosting capacity for locals and creating employment for thousands of people in the sector (The Zimbabwean, 22/08/2016 ). It is sector-specific and in the case of Zimbabwe, it is focused on boosting maize production, the country's staple food. The command agriculture scheme is the second agriculture scheme to be implemented in Zimbabwe after almost 10 years. The first Command Agriculture scheme was implemented between 2005 and 2006 and it was called Operation Taguta / Sisuthi. According to Solidarity Peace Trust (2006), in that program, the army was given the task of tilling large amounts land as it was peace time and their labour was available. The command agriculture in that season largely failed (Solidarity Peace Trust, 2006).

The Targeted Command Agriculture is a Zimbabwean agricultural scheme aimed at ensuring food self-sufficiency that was introduced at the start of the 2016 - 2017 farming season following the drought of the previous season. The scheme was introduced as Zimbabwe grapple with economic problems. The government of Zimbabwe reacted robustly by embarking on a nationwide US$500 million Command Agriculture programme to boost the country’s food security position and the command agriculture was announced in August 2016 ( The Chronicle, 01/02/2017 ).

The scheme targeted farmers near water bodies who could put a minimum of 200 hectares under maize per individual. These were found to be 2,000 in total and each farmer was required to produce at least produce 1,000 tonnes of maize (Herald, 25/03/ 2017). Each participating farmer was required to commit 5 tonnes per hectare towards repayment of advanced loans in the form of irrigation equipment, inputs and chemicals, mechanized equipment, electricity and water charges. Farmers would retain a surplus product produced in excess of the 1,000 tonnes. Each farmer was earmarked to receive US$250,000 (Herald. 25/03/2017 ). The scheme has taken shape across the country with most crops being reported to be in good condition despite logistical challenges faced during the distribution of inputs. Under the scheme, government provided farmers with seeds, basal fertilizer and herbicides. The initiative aims to produce two million tonnes of maize on 400 000 hectares of mostly irrigated land. Agriculture ministry officials say that 479 000 hectares have been allocated to maize under the scheme surpassing a government target of 400 000 hectares ( The Chronicle, 01/02/2017). Prospects of good yields and improved food security at both household and national level look bright.

However, threats of outbreaks of disease and pests, floods and poor access to critical farming inputs, have put a damper on the prospects, forcing government and agro-processing firms to work round the clock to try and address input shortages. Henceforth it should be noted that more research is needed on the government efforts to the success of command agriculture given the criticism of previously initiated command agriculture initiatives. Very few studies about the command agriculture in Zimbabwe exist, hence the need to carry out this study to explore the positive and negative impacts of this government intervention measures towards achieving food security.

2.8 Food aid Food aid is also one of the intervention measures in which the Government of Zimbabwe adopted to ensure food security in the country. Food aid is defined by the WFP (1998) as food assistance that is granted to governments, institutions or households to curb food shortages. According to Moyo (2009), food aid can be international transactions that result in provision of aid in the form of food commodities in a country deemed in need of receiving such aid. FAO Technical Notes argue that food aid might be government to government grant to make food importation cheaper or it may be a government or Non-Government Organisation (NGO) grant or donations to another NGO for free distribution. However, Moyo (2009) says that one of the disadvantages of food aid is that it addresses a specific purpose at a specific time but will leave people more vulnerable to more problems in its absence in the future.

The Government of Zimbabwe food aid intervention is one of the social protection deliverables of the Zimbabwe’s economic blueprint, ZIMASSET, where food aid is involved in the Social Services and Poverty Eradication cluster as well as Food security and Nutrition cluster the key pillars in the blueprint (ZIMASSET, 2013). The Food and Nutrition cluster in the ZIMASSET hammered the need to intensify collection of maize from Zambia and distribution of the same to needy provinces and provide food relief to vulnerable social groups from GMB stocks in Zimbabwe (ZIMASSET, 2013).

The food aid programme was adopted soon after the harsh effects of El Niño drought (ZIMVAC, 2015). According to one of the Zimbabwe newspapers, The Chronicle (25/08/2017) the Government of Zimbabwe declared hunger as a national state of disaster in the year 2016 and appealed to the international community for assistance to feed over four million people who were likely to face serious starvation. Zimbabwe estimated that it would need $1.5 billion to feed starving people mainly in the dry and arid regions in the country (Herald , 12/08/2016 ). Climate change and variability has borne continuous drought trends in most countries whose income derivation is agro-based, especially Southern Africa. Given that about 60- 70% of the population in Sub-Saharan Africa live in rural areas and their major livelihood is crop cultivation and livestock keeping, drought has vehemently blew up the survival strategies and most people in marginal areas who are left languishing in extreme poverty (Manyeruke et.al, 2013). In Zimbabwe, agricultural

20 produce, both crop and livestock production was greatly affected by lack of adequate rainfall from the past 6 years (ZIM-VAC, 2016). This resulted in the food insecurity across the country and an increase in household poverty. Various reports on people who died due to hunger and starvation were witnessed; livestock died due to lack of drinking water and pastures (Herald, 12/08/2016) . Vulnerable population groups which include widows, orphans, disabled and the elderly suffered most the extremes of drought and merely survived (Manyeruke et.al , 2013).

Therefore the government of Zimbabwe embarked on the Drought Relief Food Aid Programme to cushion the vulnerable households from the extreme and unbearable effects of drought. This research explores the impact on this food aid towards ensuring food security to the residents of Zvimba District and on how it strengthens their livelihoods so as to achieve food security. It also provides the challenges encountered through relying on food handouts and how these challenges may be addressed.

2.9 Challenges emanating from relying on government assistance as a food security measure

2.9.1 Dependency Government assistances as a measure of food security have resulted in the creation of dependency syndrome in the communities where they are provided (Siyoum, 2012). Harvey and Lind (2005) argued that long term government assistances to people in need of assistance is associated with creation of dependency syndrome. This is due to the facts that the beneficiaries usually lose the motivation to work to improve their own livelihoods after receiving benefits, or they will deliberately reduce their work efforts in order to qualify for the transfers (Siyoum, 2012). According to Harvey and Lind (2005), government assistances risks creation of a dependency mentality in which people expect continued assistance. This usually undermines initiative at individual and community levels (Harvey and Lind, 2005). If communities get used to receiving government assistances, they lack self-sustenance and in the event of discontinuation of the provision of assistance, more disastrous problems emanate since the people would lack the capacity to cope with and adapt to the future problems. This research provides detailed evidence on how dependency syndrome has been affecting the Zimbabwean communities with reference to Ward 7 Zvimba District.

2.9.2 Political interference There are handful cases in Zimbabwe in which the government assistances towards ensuring food security have been used by individuals to gain political mileage (Human Rights Watch Briefing Paper, 2004). Familiar cases that are reported in Zimbabwe are from politicians and traditional leaders that use government assistances provided to the community especially in the form of food handouts to influence or reward constituents or voters (Mudzonga and Chigwada, 2009). Representatives of NGOs and donor countries also reported that the government in LEDCs increasingly uses food handouts and farming inputs handouts to buy votes from the beneficiaries (Human Rights Watch, 2004). Such is evidence to show that political interference is one of the challenges emanating from relying on government as a food security measure. This study, then further assesses the challenges on relying on government assistance as a food security measure in the case of Ward 7, Zvimba District.

2.9.3 Corruption Most of government intervention strategies towards ensuring food security are subject to corruption. This is so because the strategies are mostly in the form of handouts that are given to people to support and strengthen their livelihoods activities in order to increase livelihoods outcomes. A study by Manyeruke et.al, (2013) in resettlement farms (A1 and A2) and communal areas in Mashonaland Central, Mashonaland West and Matebeleland provinces revealed that in most cases, corruption occurs upon the distribution of the handouts to the beneficiaries. The corruption cases might be as a result of nepotism where undeserving individuals who do not meet the selection criteria of a given programme end up benefiting whilst actual vulnerable people in needy will be left out. Furthermore, there are cases in which reports on the embezzlement of transfers meant for the community by implementers of government programmes. According to Mudzonga and Chigwada (2009), corruption in government assistances to communities in Zimbabwe were vibrant in the Agricultural Mechanization Programme, distribution of farming inputs and food aid. Corruption can result in the suffering of various people and an increase in the vulnerability of the people who are supposed to benefit from relevant government programmes (Moser, 1998).

According to the Anti-Corruption Trust of Southern Africa (ACT-Southern Africa), 2012 Zimbabwe is characterized by a leadership that has consistently failed to provide the best examples for accountability, transparency and integrity. The leadership itself, has since the 1980s, engaged in acts of corruption and also condoned such acts on the part of their associates, relatives and friends. A familiar case is the fertilizer scandal in which 70 000 tonnes of cheap substandard fertilizer was imported from South Africa (ACT-Southern Africa, 2012). Therefore, such aforementioned challenges that emanate from relying on government assistances as a food security measure are identified and assessed in the case of Ward 7, Zvimba District.

2.9.4 Generation of Conflicts Government assistance in communities may create a threat multiplier that interacts with socio- economic and political systems to create conflict. There are socio-economic impacts that emerge from the provision of government assistance and they effect on livelihoods and survival strategies which are critical in ensuring food security. In Zimbabwe, areas that experience successive drought conditions such as the Matebeleland region and parts of the Masvingo province and Manicaland Province in particular Buhera District are prone to the risk of food insecurity induced violent conflicts as competition for food resources rises (Mupindu, 2015). The geopolitical dimensions and socio-economic consequences of government assistance pose a severe challenge to Zimbabwe’s political balance of power. Already people in the arid Matebeleland region feel that the government has not done adequately to address their plight to have the issue of food availability, access, utilization and stability resolved (Manyeruke and Hamauswa, 2012). From past experiences, government’s failure to apportion a substantial amount of its fiscal budget towards solving the food insecurity challenges currently being faced by the people in Matebeleland has always stemmed up wide debates on whether the government of Zimbabwe truly prioritizes the well-being of people in that part of the country (Zimbabwe Food Security Outlook, 2015). As the saying goes, “A hungry man is an angry man,” the escalation of conflict is highly probable when there is food insecurity in a country (Manyeruke et.al , 2013). However, on a contrary, the ZIMVAC Rapid assessment Report 2017 says that Matabeleland North (49%) had the highest number of households that received assistance from Government and its Development Partners. This study therefore explores the challenges that result on depending on government assistance as

23 a food security measure and also similar issues of societal conflicts can be explored in the case of Zvimba District, Ward 7.

2.9.5 Inadequacy of the government assistances According to the ZIMVAC Rapid Assessment Report (2017), any intervention strategy to ensure food security is deemed adequate when it meets approximately 85% of household food needs. However assessments of the adequacy of government assistances in ensuring food security in Zimbabwe rural areas in 2015 and 2016 revealed that only 15 districts across the country had received government assistance that adequately met household food requirements (ZIMVAC, 2017). In addition, 16 districts in the country had received government assistance that only met 30% of the household food requirements to varying beneficiaries . Overall, significant districts were receiving inconsistent interventions during the years 2015 and 2016 (ZIMVAC, 2017). This shows that there is a very common problem of inadequacy of government assistance experienced by rural communities in Zimbabwe. Hence inadequacy becomes a challenge which emanates from relying on government assistance as a food security measure. This study therefore, would explore such challenges that emerge upon relying on government assistance as a food security measure with reference to findings of this study in Zvimba District, Ward 7.

2.10 Summary Food insecurity is a trending global issue in which the international community is putting measures to curb this problem. Governments, institutions, organizations and individuals are striving to promote food security through various interventions. It can be concluded that food insecurity is surely a thorn in the flesh of the lives of people. This study unveils and asses government intervention strategies in ensuring food security in Zvimba District.

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGIES

3.1 Introduction This chapter highlights a number of research methods that were adopted in carrying out this study; these include the research instruments and the sampling techniques that were employed.

3.2 Research Design In line with this research, a multi-disciplinary approach research methodology was used that encompasses of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. This was crucial in enabling the researcher to gather all data necessary for this research and to get more effective and accurate information. This is supported by Gray (2005), who says that the use of a sole methodology often fails to explore perfectly all the components that study will be concerned with.

Quantitative research is defined by Sachs (2005) as the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. This means that the objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and or hypotheses in relation to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research since it provides with the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Quantitative data is defined as any data in the form of numerical such as statistics and percentages. The quantitative researcher then is supposed to ask specific, narrow questions and collects numerical data from the participants. Data obtained is also analysed through statistics and the numbers can be generalised to larger population.

In addition, quantitative data is statistics driven which means that it can yield a lot of information. The advantage of using this research is that it is easier to compile data into graphs and charts because the numbers are readily available (Word press, 2011). Moreover, quantitative research is flexible to be conducted on a large scale and gives a lot of information as far as value and statistics. This enabled the researcher to collect a variety of relevant data in relation to the study.

According to Moyo (2009), qualitative research is referred to as a generic term used for the investigative methodologies described as ethnographic, naturalistic, anthropological, field, or participant observer research. It stresses the significance of looking at the variables in the natural setting in which they are found and interaction between variables is also crucial (Shelton, 2005). Open ended questions that provide direct quotations are used to gather detailed data. However the interviewer is the centre of this type of research method.

Using both quantitative and qualitative research is crucial since the researcher is able to fill the gaps that are left out by one method through employing the other. Henceforth, combining these two research methodologies helps the researcher to come up with accurate and reliable data.

3.3 Target population This study is based on information obtained from the dwellers of Zvimba District from the selected villages of Ward 7, comprising of village heads, traditional leaders, the councillor of the Ward, elderly men and women, youths and Agritex Officers operating in this Ward. The research targets 5 villages in Ward 7 which were systematically selected. The Ward was chosen for its accessibility to the researcher and less travelling costs, thus making it easier for the researcher to collect the data in time and efficiently.

3.4 Sampling Conhao and Keogh (2004) define a sample as a selection from any part of a defined population. The two go on to say it is a portion of the population that has been collected for statistical analysis. Sampling involves getting a certain percentage of the population from which to gather data the results of which then can be generalised for the population. The selected sample should therefore represent the larger population.

In this research, a two stage sampling design was done for the questionnaire survey. Villages were sampled in the first stage through systematic sampling. This helped the researcher in ensuring that different villages with different socioeconomic features were involved to come up with a fair representation of the population. The second stage was random sampling of the respondents from the beneficiary’s register of various government programmes provided by the Department of Social Services Zvimba. It was of greater importance to use the two stage sampling design and ensuring that the sample was representative enough in order to minimize sampling errors and bias. Of all the five sampled villages in the Ward at least four households were chosen.

Table 3.1 Questionnaire Respondents, n=50

VILLAGE NAME TOTAL NUMBER OF SAMPLE SIZE HOUSEHOLDS

Tigere 115 15 Mucheri 80 8 Kadzingwindi 103 10 Nyaude 78 7 Marahwa 101 10

As shown by Table 3.1 a higher sample was taken from villages with high population. Proportional sampling was adopted so as to ensure a fair representation of the population sample. The questionnaires were given to the household heads so as to collect correct information from the breadwinners who have the idea of how food secure they are in their different households. The questionnaires were administered by the researcher during the day from one village to the other.

Purposive sampling was used to select the participants of the FGDs. Shapori and Rosen (2004) defined purposive sampling as a non-representative subset of some larger population, and is constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose. For the FGDs, the researcher tried to choose the most influential people in the Ward who are the custodians of information about food security across the Ward. These people consist of the councillor, kraal heads, village heads, village community workers and the Agritex Officers. This helped the researcher in exploring the challenges that the area under study faced in the past and how it coped to them in as far as food security issue is concerned. The FGDs were conducted with heterogeneous members who were of different age groups, sex and economic status. The research involved two FGDs of which an average of six respondents participated per group.

Furthermore the interviewees for the household included in the sample were the respondents who had shown their willingness towards the research after the researcher explains briefly about the objectives of the study. This approach is referred to as the democratic participation as according to Fals-Borda (1991). In line with this research, four interview sessions were conducted with the five village heads of the Ward who also happen to be the beneficiaries of all the government initiatives that were employed to ensure food security in Zvimba District.

3.5 Primary data collection instruments According to Fals-Borda (1991), primary data is a type of information that is attained directly from the first hand sources by ways of surveys, observations or experiments. Primary data is data that has not been previously published and is derived from a new or original research study and collected at the source.

3.5.1 Questionnaires The researcher used questionnaires in conducting this study where by some printed questions were asked to the participants in the sample as shown in Appendix I. Gwimbi and Dirwai (2000) define a questionnaire as a document used as a data collection instrument consisting of a list of all questions that the researcher intends to ask each respondent. Space is normally provided after each question for the response. The questionnaires helped the researcher in identifying a number of government interventions and the period in which these interventions were employed towards ensuring food security. Questionnaires were significant in collecting quantitative data which is important in making deductions; however some questions were also crucial in gathering qualitative data.

Questionnaires were also used in this research because they are self-administered and can be used to collect appropriate information from respondents thereby enabling the researcher to ask all respondents exactly the same question. The questionnaire also provides the facility for data processing since in some cases the variables are pre-corded. The instrument ensures anonymity on the part of the respondent. However a questionnaire has also of shortcomings, for example, it is difficult to check if the respondent has understood the question and there is no evidence to prove that the rightful respondent has completed the questionnaire. To curb this problem, Kothari (2004) argues that before using this data collection tool, it is advisable to conduct a pilot study for testing the questionnaire that is the rehearsal of the main survey. Therefore the researcher started with the pilot survey before the actual survey so as to correct the questions on the questionnaire where appropriate.

3.5.2 Interviews Interviews were used in carrying out this study in Ward 7, Zvimba District. Key informant interviews were done with the AGRITEX officers, the councillor of the Ward, Headmen, village heads and community village workers. Key informant interviews helped the researcher to compare the information obtained through questionnaires and from interviews to find out the similarities and differences of responses on same questions asked. This allowed the researcher to generalize the results across the larger population where the study found similar responses. Robson (1997) defines an interview as a conversation between the interviewer and the interviewer for the specific purpose of obtaining relevant information for the research. Interviews as research instruments are advantageous because they allow for flexibility and adaptability as one’s line of enquiry can easily be modified. Interesting items coming up during the interview can easily be probed and non-verbal responses are easily observed.

The researcher used personal unstructured or semi-structured open interviews in data collection as shown by the interview guide in Appendix II of this study. This data collection tool was flexible to the researcher in asking questions and also to the respondents in answering them. It allowed the researcher to rephrase the questions in any way he felt was possible to get the required information. These open interviews allowed new ideas to be brought out during the interview by the interviewee. The shortcomings to the use of questionnaires for example that of illiteracy were addressed by adopting open interviews that were done to the targeted population and they were helpful in solving the challenge. The interviewer had also an advantage of freedom in asking any question he needed to understand, omit or supplement other questions for the purpose that suits research. By using this method the researcher exercised a lot of tolerance and did more of listening than talking to avoid annoying the interviewee after the wrong choice of words or even wrong gestures.

3.5.3 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) FGDs were conducted using the FDG guide as shown in Appendix IV of this study. Discussions were conducted with community leaders, who consisted of the Ward councillor, village heads, village community workers and Agritex officers. The reason for conducting FGDs was to gather community driven views about the effectiveness of government interventions towards ensuring

29 food security within the Ward. This is supported by Elden and Chisholm (1993), view that local knowledge is the most participatory valid scientific sense-making. FGDs allowed the generation of data on the progress and drawbacks observed by the community since the inception of government interventions towards making the community under study food secure. The FGDs were employed as a quick way of gathering data in order to establish trends and perspectives especially from the viewpoint of community leadership.

3.5.4 Observation Gold (1998) defined observation as a systematic data collection approach whereby a researcher uses all of his or her senses to examine people in natural setting. It is the technique of obtaining data through direct contact with a persons or group of persons. As a result the researcher used participant observation in collecting data on food security in Zvimba District. Kothari (2004) describe participant observation as a situation whereby the researcher observes by making him or herself a member of the group he is observing so that he or she is in a position to experience what the members of the group experience. It enables the researcher to gather information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion (Kothari, 2004). The researcher also used the structured observation as a data collection technique whereby there will be parameters of units to be observed. Hamersley (1995) argues that observation fosters on in depth and rich understanding of a phenomenon, situation and or behaviour of participants. The enumerator managed to visualize some food situation aspects in Ward 7, Zvimba District as well as some of the success and challenges in attaining complete food security environment in Zvimba District.

3.6 Secondary data collection Secondary data was also essential in this study as it provided with previous periodic evaluation reports concerning the food security situation within the District. This information was attained from reports by WFP, FAO, various government departments for example Ministry of Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development, Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare, Ministry of Youth; and this information was used as alternative source and as complementary source. Generation of quantitative data on the magnitude of the government interventions and the food security situation was made possible through the use of these reports. The Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee (ZIMVAC) reports were a key secondary

30 data source since they provide information and statistics about the food security situation not only in the area under study but in Zimbabwe as a whole.

3.7 Data Collection Errors During this study, the error that was encountered includes lack of reliability of measurement or lack of validity of measurement. The error usually occurs for instance if the respondents provide different responses. Deviations arose as a result of variations in the interpretation of ambiguous questions, or in the event that the interviewer mistakes in recording or tabulating data. However, much care was done in the designing of the questionnaire by making sure that all questions were clear, unambiguous and precise so as to ensure that errors are minimised.

There is usually a tendency that when carrying out a survey in the rural areas concerning issues to do with food, people usually exaggerate or lie thinking that the researches may allow them to be included into food hand-outs programmes despite how much the researcher may try to explain his mission. However the questionnaire survey was carried out without much hindrance.

3.7 Challenges faced during the survey The major constraint faced during this study was the inadequacy of resources during the collection of data. In solving this challenge, fortunately the researcher got help from the councillor of Ward 7, Mr Jemeni Safari, who provided with free transport for the researcher to move from one place to the other distributing questionnaires and conducting interviews as well as focus group discussions. Mobilisation of people was also another challenge encountered by the researcher since the people in Ward 7 were busy in their fields weeding their crops. The researcher had to find days in which people were around in their homes. The researcher then managed to find people on Thursdays when all the people in the District under the rule of Chief Chirau were not allowed to work in fields as a cultural custom. In this regard, the interviews, focus group discussions and administration of questionnaires were scheduled on Thursdays when people were not busy in their fields.

3.8 Summary The use of the multi-methodologies in this type of research is essential since this allows for effectiveness of the results of the study. These methodologies allowed for the exploration of

31 government interventions and their impact on ensuring food security within the Ward 7 of Zvimba District.

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction In line with the study, this chapter present, analyses and discusses the findings of an assessment of government interventions strategies in ensuring food security in Zvimba District, Ward 7. Conclusions are drawn from the research findings using Microsoft excel. The researcher also links the research findings to the research objectives and research questions.

4.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents It is of paramount importance to include the demographic characteristics of the respondents when assessing government interventions strategies in ensuring food security (FAO, 2014). This research included demographic characteristics data so that the selected sample would consist of diversified demographic characteristics in which all population groups are represented so as to yield effective results. In this study, the demographic characteristics of the questionnaire respondents are shown by Table 4.1 below.

Table 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents, n= 50

Sample of Total Number of Percentage % Respondents Responses Gender Females 30 60 Males 20 40 Marital status Married 21 42 Single 29 58 Education level Educated 19 38 Not educated 31 62 Age Below 25 years 20 40 26- 40 years 15 30 41- 60 years 10 20 61 + years 5 10

4.2.1 Gender of the Respondents In issues to do with food security, gender issues are very critical since there is a close relationship between gender and food security. The susceptibility of women and men to food insecurity and hunger differs (FAO, 2015). Due to different gender roles, women carry the most burden of the family and they are more vulnerable since they carry pregnancy, give birth and raise children. Moreso, in rural areas there are more women as compared to men, this is so because men tend to migrate to urban areas in search of jobs as compared to women. As a result women are left at home

33 with children and in times of drought, women suffer more as compared to men. Moreover the accessibility of resources and livelihoods strategies differs between men and women. Men tend to have more access to resources like land and information, and given the nature of our African society, women’s accessibility to food is very low as compared to men.

From the above Table 4.1, it is shown that of the total 50 people chosen from five villages, 60% were females whereas 40% were males. This is so because women constitute of a larger population in rural areas than men and also many government interventions towards ensuring food security for example the food aid targets women since they are the care givers of the family.

4.2.2 Age of the Respondents The age of the respondents is also important when assessing the government interventions towards food security. This is so because the younger population is economically active and they are able to work, so they venture into a number of livelihoods strategies to ensure their survival. This differs with the old age that solely rely on agriculture and sometimes food handouts for their survival especially the 60 years and above (WFP, 2015). However due to the economic hardships accompanied with high unemployment rates, the younger population have resented into living in rural areas practicing agriculture.

Table 4.1 shows that the age group of 0-25 years has a higher responds rate of a total of 20 people which makes up 40% of the sample. This is mainly because this age group consists of children who are still going to school and some are child-headed families. This is as a result of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. This population group suffers more food insecurity as compared to other population groups. Some of them have dropped school due to lack of money and the need to take care of their siblings and hence they constitute more on the beneficiaries of the government interventions towards ensuring food security. The number of respondents tends to decrease with age since the older people have quite a number of options to make them food secure.

4.2.3 Marital Status of the Respondents Marital status is also pivotal in this research because couples tend to share the burden of hunger together and they may craft solutions that might be long lasting as compared to single parents,

34 divorced or widowed. Single parents tend to participate more in government interventions towards food security than married couples.

From Table 4.1 of the demographic characteristics of the respondents, it is shown that singles responded more that is 58% than couples who constituted of 42% of the sampled population. The singles carry the burdens of food insecurity on their own due to the absence of their partners either by death or dumping. From the research, it was noted that there are more women in this category as women are left with the burden of children in the event of divorce or separation. Hence they are more food insecure and participate more on government assistance measures in improving food security.

4.2.4 Educational Level of the Respondents The level of education in this study is significantly important as it entails the differences in survival strategies as well as the effectiveness of the measures to improve food security per household level at the absence of government interventions. Moreover the level of education determines the use of the efficient and effective use of the government provided materials towards boosting food security for example the use of farming inputs such as fertilizers, seed and chemicals for higher yields to ensure food security.

The sample shows that there are more uneducated people in Zvimba District, Ward 7 and this has a negative effect on the effectiveness of government interventions towards ensuring food security in the area. Uneducated people tend to sell the farming inputs they obtained from the government and some tend to leave some of their livelihoods hoping that the government may always give them food handouts despite having received the farming inputs to cultivate their own crops for food consumption. Amongst the few educated people, are found those who applaud the government for the intervention measures since their food security situation has completely changed to the better as some of them are even selling their agricultural produce to the GMB.

4.2.5 Household Size of the Respondents In line with this research, household size data was very significant because it showed the quantities of food that is required by each household for it to be food secure. In other words, the bigger the household size, the more food is required to overcome food insecurity. This allowed this study to

35 draw out a conclusion that in Ward 7, Zvimba District food is largely obtained through subsistence agriculture. Due to low levels of mechanisation, small-scale farming rely on family labour, therefore the larger the household size, the more likely the household is to become successful. However, this often works if all family members are old enough to perform the farm work, otherwise this will be difficult if the household size consists of a majority of young children who cannot be used as family labour. The sample survey of this study in Ward 7 of Zvimba District reflected that the average household size is six; however there are also few household sizes that are beyond 11, of which they cover 20% of the sampled population. Figure 4.1 below shows the household size of the respondents of this study.

20% 30%

1 TO 5 6 TO 10 11+ 50%

Figure 4.1 Household size of the Respondents, n= 50

4.3 GOVERNMENT INTERVENTIONS EMPLOYED TO ENSURE FOOD SECURITY IN ZVIMBA DISTRICT, WARD 7

4.3.1 Land Reform and Resettlement Programme (LRRP) The Land Reform and Resettlement Programme was adopted by the government of Zimbabwe as an intervention strategy to ensure food security in households Zvimba District, Ward 7. This study revealed that the LRRP was introduced in Ward 7 in the year 2000 to 2002. Key informant interviews showed that the programme reconfigured the area dramatically and small scale farmers managed to attain near medium and large scale farms, sharing labour, technologies, market, chains,

36 skills and expertise. According to Garwe (2008) the LRRP had significant detrimental impacts to the country’s food security because it disrupted agriculture but the issue of land acquisition by the black majority was unarguably an issue that had to be addressed in post-independent Zimbabwe. It was paramount importance for the land issue to be addressed to solve the economic and social injustices perpetrated by Zimbabwe’s former colonizers who owned most of the productive agricultural land, while the black majority remained segregated in the impoverished rural areas (ZIMASSET, 2013).

However this research revealed that from the total of 50 people who were sampled for the questionnaire survey, only 6 indicated that were beneficiaries of the LRRP. The respondents reflected that the beneficiaries of the programme were mostly war veterans who were given land as compensation for their efforts during the liberation struggle which resulted in Zimbabwe gaining its independence in 1980. Some of the beneficiaries of this intervention strategy are the top local leaders of the Ward which involved of the chief, the councillor and village heads. However, the research also found out that there was a very strong political interference that influenced the selection criteria of the beneficiaries of the LRRP.

In line with the effectiveness of this government intervention strategy in ensuring food security, the land reform policy in Zvimba District Ward 7 enhanced on-farm investment for increasing levels of productivity and enhanced smallholder farmer’s progression on the socio-economic ladder and livestock ownership. This study observed that there was a possibility for the increase in food security if the LRRP is supported by other programmes that aim at boosting agricultural production due to the availability of land for cultivation of crops. Key informant interviews by the Agritex officers and the focus group discussions conducted by this study with the respondents in Ward 7, Zvimba District revealed that some of the beneficiaries of the LRRP in the Ward are now actively involved in agri-business in which they sell their farming produce to the Grain Marketing Board (GMB).

4.3.1.1 Challenges of the LRRP in Zvimba District Ward 7 The research noted that there are number of challenges that affected the effectiveness of the LRRP in the area under study in ensuring food security. Few people in Ward 7, Zvimba District, benefited

37 from the intervention because of the farming plots were allocated in relation to participation of an individual in the country’s liberation struggle. As a result its impact on ensuring food security did not yield quite notable results on the younger age groups born after 1980 despite them consisting of a larger population in the Ward. In addition the beneficiaries of the programme lack adequate knowledge and technical skills to maintain the produce previously attained by the white farmers on the same piece of land. The research also noted that farming activities were greatly affected by climate change and variability which has resulted in drought due to El Nino effects and excessive flooding as a result of La Nina effects.

4.3.2 Government Agriculture Input Credit Facilities

4.3.2.1 GMB Input Scheme In a bid to address the issue of food insecurity in Zvimba District, Ward 7, the Government of Zimbabwe introduced the input credit facility scheme. The research revealed that within the sample population, very few respondents about 5 people benefited from this scheme. Moreover the beneficiaries consisted of those that had benefited in the LRRP whilst the rest of the communal farmers were denied of access to the input credit facility. The scheme allowed the beneficiaries to buy seeds, fertilizers, machinery and agro-chemicals on credit terms. The research also found out that this government intervention was run by the Grain Marketing Board (GMB) Murombedzi Depot. The AGRITEX officers in the Ward acknowledged the fact that the scheme improved productivity on the farms of the beneficiaries and it was supposed to be one of the greatest government’s efforts to ensure food security if it was flexible to accommodate the other local communal farmers. The researcher noted that the input credit scheme was ineffective in deducing its expectations due to a number of challenges that includes poor coordination in the distribution of these inputs, the inflexibility of the selection criteria and the distribution of inputs in line with political affiliations.

4.3.2.2 The Agricultural Sector Productivity Enhancement Facility Development (ASPEF) loans The ASPEF was an intervention adopted by the Government of Zimbabwe to boost food production in Zvimba District, Ward 7 in which the commercial bank, Agribank, which was

38 operating Murombedzi growth point had received credit allocations from the central bank to help farmers with loans.

In this research, about 10 respondents from the questionnaire survey acknowledged that they have been beneficiaries of this government intervention strategy in ward 7, Zvimba District. The respondents pointed out that the loans obtained through this scheme helped farmers to buy the farming implements; agricultural inputs for example fertilisers, maize seed, herbicides and pesticides. The study interviews with the AGRITEX officers in Ward showed that overally, this scheme strengthened the farming activities of the subsistence farmers who participated in the programme and they experienced better harvests. Respondents through focus group discussions interviews conducted in this study in Ward 7, Zvimba District revealed that if the programme lasted longer, it was going to effectively contribute to households’ food security as members of the community were beginning to understand the importance and benefits of the initiative.

However, this study revealed that this government intervention strategy only lasted before the introduction of the multi-currency system, since these credit facilities had slightly relaxed interest rates which made it possible for farmers to pay back their loans. This study’s finding on the ASPEF loans is similar to the findings of the study by Manyeruke et.al (2013) in resettlement farms (A1 and A2) and communal areas in Mashonaland Central, Mashonaland West and Matebeleland provinces. Their study revealed that after the emergence of the multi-currency system, the ASPEF loans faded away due to the failure by farmers to pay back loans (Manyeruke et.al , 2013). Similarly, the demise of this scheme in Ward 7, Zvimba was due to the introduction of multi- currency system and farmers failed to pay back the loans and also this marked the closure of the Agribank Murombedzi Branch.

4.3.3 Operation Maguta The operation Maguta was also one of the government intervention strategies introduced in Ward 7 of Zvimba District aiming at improving food security. Interviews conducted by the researcher with the AGRITEX officers in the Ward showed that the programme was launched in 2005 and was spearheaded by the Zimbabwe Defence Forces in conjunction with the Ministry of Finance. The researcher noted that the scheme gave farmers fertilisers, maize seed and herbicides in a bid

39 to strengthen the national grain reserves. A similar research by Mupindu (2015) on Operation Maguta in Buhera District also revealed that most subsistence farmers received agricultural inputs in the form of compound D fertilizers, top dressing fertilizers and maize seed comprising Open Pollinated Varieties (OPV) like 2M521 or SC513 hybrid seed. The difference between the two is that OPV 2M521 continues to have constant performance even in the next season, whilst SC513 is characterized by low performance in the next season (Mupindu, 2015).

However, in Ward 7, Zvimba district the researcher noted that due to the fact that these agricultural inputs were not distributed free of charge since recoveries were done during the process of subsistence farmers selling their produce to the GMB, there were very few beneficiaries of the programme. Out of the 50 people in the sampled population, only 12 respondents of which some of them were also beneficiaries of the LRRP managed to benefit from this initiative. On a contrary, the research by Mupindu (2015) in Buhera District showed that most members of the community benefited from the Operation Maguta programme, including both competent and incompetent farmers. The reason for difference in the findings of this study in Ward 7, Zvimba District and the findings by the research by Mupindu in Buhera District is that in Buhera during the implementation of Operation Maguta in September 2006, there was great community participation such that those without cattle as draught power to plough their fields were assisted by others through the supervision of the village heads. The other reason is that in Buhera District, food insecurity is higher as compared to Zvimba District, such that the Buhera community viewed Operation Maguta as the remedy to household food insecurity which is not a similar case in Zvimba District. However, it is important to note the interviews with the Agritex Officers in Ward 7; Zvimba District showed that the agricultural produce of this scheme was very low. Similar findings have been drawn from Buhera District by Mupindu (2015) who argued that the first and second phase the agricultural produce increased but it was unsatisfactory. His study confirmed that the food security situation in Buhera District is still in a critical condition of food insecurity even after the inception of Operation Maguta (Mupindu, 2015).

The researcher noted that Operation Maguta was ineffective in Ward 7 of Zvimba District mainly because of lack of community participation and appreciation of the programme. Amongst the few beneficiaries of this programme were others who also failed producing the expected yields due to

40 poor rains as they solely rely on rain fed agriculture and as a result they failed to pay back the loans they had received.

4.3.3.1 Challenges of Operation Maguta in Zvimba District, Ward 7 The challenges of the Operation Maguta in Zvimba District, Ward 7 involves lack of community participation and appreciation of the programme since people are used to free inputs handouts, some vulnerable subsistence farmers were converting the agricultural inputs into misuse. There are also some minor cases where other people were involved in selling agricultural inputs to survive and others were observed washing the seeds for mealie meal. These are the major causes for the ineffectiveness of the Operation Maguta agricultural scheme in the case of Zvimba District, Ward 7.

4.3.4 Agricultural Mechanization Programme This research also found out that the government of Zimbabwe introduced the farm mechanization programme in 2007 in which farmers received farming implements that suited their needs in order to boost agricultural production. The questionnaire survey conducted by the researcher in Ward 7 of Zvimba District showed that only 10 respondents of the sampled population indicated that they were beneficiaries of the programme. In this programme, key informant interviews by the AGRITEX officers of the Ward revealed that farmers received cultivators, ploughs, ox-drawn scotch carts, tractors and harrows as also noted by a research conducted by Manyeruke et.al (2013) in resettlement farms (A1 and A2) and communal areas in Mashonaland Central, Mashonaland West and Matebeleland provinces.

However this research revealed that the programme was ineffective in ensuring food security in Ward 7, Zvimba District because it targeted very few people in the Ward and the farming implements were inadequate to cover all the farmers who were in need of them. Moreover, in interviews conducted by the researcher in Ward 7 some of the respondents who benefited from the programme noted that the intervention strategy was not necessarily targeting to ensure food security in the Ward since initiated prior to the 2007 and 2008 elections but rather it was a campaigning strategy by the ZANU-PF. One of the respondents in an interview by the researcher said that:

The farming implements we received were a strategy of our party ZANU-PF to get votes from the people. So it was upto us to either sell or keep the farming implements we received. I am sure the programme was aiming at improving food security in this Ward 7. The researcher also noted from the above interview that people misunderstood the intentions of this government intervention strategy to ensure food security in Zvimba District, Ward 7. Henceforth, as a result the programme failed to effectively deliver its intended targets of boosting agricultural production thus in a way ensuring food security.

This study in Ward 7 of Zvimba District also revealed that the farming implements of the agricultural mechanization programme were distributed along political lines. Resultantly, the beneficiaries of the programme were the top local leadership of the Ward. This is one of the reasons why the programme was ineffective in ensuring food security of households in Zvimba District, Ward 7. The researcher also came to the conclusion that the programme did not yield much of its intended results due to the hyperinflationary situation, political instability, corruption accompanied by drought which affected the agricultural activities of the people. Therefore, this implies that people were left in deep poverty and food insecure in the years 2007 and 2008 as in the case of Ward 7, Zvimba District.

4.3.4.1 Challenges of the Agricultural Mechanization Programme The major challenges that stimulated the ineffectiveness of the farm mechanization programme in Ward 7, Zvimba District were corruption and shortages of critical resources such as fertilizers and spare parts for the tractors. Similar findings were obtained by Manyeruke et.al (2013) where it is highlighted that the distribution of the farming implements in particular tractors and combine harvesters was affected by corruption and most individuals benefitted because of their political positions.

4.3.5 Government Input Scheme for Vulnerable households The government input scheme for vulnerable households was another intervention adopted by the government through the Ministry of Public Service, Labor and Social Welfare. In Ward 7, Zvimba District, this scheme operated during the 2015 to 2016 planting season and assisted vulnerable households with farming inputs and each household identified as vulnerable received a kit of 10kg

42 maize seed, 50kg Compound D fertilizer and 50kg Ammonium Nitrate fertilizer free of charge as also noted by the ZIMVAC Rapid Assessment Report (2017). The Department of Social Services Zvimba was mandated to identify vulnerable households in terms of property ownership, previous agricultural yields and livestock ownership. The main beneficiaries of this programme were child headed households, the elderly, widows, disabled and those who were chronically ill. The researcher was so fortunate that the councillor and the AGRITEX officers provided with the actual total number of beneficiaries of the programme and the quantities received in Ward 7 of Zvimba District.

Table 4.2 Number of beneficiaries and quantities received under the Government Input Scheme for vulnerable households in Ward 7, Zvimba District

Compound D Ammonium Nitrate Maize seed Total number Actual Tonnage Actual Tonnage Actual Tonnage of vulnerable number of received number of received number of received households households households households benefited benefited benefited 381 381 19.05t 200 10t 381 3.81t

From the above Table 4.2, it is shown that the total number of beneficiaries who were identified to be vulnerable households in Ward 7 of Zvimba District was 381 in total and they all managed to receive 50kgs of compound D fertilizer and 10kgs of maize seed per each household. However, there was a shortage of Ammonium Nitrate fertilizer and within the 381 households only 200 managed to get the complete kit of 50kgs Compound D, 50kgs Ammonium Nitrate and 10kgs Maize seed.

This government intervention boosted food production in the Ward since vulnerable households managed to cultivate their crops and the beneficiaries acknowledged to have yielded enough food for their consumption which sustained their households to the next planting season. However amongst the beneficiaries who failed to get a complete kit, few of them did not produce enough food for consumption since their crops lacked Ammonium Nitrate fertilizer. Overally, the research

43 noted that the government input scheme for vulnerable households was effective in ensuring food security in Ward 7 of Zvimba District and most households became food secure.

4.3.5.1 Challenges of the Government input scheme for vulnerable households The major challenge that the community of Zvimba District, Ward 7 faced in the government input scheme for vulnerable households is the inadequacy of the inputs. Some of the beneficiaries failed to get the complete kit of the farming inputs because the inputs stocks were exhausted at the GMB Depot in Murombedzi. Another challenge which was encountered is corruption. Some of the respondents interviewed by the researcher noted that the local leadership looted large quantities of the farming inputs and as a result there was shortage of inputs. The researcher also observed that lack of follow ups by the government on the distributed inputs was a pivotal challenge. This is so because in the focus group discussions conducted in Ward 7 by the researcher noted that some of the beneficiaries of the government input scheme even sold the inputs upon receiving them. As a result there was no change in the food security of some households due to this government intervention strategy. Lastly, the farmers faced the challenge of climate variability and change which induced the El Nino drought that affected the agricultural produce of the farmers relying on rain fed agriculture. This affected the effectiveness of the government input scheme in yielding intended food security results in the case of Zvimba District, Ward 7. The challenge of erratic rainfall was also identified by the ZIMVAC Rural Livelihoods Assessment report (2016) which highlighted that the El Niño induced drought affected most parts of Southern Africa including Zimbabwe and most of the southern parts of the country that normally receive poor rainfall, received significantly below normal rainfall resulting in widespread crop failure and subdued grazing development. In addition, mediocre to average crop performance was expected for some areas in the central and northern parts of the country (ZIMVAC, 2016).

4.3.6 Drought Relief Food Aid Programme The Drought Relief Programme is one government interventions that were adopted by the government of Zimbabwe as a way of ensuring food security in Zimbabwe Districts. It was adopted as one of the social protection deliverables of the government of Zimbabwe’s economic blueprint that is Food and Nutrition, a key pillar in the Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation (ZIMASSET ). In Ward 7 of Zvimba District, as a result as El Niño induced

44 drought, there was alarmingly rising levels of household poverty characterized by hunger, malnutrition, anaemia and even mortality. The research revealed that the drought caused low food production (crops and livestock), and people were left with little to almost nothing to eat.

The drought relief programme is run by the Department of Social Services Zvimba. The programme commenced in in October 2015 and the programme is expected to run upto June 2017. The selection criterion of beneficiaries was based on the manual of operations of the drought relief programme. The manual of operations advocated for great community involvement in the selection of beneficiaries. Resultantly, the community selected food insecure households through community based targeting mechanism in line the ZIM-VAC report of 2015. That mechanism created an opportunity for food insecure households to be identified for assistance through a process in which each village defined, selected and ranks food insecure households amongst themselves. A number of respondents acknowledged the selection criterion since participation of communities gave them control over the selection of households. The research noted that communities are in the best position to distinguish those most in need of assistance. The selection criteria included household crop production, ownership or custody of livestock, external support such as remittances, household dependency ratio and income earning opportunities. Furthermore, some of the respondents who indicated that they were not included in the programme due to the reasons that they were pensioners, businessmen, employed and food secure.

In Ward 7, Zvimba District, the researcher found out that each household identified to benefit from the programme received 50kgs of maize grain each month since the beginning of the food aid programme. This study revealed that of the 50 respondents in the sampled population for the questionnaire survey, 40 respondents were beneficiaries of the drought relief food aid programme. Overally, the more than half of the questionnaire survey respondents revealed that the food aid by the government contributed more than half to 100% improvement in their household food security. This shows that the government Drought Relief Food Aid Programme has been effective in ensuring food security in Ward 7, Zvimba District. This complies with the research by the ZIMVAC (2016) which argued that contribution of government food assistance for maize stocks was higher compared to that of NGO food assistance. In an interview by one of the village heads in Ward 7, Zvimba District he said:

The food handouts we are receiving from the government since October 2015 is the only reason why we are still surviving in this Ward. The 50kgs of maize grain we are receiving each and every month is enough to sustain even a very big household with more than 10 people. The information obtained from focus group discussion also revealed that usually people were receiving their next monthly food rations whilst they have not even finished the portions of their last month food ration. Respondents also noted that since the inception of the food aid by the government, their diet improved to the better. One of the headman interviewed by the researcher said that:

Before the Drought Relief Food Aid, I have witnessed cases in which some people in the Ward suffered upto three consecutive days without anything to eat. Some of the people came to my homestead begging for something to eat for their children. However, with the coming of the food aid people are now having at least two meals a day which shows an improvement in food security within the whole Ward. The researcher was convinced that the government food aid has been effective strategy in ensuring food security in Zvimba District, Ward 7. However the research observed that people were having more than enough to eat since there were reports that some people are even selling the grain they are receiving since they now have adequate food reserves for their survival until the 2017 harvesting period. Some of the businessmen in the Ward told the researcher that they were buying maize grain from the beneficiaries of the Drought Relief Programme and they will resell the maize grain in their shops and it is quite a profitable business in Ward 7, Zvimba District. This showed that people were having enough to eat and some were already selling the surplus since they were already food secure.

4.3.6.1 Challenges of the Drought Relief Food Aid Programme The major challenge observed by the researcher in the implementation of the drought relief programme in Ward 7 of Zvimba District is the selection of undeserving beneficiaries by the local authorities and the community and this could attributed to nepotism. The research also noted that there is lack of comprehensive understanding by community members, confrontation particularly on inclusion and exclusion errors despite induction done prior to commencement of the programme. The study revealed that there are also beneficiaries who do not meet the eligible criteria or those who claim to have been listed by the councilors but not appearing on the list of

46 beneficiaries of the programme. The researcher also discovered that there are various reports of beneficiaries who were left out of the programme due to political differences.

4.4 Overall contribution of government interventions in ensuring food security in Zvimba District, Ward 7 As shown by the above discussion, the government of Zimbabwe adopted a number of intervention strategies in a bid to ensure food security in Zvimba District, Ward 7. However few of these interventions achieved their intended targets and results of improving food security. The best interventions acknowledged by the respondents were the government input scheme for vulnerable households and the drought relief food aid programme. The other interventions that were employed by the government to ensure food security in Ward 7 of Zvimba District for example the LRRP, input credit scheme, Operation Maguta and farm mechanisation did not effectively serve their purpose of ensuring food security. The findings of this research on the above mentioned interventions that failed to yield their intended results agrees with the findings by other researchers [NIB, (2008); Manyeruke and Hamauswa, (2012); Mudzonga and Chigwada, (2009); Solidarity Peace Trust (2006)] as highlighted in chapter 2 of this research.

10 number of respondents of number 5

less than a quarter less than half More than half 100% improvement

Government intervention strategies

Figure 4.2 respondents perceptions on the contribution of government intervention strategies in household food security Ward 7, Zvimba District, n= 50 (primary data)

From the above figure 4.2 which shows the respondents perceptions on the contribution of government interventions in ensuring food security, most people were able to regain their food security status because of the government input scheme and the drought relief food aid programme. It was noted that more half of the respondents (26) for the government input scheme and (31) for the food aid highlighted that their household food security was improved to 100% through these government interventions. However, it is pivotal to note that although food aid had the highest contribution in ensuring food security of the people, as noted by the Herald (12/08/2016 ) in chapter 2 of this research food aid programme was only lasting upto June 2017. This implies after then food security status will decline the following years leaving people vulnerable to hunger. The

48 findings of this research show that people are getting used to food hand-outs and as a result the ceasing of the food aid will greatly affect people to poverty. This complies with Moyo (2009) view that one of the disadvantages of food aid is that it addresses a given purpose at a given time leaving people more vulnerable to more problems during its absence in the future.

4.5 Challenges of relying on government assistance in food security

4.5.1 Creation of dependency syndrome The research revealed that due to government assistance which communities receive, people have now created a dependency syndrome in which they expect to receive handouts from the government each and every time in the form of farming inputs and food handouts. Some respondents have even dropped their livelihoods activities they have been doing before since the inception of government assistance in Ward 7 of Zvimba District. In an interview with one of the AGRITEX officers in Ward 7 of Zvimba, he said:

A number of farmers that used to grow maize at a larger scale in this Ward have reduced the hectares of maize crops since the inception of the Drought Relief Food Aid Programme in November 2015. If the programme ceases for sure in June 2017, there will be a complete disaster of lack of food in the entire Ward. This is shows that government assistance in ensuring food security in communities may lead to laziness within the people and in the event that those interventions cease in the future more problems may emanate due to lack of self-sustenance of communities.

4.5.2 Political interference It was also noted that politics is one of the major factors that affects the smooth implementation of government interventions in ensuring food security. Zvimba District is a strong political sensitive District in which almost every government related programme will be linked to politics. The research revealed that it is very difficult for government programmes implementers to run away from politics. This is shown by the effects of political interests in the selection criteria of beneficiaries of the government intervention programmes in ensuring food security. Some respondents argued that they were not included in any of the government related programmes because they were accused of being supporters of the opposition party, either MDC or Zimbabwe

People First. In one of the focus group discussions conducted by the researcher, one of the respondents said:

It is the mandate of the government to provide us with food and everything we want because we voted for the ruling government. Every government programme is a token of appreciation by the government to the people who voted for it, so the members of the opposition parties should not benefit from any government related intervention. This reflects that the effectiveness of government interventions in ensuring food security in Ward 7, Zvimba District is greatly affected by politics and hence there is a challenge emanating in relying on government assistance.

4.5.3 Corruption This study also revealed that corruption is also a challenge encountered on relying on government assistance. The research revealed that in all the government interventions that were employed in Ward 7 of Zvimba District there were reports by the respondents of the implementers spearheading the programmes diverting the farming implements for themselves during the farm mechanisation programme. Also there were cases in which some bags of farming inputs were reported missing during distribution of the government input scheme. Similar cases are reported on the distribution of maize grain under the drought relief food aid programme, whereby there are names of ghost beneficiaries on the list of which their ration is received by the top leadership for their own consumption. However, the researcher asked the local leadership to give comments during interviews and they denied the allegations arguing that people often look for false accusations in every situation. Nevertheless, the AGRITEX officers in the Ward highlighted that there had been such cases in the past where village heads were arrested for similar accusations.

4.6 Summary From the above presentations and analysis of data obtained in Ward 7 of Zvimba District, it can be said that government interventions are playing a crucial role in ensuring food security in the area. However, some of the interventions put in place were ineffective due to a number of reasons which include political differences, the selection criteria of the beneficiaries, corruption in which these have become the challenges in relying on government assistance in ensuring food security in the area. However 50% of the sampled households revealed that the government input scheme

50 and the drought relief food aid has contributed to 100% improvement in their household food security. Despite the improvements noted, the community is ignoring the negative effects of government assistance as it fosters dependency.

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction This chapter concludes and gives recommendations in relation with the research findings on the assessment of government interventions in ensuring food security in Zvimba district, ward 7.

Recommendations are provided to the government as well as the donor community as well as households in Zvimba District which are receiving government assistance in a bid to ensure food security.

5.2 Conclusion The issue of food security is one of the most common issues in Zimbabwe. This is due to the fact that food insecurity characterized by extreme hunger and poverty has become a day to day thing in the lives of people in Zimbabwe particularly those living in rural areas. About 60% of the Zimbabwe’s population dwells in the countryside where the major livelihood is agriculture. The existence of climate change and variability accompanied by high economic stability where unemployment rate is rising, has greatly affected the livelihood activities of the people in rural areas and they end up food insecure. Resultantly, there is a dire need for government interventions to cushion the people and enhance food security. The findings of this research revealed that most of government interventions in ensuring food security in Zimbabwe are aimed at boosting agricultural production since the economy is agro-based. In ward 7 of Zvimba district the visible interventions employed by the government of Zimbabwe to ensure food security include the Land Reform and Resettlement Programme, Agriculture Mechanization Programme, Agricultural input credit facility, Operation Maguta, Government input scheme for vulnerable households and the Drought Relief Food Aid Programme. From the identified interventions, the researcher came to the conclusion that the government input scheme and the food aid programme are the most effective interventions that improved household food security and the beneficiaries acknowledged the positive impacts of these interventions. However the other interventions were greatly hinged on politics and they were not flexible for communal farmers. They are also challenges that emanate from relying on government assistances which include creation of a dependency syndrome, political interference and corruption.

5.3 Recommendations

5.3.1 Government 1. The researcher recommends the government that before implementation of any government intervention to any area to ensure food security, detailed assessments and consultations should be

52 conducted within primary stakeholders that is beneficiaries of the intervention and secondary stakeholders in order to identify the priority needs of the community and how best they can be addressed. This reduces failures in meeting the intended targets of any government intervention towards ensuring food security.

2. Government is recommended to make follow ups on the each and every intervention strategy it is implementing and to ensure sustainable utilization of resources and success of its interventions.

3. Government intervention strategies should promote self-sustenance of communities to avoid creation of dependency. Therefore this study recommends that future Agricultural support programmes should target labour endowed households (that are likely to make productive use of the provided inputs) with comprehensive and timely distributed inputs. Moreso, the researcher recommends that labour constrained households should be targeted by food assistance and social protection programmes.

4. Government is recommended to make anti-corruption campaigns to make the community aware and ways in which the community can report corruption cases in order to increase accountability in the implementation of government intervention strategies to ensure food security in the country.

5.3.2 Households in Zvimba District This study recommends the households in Zvimba District to strongly participate in the intervention strategies that build their self-sustenance and strengthening of the livelihoods assets that is human, physical, natural, social capitals for example the strategies that boost agricultural production.. Relying on government assistances has a number of negative implications and above all it increases the vulnerability to shocks and stresses and the households’ resilience to these shocks is reduced since the community at large would lack the capacity to recover from the stresses and shocks.

5.3.3 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) 1. NGOs are recommended to take part in introducing intervention strategies that ensure food security in rural areas in Zimbabwe for example Ward 7, Zvimba District. This is due to the fact

53 that government efforts alone are failing to adequately meet the requirements of adequate household food security in most districts in Zimbabwe.

2. This study also recommends NGOs to support the vulnerable members in Ward 7, Zvimba District with intervention strategies that are done timely in order to discourage dependency.

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APPENDIX I: Household Questionnaire My name is Mundinga Kenias. I am currently studying Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Developing Studies at Bindura University of Science Education (BUSE). In partial fulfilment of the studies, every student is mandated to carry out a research project of her or his choice based on the knowledge acquired the four years of learning at the institution. My topic is: An assessment of government interventions in ensuring food security in Zvimba district, ward 7. I am therefore appealing for your help in answering questions in relation to the effectiveness of government interventions towards ensuring food security in your ward.

WARD 7

VILLAGE NAME ……………….

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

1. Gender

Male Female

2. Age

In years ……………... 3. Marital status Single Married Divorced Widowed 4. Level of education completed Primary Secondary Post-secondary Literacy certificate 5. Number of members in the household Below 5 Above 5

SECTION B: GOVERNMENT INTERVENTIONS STRATEGIES, FOOD SECURITY AND BENEFICIARIES’ STATUS

6. Are you or have you been a beneficiary of any government programmes towards improving food security?

Yes No 7. How long have you been a beneficiary? One Two Three Four Five years plus Not at all 8. Why were you chosen as a beneficiary?

……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… If not state why you were not included? …………………………………………………………………………………………… 9. Can you identify any government interventions that were introduced to improve food security in your Ward? i. …………………………………. ii. ………………………………….. iii. ………………………………….. iv. …………………………………. 10. How much have the government interventions contributed towards your household’s food security? Less than a quarter More than a quarter but less than half About half About 100% 11. Do you think the government interventions you have named in (9) were properly designed to sustain your livelihoods? Yes No 12. Give reasons for your answer in 11 above ……………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… 13. What were your other sources of food? Own production Purchases Barter Borrowing Other specify …………………………………… 14. How do you describe your household food security situation before any government assistances? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… 15. How do you describe your food security situation after receiving the government assistances? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………

16. Is there any improvement that is directly linked to government interventions in the food security of the people? If yes state them. ……………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… 17. Have you dropped some livelihood activities from the time you became a beneficiary of the food security intervention measures by the government in your area? Yes No Give details………………………………………………. 18. Have you taken on some livelihood activities from the time you became a beneficiary of the government interventions? Yes No Give details……………………………………………………………………………… 19. What do you think should be done to end food shortages in your area? …………………………………………………………………………………………… 20. Do you think the government assistances will continue in your area in the coming years if food shortages are experienced? Yes No Not sure 21. Do you think you might be able to sustain your livelihoods if government assistance is discontinued in your area? Yes No 22. Give details for your answer in 21 above …………………………………………………………………………………………….

APPENDIX II: INTERVIEW GUIDE 1. Is your ward receiving any government assistance towards ensuring food security? 2. Can you identify any government interventions employed in your area towards ensuring food security? 3. Do you know of the selection criteria of the beneficiaries? 4. How has the community benefited from this government interventions?

5. Does the community believe that the government interventions are reaching the people in need of it the most? Do you think so? 6. If there was no government interventions what would you be food secure? How would your community survive? 7. Do you think the community will be food secure if government interventions discontinue?

APPENDIX III: OBSERVATION GUIDE 1. What are the food security and insecurity indicators prevailing in the area?

2. What are the government interventions that exist in the community to ensure food security?

3. Are the vulnerable households benefiting from these government interventions?

APPENDIX IV: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE 1. How can you describe the food security situation in ward 7 of Zvimba district?

2. Are the government interventions towards ensuring food security implemented effectively?

3. Have the various livelihood strategies activities changed since the inception of government assistance?

4. What can be attributed to this change?

5. How the government interventions can be designed to improve their impact on their intended targets?

6. What will the people rely on if the government assistances discontinue?