Final Full Cover-2.pdf 1 12/05/2020 09:42:29 Alda The interest in the governance of land and other resources in developing countries has intensified over the past two Land-based Investments in Mozambique: decades in response to the increased pressures registered due to land-based investments and the negative social and Salomão Challenges in Community Rights Protection, environmental impacts often associated to them. Using the Republic of Mozambique as a case study this dissertation Participation and Benefit Sharing analyses this reality, engaging with the political struggles within this country and the consequent disempowerment of the local communities in spite of the progressive 1995 National Land Policy and 1997 Land Law. Land-based Investments in Mozambique C M Y CM MY CY CMY K Alda Salomão LAND-BASED INVESTMENTS IN MOZAMBIQUE Challenges in Community Rights Protection, Participation and Benefit Sharing Alda Salomão Alda Salomão, Utrecht University, Faculty of Geosciences, Department of Human Geography and Spatial Planning, International Development Studies This thesis was accomplished with support from the LANDac programme (the IS Academy on Land Governance for Equitable and Sustainable Development), the Netherlands Embassy in Mozambique, and Centro Terra Viva-Estudos e Advocacia Ambiental (CTV) in Mozambique. ISBN 9789463013024 Cover design: Alda Salomão Carthography: UU Geosciences Pictures: Alda Salomão and CTV (Chico Carneiro and Lino Manuel) © 2020 Alda Salomão. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission in writing from the proprietor. © 2020 Alda Salomão. Alle rechten voorbehouden. Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden verveelvoudigd, opgeslagen in een geautomatiseerdgegevensbestand, of openbaar gemaakt, in enige vorm of op enige wijze, hetzij elektronisch, door fotokopieen, opnamen, of op enig andere manier, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de rechthebbende. LAND-BASED INVESTMENTS IN MOZAMBIQUE Challenges in Community Rights Protection, Participation and Benefit Sharing LANDINVESTERINGEN IN MOZAMBIQUE: Uitdagingen op het Gebied van de Bescherming, Deelname en Uitkeringen van Rechten van de Gemeenschap INVESTIMENTOS BASEADOS NA TERRA EM MOÇAMBIQUE: Desafios na Protecção de Direitos Comunitários, Promoção da Participação e Partilha de Benefícios Proefschrift Ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht op gezag van de rector magnificus, prof. dr. Henk Kummeling, ingevolge het besluit van het college voor promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 26 juni 2020 des middags 12.45uur Door Alda Salomão geboren op 28 juni 1964 te Maputo, Mozambique Promotor: Prof. dr. E.B. Zoomers Copromotoren: Dr. ir. G. van der Haar Dr. H.J. van Noorloos Abstract The interest in the governance of land and other resources in developing countries has intensified over the past two decades in response to the increased pressures registered due to land-based investments. These pressures derived from global in- terests to remedy the food and energy crisis of the 80s but were also a result of public and private interests at national level involving large extensions of land in di©erent sectors. The manner in which these interests and investments have been addressed, has fuelled concerns both at the national and international levels due to negative social and environmental impacts. In general, land-based investments have failed to respect and protect citizens’ and community rights. Citizens and communities are often marginalized from decision-making processes, loose their land rights permanently or see them substantially restricted in both size and quali- ty, and rarely share any meaningful benefits.This thesis analysed this reality using the Republic of Mozambique as a case study, due to its reputation as a country with a progressive policy and legal framework that balances community and in- vestors’ land rights so that citizens can e©ectively benefit from land-based invest- ments. While thanks to these provisions the Mozambican 1997 Land Law has been described as one of the best in Africa, based on the research findings, the main conclusion of this thesis is that there are good elements in the Mozambican legal framework for participatory and inclusive land governance but in practice commu- nity rights protection, participation and benefit sharing do not actually materialize and, so far, neither procedural nor distributive justice objectives have been achieved. 5 Samenvatting In de afgelopen twee decennia is de interesse in beleid rondom land en natuurlijke hulpbronnen in ontwikkelingslanden sterk toegenomen, doordat investeringen in land een grote druk op land en hulpbronnen hebben veroorzaakt. Deze druk kwam aan de ene kant doordat er op globaal niveau steeds meer belang was bij het oplos- sen van de voedselcrisis en energiecrisis vanaf de jaren ’80, maar ook doordat in veel landen nationale overheden en bedrijven in verschillende sectoren veel belang hadden bij het opkopen van grote stukken land. De manier waarop deze investerin- gen hebben plaatsgevonden heeft geleid tot grote zorg op nationaal en internation- aal niveau, met name vanwege de negatieve sociale – en milieugevolgen. Over het algemeen hebben investeringen in land de rechten van burgers en gemeenschappen niet beschermd en gerespecteerd. Burgers en gemeenschappen worden vaak gemar- ginaliseerd in besluitvorming, verliezen permanent hun landrechten of zien hun land flink teruggaan in omvang en kwaliteit, en de verwachte voordelen van de investeringen worden nauwelijks gematerialiseerd. In deze dissertatie wordt deze problematiek behandeld met Mozambique als casus, omdat dit land bekend staat om een progressief beleid en juridisch raamwerk op het gebied van landrechten. In dit beleid zijn – op papier - de belangen en landrechten van gemeenschappen en investeerders met elkaar in balans, zodat burgers daadwerkelijk zouden kunnen profiteren van landinvesteringen. De Mozambikaanse landwet van 1997 staat dan ook bekend als een van de beste van Afrika. Echter, dit onderzoek laat zien dat er, ondanks de goede elementen in het Mozambikaanse juridische raamwerk voor par- ticipatief en inclusief landbeleid, in de praktijk zeer weinig terechtkomt van het beschermen van de rechten van gemeenschappen, participatie en het delen in de voordelen van investeringen. Tot dusver is rechtvaardigheid op het gebied van par- ticipatie en ook op het gebied van de verdeling van kosten en opbrengsten niet ge- realiseerd. 6 Contents ONE: INTRODUCTION (19) I. Land Governance for Sustainable Development: Concepts and Debates (25) II. Research Objectives and Questions (44) III. Theoretical Perspective (45) IV. Dissertation Structure (56) TWO: Description of the Case Study, Research Design, and Methodology (59) Introduction (61) I. Why Mozambique? (61) II. Mozambique Investment Strategy (66) III. List of Investment Projects Analysed (69) IV. Research Methods Used (75) V. Research Challenges (80) THREE: Participatory Land Governance in Mozambique: An Historical Review of Principles and Practice (83) Introduction (853) I. The Role of Land in the Adoption and Consolidation of Democratic Governance in Mozambique (85) II. State Ownership over Land and the Concept of Public Domain (96) III. Legal and Institutional Pluralism and Community-based Land and Natural Resources Management (101) IV. Administrative Decentralization for Participatory Governance (104) V. Land-based Investments and Community-Investor Partnerships (111) VI. Corruption, Political and Military Violence and Impacts on the Land Sector (116) Conclusion (119) 7 FOUR: The Limpopo and Mágoé National Parks in Massingir and Mágoé Districts: Assessing Community Rights Protection and Community-Public Partnerships in Biodiversity Conservation (121) Introduction (123) I. National Parks and Community Lands (126) II. Rights Protection, Community-Public Partnerships, and Expropriation of Community Rights in the Limpopo National Park (134) III. Procedural Justice in the Creation of the Limpopo National Park (136) IV. Rights Protection and Procedural Justice in the Mágoé National Park (144) V. Distributive Justice Within and Around the Limpopo and Mágoé National Parks (146) Conclusion (162) FIVE: Anadarko Liquefied Natural Gas Project in Palma District: A Review of Community Consultations and Participation in the Extractive Industries (165) Introduction (167) I. Anadarko LNG Project in Palma District and Communities Lands (168) II. Community Consultations for Rights Protection and Political Participation in the Allocation of Land Use Rights to Anadarko (179) III. Community Consultations for Economic Inclusion and Benefit Sharing (203) Conclusion (213) SIX: The Maputo-KaTembe Bridge Project in Maputo City: Assessing Investments Benefit Sharing and Contribution to Local Development (215) Introduction (217) I. The Maputo-Katembe Bridge, Community Lands and Resettlement Procedural Justice (220) II. Resettlement Distributive Justice and Community Perceptions on Fair Compensation and Development (226) III. Investments and Resettlement Contribution to Community Development: Challenges in Ensuring Procedural and Distributive Justice (238) Conclusion (241) SEVEN: FINAL CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION (245) 8 REFERENCES (271) ANNEXES (292) SUMMARY (328) RESUMO (332) SAMENVATTING (337) AUTHOR CV (342) 9 List of accronyms ADMADE Administrative Management Design ATVC Associação