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A CRISIS OF GOVERNANCE: ZIMBABWE A CRISIS OF GOVERNANCE: ZIMBABWE Jacob Chikuhwa Algora Publishing New York © 2004 by Algora Publishing. All Rights Reserved www.algora.com No portion of this book (beyond what is permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the United States Copyright Act of 1976) may be reproduced by any process, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, without the express written permission of the publisher. ISBN: 0-87586-284-5 (softcover) ISBN: 0-87586-285-3 (hardcover) ISBN: 0-87586-286-1 (ebook) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chikuhwa, Jacob W. (Jacob Wilson), 1940- A crisis of governance : Zimbabwe / Jacob Chikuhwa. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. ISBN 0-87586-284-5 (trade paper : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-87586-285-3 (hard cover : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-87586-286-1 1. Zimbabwe—Politics and government—1980- I. Title. JQ2925.C47 2004 320.96891—dc22 2004006344 Printed in the United States This book is dedicated to all the people who were tortured and those who died for the liberation and for the democratic process underway in Zimbabwe. I also dedicate the book to those who are campaigning to make Zimbabwe a truly democratic society. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my wife Raisa, my son Tonderai-Wilson and his wife Assiati and my daughter Eleonora-Ngwarai, and all my friends and acquaintances who have directly or indirectly made the task of writing this book more easy, bearable and even pleasurable. These include pastors Doug and Jodi Fondell, who provided me with material and moral support when I had just returned to Sweden at the end of April 2002. Their hospitality and kindness, at a time I was receiving trauma therapy, gave me the encouragement I needed to start all over again and to continue with writing this book. My heartfelt appreciation goes to Lars Gyllenswärd for the IT technical assistance and advice that enabled me to compile the final version of this book. For information and advice on style and content, I am grateful to Prof. Regi Austin. Further, my deepest appreciation to Marie and Daniel Grout, of Rhodia Sverige AB, and to Lennart Simonsson, of the Nordic Outlook on Development Assistance, Business and the Environment, for the reports and research material provided. I would like to express my sincere gratitude for the enthusiasm and assistance provided by the many and necessarily anonymous interviewees and the organizations that provided vital information. Paragraphs and pages of this book immeasurably benefited from intense editorial consulting from Andrea Secara and other editorial members of staff at Algora Publishing. Their art of critically reading and polishing a sentence, a paragraph, is such an example of the highest craftsmanship that it enriched my literal intellect. My heartfelt gratitude go to them for making the publication of this book a reality. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AAC Anglo American Corporation AAG Affirmative Action Group ACP-EU African Caribbean Pacific-European Union AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome AIPPA Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BSAC British South Africa Company BSAP British South Africa Police CABSA Canadian Alliance for Business in Southern Africa Campfire Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources CAZ Conservative Alliance of Zimbabwe CBZ Commercial Bank of Zimbabwe CFU Commercial Farmers’ Union CMED Central Mechanical Equipment Department COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa COSATU Congress of South African Trade Unions CSC Cold Storage Company CSO Central Statistical Office COTTCO Cotton Company of Zimbabwe CZI Confederation of Zimbabwe Industries DDF District Development Fund DRC Democratic Republic of Congo DZL Dairyboard Zimbabwe Limited EFZ Evangelical Fellowship of Zimbabwe EPZ Export Processing Zone ESAF Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility ESAP Economic Structural Adjustment Programme ESSA Enterprise Services for Southern Africa EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Finhold Financial Holdings FPZ Forum Party of Zimbabwe FROLIZI Front for the Liberation of Zimbabwe GDP Gross Domestic Product GMB Grain Marketing Board GNP Gross National Product GPAWUZ General Plantation and Allied Workers Union of Zimbabwe GTB Government Tender Board HIPCs Heavily Indebted Poor Countries HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IBDC Indigenous Business Development Centre IBWO Indigenous Business Women’s Organization IDA International Development Association IDC Industrial Development Corporation IFC International Finance Corporation IUSY International Union of Socialist Youths JAG Justice for Agriculture MBOs Management buy-outs MDC Movement for Democratic Change MIEC Movement for Independent Electoral Candidates MISA Media Institute of Southern Africa MMD Movement for Multi-party Democracy NAGG National Alliance of Good Governance NCA National Constitutional Assembly NCC National Convention for Change NDP National Democratic Party NECF National Economic Consultative Forum NEPAD New partnership for Africa’s Development NERP National Economic Revival Programme NGO Non-governmental organization NIT National Investment Trust NITZ National Investment Trust of Zimbabwe NOCZIM National Oil Company of Zimbabwe NORAD Norwegian Agency for International Development NRZ National Railways of Zimbabwe NSSA National Social Security Authority OAU Organization of African Unity PAZ Privatization Agency of Zimbabwe POSA Public Order and Security Act PTC Posts and Telecommunications Corporation PTRAZ Posts and Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of Zimbabwe RBZ Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe RENAMO Resistencia Nacional de Mocambique RTG Rainbow Tourist Group SADC Southern Africa Development Community SDR Special Drawing Rights SIDA Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency SMEs small-medium enterprises SSB Salaries Service Bureau TTL Tribal Trust Land UCLAF Unité pour la Coordination de la Lutte Anti Fraudes UDI Unilateral Declaration of Independence UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNIP United National Independence Party UNDP United Nations Development Program USAID United States Agency for International Development UNIP United National Independence Party VCCZ Venture Capital Company of Zimbabwe VID Vehicle Inspection Depot WFP World Food Program WIB Women in Business ZANLA Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ZANU Zimbabwe African National Union ZANU (PF) ZANU (Patriotic Front) ZAPU Zimbabwe African People’s Union ZBC Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation ZCTU Zimbabwe Building Constructors’ Association ZESA Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority ZIANA Zimbabwe Inter-Africa News Agency ZIDCO Zoram Industrial Development Co-operation ZIMASCO Zimbabwe Mineral and Steel Company ZIMCORD Zimbabwe Conference on Reconstruction and Development ZIMPREST Zimbabwe Programme for Economic and Social Transformation ZIMRA Zimbabwe Revenue Authority ZIMRE Zimbabwe Reinsurance Corporation ZINATHA Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers’ Association ZIPRA Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army ZISCO Zimbabwe Iron and Steel Company ZNCC Zimbabwe National Chamber of Commerce ZSE Zimbabwe Stock Exchange ZUD Zimbabwe Union of Democrats Z U M Z i m b a b w e U n i t y M o v e m e n t Zimbabwe, showing provincial boundaries. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1 PART I. CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 5 CHAPTER 1. SOCIO-POLITICAL SYSTEMS 5 Pre-Historic Social Structures 5 Pre-Colonial Political Systems 9 Colonial Incursions and the Early Constitutions 12 The Chimurenga War 14 The 1923 Constitution 16 The 1961 Constitution 17 The Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) 19 The 1965 Constitution 21 The 1969 Constitution 24 CHAPTER 2. THE NEED FOR CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGE 27 Settlement Talks 27 The 1979 Constitution 30 The Lusaka Accord and the Lancaster House Constitution 32 Countless Amendments to the Lancaster House Constitution 35 Retention of Colonial Laws 49 Cultural Expression and Repression 65 Special Legislation and Rights Infringements 67 The Clamor for a Homegrown Constitution 69 Mugabe’s Constitutional Commission 75 The Commission’s Draft versus the Popular Will 80 Ramming It Through 86 CHAPTER 3. THE FOLLY IN A DE FACTO ONE-PARTY DEMOCRACY 91 Harassment of the Opposition 91 Growing Discontent 109 Cracks within the Ruling Party 137 The Roots of Corruption 157 One-party political systems 160 Allocation of Resources to the Less-privileged 168 Aid Programs 179 xiii A Crisis of Governance Centralized Allocation of Assets and Projects 183 Potential investors are bound to be put off by such shenanigans. 187 Commodity Shortages and National Disasters 191 PART II. ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT 205 CHAPTER 4. THE INDIGENIZATION POLICY 205 Prerequisites for Indigenous Investment 205 The Economic Empowerment Lobby 213 Political Patronage 235 CHAPTER 5. ECONOMIC REFORMS 244 The Land-Reform Program 244 Economic Liberalization 263 Parastatal Privatization 277 Industry and Export Promotion 288 What Lies Ahead 319 APPENDIX I. THE PRESIDENCY AND MINISTERS’ SALARIES 327 APPENDIX II. GOVERNMENT COMPOSITION 329 BIBLIOGRAPHY 337 Books 337 Reports 339 Periodicals 340 INDEX 343 xiv INTRODUCTION A Crisis of Governance is a detailed analysis of Zimbabwean socio-economic history and development since the nation achieved independence from Great Britain in April 1980, with a focus on recent events under President Robert Mugabe and the ZANU (Patriotic Front). It is one thing to break free of
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