Fire Management Strategy for Inyan Kara Mountain

Fire Management Strategy

USDA Forest Service Black Hills National Forest Bearlodge Ranger District

Dan L. Morford April 2000 Technical Fire Mangement 14

Table of Contents

Executive summary ...... 3

I. Introduction ...... 4 Problem Statement ...... 6 Goal ...... 6 Project Objectives ...... 6 Methodology ...... 6 General Assumptions ...... 7 Limitations ...... 7

II. Affected Environment ...... 8

III. Alternatives ...... 11 Analysis of Alternatives ...... 11 Conclusion of Alternatives ...... 21

Definitions...... 22

Literature Cited ...... 24

References ...... 25

APPENDICIES ...... 27

Executive Summary

The purpose of this project is to analyze how the Black Hills National Forest, Bearlodge Ranger District currently manages wild fire suppression on Inyan Kara Mountain. This analysis considers the cost of suppression, and current fuel loadings inconjuction with the mountain’s special characteristic. The 1997 revised Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP) for Inyan Kara Mountain emphasizes:

* Natural vegetative succession. * Primitive recreational opportunities, but prohibits interpretive facilities. * Allows natural fuel buildup and deterioration. * Prohibits new road construction, reconstruction, and off road motorized travel. * Insects and diseases are allowed to run their course. * Allows for natural ignition fires. * Heritage protection and research. A 480-acre portion of the area is registered with the National Registry of Historic Places. Therefore, it is managed for its unusual scenic, historical, and geological features.

Two alternatives were analyzed which are consistent with the 1997 LRMP. Following is a brief description of the alternatives: Alternative A, No Action Alternative. With this alternative no action implies that fires would continue to be suppressed as they have in the past. Alternative B, Wildland Fire Use. This alternative would allow a natural ignition to burn under certain parameters. This alternative would allow natural wild fire ignitions to burn under specified weather and fuel conditions.

A variety of computer models were used to arrive at the results in this paper. The use of computer software programs such as: FIRE FAMILY PLUS, BEHAVE, KCFAST, FOFEM, GIS, ARCINFO, ARCVIEW were used to calculate results. Data was obtained from field observations, literature reviews, aerial photo, historic photographs, and photo guides for appraising fuel loading levels.

This paper recommends that Alternative B be selected as the preferred alternative for Inyan Kara Mountain. This alternative best meets land and resource objectives, and has the greatest cost savings.

I. Introduction

Inyan Kara Mountain is located on the Bearlodge Ranger District of the Black Hills National Forest, approximately 13 miles south of Sundance, Wyoming, and encompasses 1400 acres. (See Map on following page). The rich cultural history and unique geological characteristics drive resource management decisions. The Inyan Kara Mountain area is identified in the 1997 Revised Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP) as management area 3.2A. This management area prohibits timber harvest, motorized transportation, or planned vegetative manipulation. Recreation activity is minimal due to the remote location and being surrounded by private land without public right-of-way. A 480-acre portion of the area is registered with the National Registry of Historic Places (See Appendix A1). Therefore, it is managed for its unusual scenic, historical, and geological features.

The Desired Future Condition (DFC) for Inyan Kara Mountain includes: a primitive setting where natural processes are evident with dead trees due to fire, ponderosa pine as the most abundant tree species, followed by Rocky Mountain juniper, aspen and other hardwoods. In addition, a mosaic vegetation pattern, including meadows, older mature trees and over-stocked dense stands is desired. Resource managers have realized the need to evaluate alternative strategies to return this area to a more balanced ecosystem.

The view of fire in forest ecosystems has been based on the premise that wildland fires were either destructive or constructive depending on one’s prospective. Irrespective of one’s viewpoint, disturbance is biologically necessary to maintain a healthy diverse ecosystem. The ecological benefits of prescribed fire are numerous, but high intensity fires may cause more damage than benefit (Agee, 1992). Successful fire suppression activities have contributed to high fuel loading of dead woody fuels, and a loss of meadow habitat due to encroachment of ponderosa pine. As a result, many stands have become overstocked due to fire exclusion. Forest health issues such as insect and disease outbreaks, densely stocked stands and associated reduced vigor, shifting vegetation patterns, and increasing fuel loads are the end result of aggressive fire suppression. On a broad scale, both species viability and biological diversity are threatened in forested ecosystems such as the Black Hills that have evolved with and adapted to frequent fire occurrences. The LRMP, section 3.2A-4102, provides an opportunity to use natural occurring fires to play, as nearly as possible, their natural ecological role.

Problem Statement

Historically, wildfire has been an integral part of the Inyan Kara Mountain ecosystem. With the advent of European settlers and a very aggressive and successful fire suppression policy, fire effects have been minimized allowing for ecological changes. These changes are leading the Inyan Kara project area away from the desired condition. A lack of public support for prescribed fire, current low funding levels, and limited commodity values have contributed to a lack of management-ignited fires. Given these constraints the only options for this area are continued suppression action or wildland fire use on selected areas.

Goal District Resource Managers have determined it is necessary to look at new fire management strategies/alternatives that would provide an opportunity for natural fuel reduction, increase benefits to the resource, reduce suppression costs, and reduce the wildfire threat to private lands.

Project Objectives

1. Determine present fuel conditions of the project area.

2. Analyze fire management alternatives based on fuel loading and cost per acre.

3. Identify the desired future condition of the project area.

Methodology

The following methods and computer models will be used to meet both goals and objectives:

1. Inventory existing fuel characteristics and assign representative fuel models. 2. Create Geographic Information System (GIS) fuels layer and vegetation maps. 3. Use Fire Family Plus to perform weather and fire analyses. 4. Illustrate the predicted the fire behavior characteristic for each fuel model. 5. Display costs of suppressing wildfires. 6. Define the Desired Future Condition(DFC). 7. Evaluate alternatives combining information from methods 1-7, improving forest health by moving vegetation toward the DFC.

General Assumptions

Congress will continue to support the Wildland Fire Use concept and the use of management ignited fire.

A continued decision not to use management ignited fire as a tool, within the project area.

Since the Forest does not have a Wildland Fire Use program, estimated costs were developed from prescribed fire modules and personnel costs:

The number of personnel committed to monitor a natural ignition: Class A - one GS-6 Asst. module leader, and one GS-5 crew member Class B - one GS-6 Asst. module leader, and three GS-5 crew members Class C - one seven-person module.

Duration of fires is as follows: Class A – 3 days Class B – 7 days Class C – 14 days.

Daily monitoring costs are based on 12-hour shifts, 8 regular hours, 4 overtime hours and 12 hours of hazard duty pay.

Due to the limited cost data of fires on Inyan Kara Mountain, all costs gathered are considered typical costs for the area.

The reader recognizes that Wildland Fire Use (WFU), take the place of the old Prescribed Natural Fire (PNF).

Limitations

There is no activity or resource data from stand exams, rangeland, improved developments, or Special Use permits in the project area.

Historical weather data was taken from the Districts Remote Automated Weather Station approximately 25 miles to the north of the project area. This station was the closest station that could provide the historical information needed.

II. Affected Environment

Area Description

The Black Hills is an isolated mountain range in the Northern Great Plains physiographic province, covered primarily by ponderosa pine. The Inyan Kara Mountain Project Area is located on the Bearlodge Ranger District of the Black Hills National Forest, 13 miles south of Sundance, Wyoming. The project area consists of 1400 acres with five private landowners surrounding the area.

Geologically, Inyan Kara Mountain represents an isolated dome like upheaval surrounded by grass-covered prairie. The mountain consists of a horseshoe shaped outer ridge with very steep sides ranging from 20% to 80% slope. A central dome rises to a height of 6,386 feet above sea level within the center of the horseshoe. There are numerous rock outcroppings on the horseshoe ridge that tend to breakup fuel continuity.

Climate of the area is characterized as mild. Precipitation averages 18 inches annually. Moist spring and early summer months are followed by the dry season, usually from July to mid September. Summer temperatures in the area range from 75 – 85 degrees with the peak temperatures of 90 plus degrees occurring in the first part of August. Prevailing winds are usually from the west/south west and are of variable speed. Lightning activity is highest during June and August.

Vegetation within the project area consists of ponderosa pine intermixed with small clones of aspen, birch, and bur oak. A variety of native grasses, shrubs, and forbs are present in the understory and meadows.

Soil development is generally poor on the mountain with the surrounding plains featuring well drained soils formed in the red materials derived from siltstone, shale and sandstone. The major soil type is Spangler-Butche with some Suglo-loam on the south end. Inyan Kara Mountain has two principal drainages: Inyan Kara Creek (north), and Mason Creek (south), both of which flow into the Belle Fourche River in central Crook County (Elwonger 1983).

Cultural History

The Black Hills National Forest has a diverse cultural heritage and a history rich in exploration and development. Evidence examined by archeologists suggests that humans used this area for more than 10,000 years. The term Lakota is used in this document to include the Dakota, Nakota, and other Plains area Siouan speaking tribes, as well of other linguistic groups that were historically known to utilize the Black Hills and surrounding area. The Lakota have been described in ethnographic accounts as autonomous bands pursuing a nomadic lifestyle, who had adapted to equestrian bison hunting as a dominant means of subsistence (Hassrick 1964). These groups are believed to have migrated to the Plains from the woodlands of Minnesota beginning around 1700 A.D. The introduction of the horse extended their territory from eastern South Dakota to the Rocky Mountains, and from the North branch of the Platte River in Nebraska to the Powder River Basin in Wyoming and Montana and into southern North Dakota. The Lakota cosmology and worldview encompasses a universal concept of relationship. The Lakota perceive themselves within the order of a physical and non-physical world. Terms of address, i.e., uncle, mother, father, extend to both animate and inanimate objects. This perception of relationship is the essence of Lakota life. The seasonal movement of the stars prompted a scheme of specific ceremonies insuring a harmonious relationship with the universe and the creator, Wankan Tanka. The Lakota would recognize constellations, which signaled the performance of the appropriate sacred ritual. The first cyclical movement was in conjunction with the spring equinox, the second with the summer solstice, the third with the fall equinox, and the fourth with the winter solstice. The first activity performed in the Lakota continuum of renewal involved the gathering of red willow or the inner bark of red dogwood. This was done in western Nebraska during the winter camps. Upon the appearance of the spring star alignments, persons were designated to go to Harney Peak to perform the appropriate ceremonies. Harney Peak is the highest peak in the “Paha Sapa” or Black Hills. The Lakota then traveled to the Reynolds Prairie area in the central Black Hills. This location served as a site of preparation for the coming sundance. The participants began purification through fasting, sweat lodge ceremonies, and silence in anticipation of the culmination of sacred time. After completing these rites, the Lakota traveled to Inyan Kara Mountain. The Mountain served as a place to gather two stones, which were used in the sundance near Devils Tower. If these stones survived the sundance ceremony, they were returned to Inyan Kara and placed in the exact spot from which they were taken with a gift of thanks. The Lakota worldview interprets the colors of man and the four directions as black, red, yellow, and white. Stones of each color were obtained at Inyan Kara and crushed for pigment in preparation for the sundance ceremonies, as well as for use during the rest of the year. The Lakota then went to Devils Tower to perform the sundance. At this time the stars were in the summer solstice. Following the sundance, the Lakota went to Bear Butte to attend to affairs of “national importance” and perform smaller individual ceremonies. The bison was visualized as the symbolic element that bound the earth forms to the heavens. The Lakota view the bison as the sun’s earthly representative. The personification of this identification and the necessity of renewal ceremonies allowed the Lakota to utilize the bison as 9

a medium to create order within a complex worldview. Within this realm, Inyan Kara Mountain is recognized by the Lakota people as one of the most sacred foci of Lakota religion.

The rumor of gold in the Black Hills after the Civil War, in addition to heightened interest in the West, was the topic of many conversations in the 1800’s. By 1870, reports of rich gold deposits spread to the East and West coasts with pressure to open the Black Hills to gold seekers. It reached the point at which President U. S. Grant ordered a complete military expedition to explore and map the Black Hills despite objections by the Indians to whom the land belonged. On July 2, 1874, Major General George Armstrong Custer left Fort Abraham Lincoln; his northwest route would take his expedition along the Black Hills. His orders were to return to Fort Abraham Lincoln within sixty days with his report. Although General Custer was the dominant personality of the Black Hills Expedition, numerous other expeditions making similar treks soon followed. (Turchen 1995)

Fire History

Fire was a key ecological disturbance that shaped the composition and structure of many plant communities in western North America before wide spread settlement by non-Indians in the mid to late 19th century. It is apparent through historical records from expeditions into the area that fire was a common event. Black and white photography taken in 1874, and replicated in 1974, indicate that a major change had occurred in the area’s vegetation over the past 100 years. The area of pine forest has dramatically increased with a decrease in the area of savanna and prairie. Such pine invasions are common with decreases in frequency of wildfires. Frequent, low intensity surface fires characterized pre-settlement ponderosa pine forests. Since the early part of the century, fire suppression efforts have altered fire frequency and intensity, and these alterations have impacted vegetation patterns. Fire history research has found average pre-settlement fire intervals of 14 to 27 years near the western edge of the Black Hills at Devil’s Tower National Monument in eastern Wyoming. From 1770 to 1900 the mean time between area wide fires was only 14 years. Since 1900 the fire return period has lengthened to 42 years. (Fisher 1986) Evidence of fire is apparent throughout the project area, but most occurrences appear to concentrate along the rim area surrounding the central cone. District records indicate 23 fires from 1954 to the present on Inyan Kara Mountain. Detailed records were retrieved on 13 fires from 1970 to present (See Appendix A2). Prior to 1970 fire records were incomplete or non- existant. Field observations have revealed numerous fire scars in the area. These observations indicate that fire has long played a role in the ecosystem. Most of these fires were small low- intensity events, in the range of an acre or less. In these locations, the surface fuels were consumed reducing fuel loading, openings were created, and increased plant diversity.

III. Alternatives

Enumeration of Alternatives

Alternative A: No Action – Continuation of present suppression strategy.

This alternative would continue the policy of full suppression regardless of resource values. There would be no fires allowed to burn for resource benefit under any circumstance.

Alternative B: – Wildland Fire Use

This alternative would involve allowing natural ignitions to burn as long as fire behavior prescriptions are not exceeded. Daily monitoring of these ignitions will be used to track progress and determine if fire prescriptions have been reached or exceeded.

Evaluation Criteria

1. Cost effectiveness – measured by cost/acre. 2. Movement towards desired future condition.

Analysis of Alternatives

Fire Occurrence

From 1970 – 1999 the Inyan Kara project area had 13 fires, which equates to an average of 0.433 fires per year or a fire every two years. Of those 13 fires, 12 were lightning and one was human caused. A total of 78 acres burned from 1970 to present, which is .05 percent of the project area. The mean fire size for the period of 1970 – 1999 was 6 acres with a standard deviation of 16.37 (See Table 1).

Table 1, Fire Size Data

Fire Size

Mean 6.007692308 Standard Error 4.540493895 Median 0.5 Standard Deviation 16.37098356 Range 59.9 Minimum 0.1 Maximum 60 Sum 78.1 11

Count 13

During this period, there was one size class C fire in 1985, that dramatically increased the mean fire size. This fire was the result of a wind event and abnormally low live fuel moisture. Excluding this fire, the mean fire size is 1.5 acres, which historically represents the area. Due to the size of the project area, a better measurement of fire size might be the median. This measurement indicates that half of the fires will be less than six acres and half will be greater. This indicates that there are small fires, but the potential of larger fires is also present.

Weather Analysis

The National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) weather data was obtained from the National Interagency Fire Management Information Database in Kansas City using the KCFAST computer program. The NFDRS weather station that most accurately represents the weather of the west side of the Black Hills is Bearlodge station 480605. The station is located 26 air miles to the north of the project area. The weather data for the years 1984 to 1999 were used in this study.

The weather data were processed using the computer program FIRFAMILY Plus. The data was grouped for the 50th and 90th percentile weather classes based upon energy release component (see Appendix A3). The 50th percentile class shows the average fire weather and the 90th shows high case fire weather. The period of analysis was June through September. Table 3 displays a summary of the output ranges for fuel moistures, wind speed, temperature and relative humidity. Mid-flame wind speed was calculated from the 20-foot winds by multiplying a wind adjustment factor of 0.3 (Rothermel 1983).

Table 3, Bearlodge Weather

Weather/Fuel 50th 90th

1 Hour FM 7 5 10 Hour FM 10 7 100 Hour FM 12 9 1000Hour FM 15 12 Herb FM 77 64 Woody FM 114 91 20 foot WS 6 5 Mid Flame WS 1.8 1.5 Temperature – Fo 73 86

Fuel Loading

There are no records of commercial vegetative management or resource inventory data within the project area. This presented a problem when looking for baseline data to use in analysis of the area. A District ID team consisting of the silviculturist, timber manager assistant, range technician, fuels specialist, wildlife biologist, and Rocky Mountain Research Station assistant, Caroline Sieg, were consulted to discuss solutions to this problem. The conclusion of these experts was to use the Photo Series for Quantifying Forest Residues to inventory the project area due to project time restraints. Data was gathered by field observations for the entire project area and was entered into GIS to form a forest residue and timber class layer. The forest residue layer includes the fire fuel model, fuel characteristics, fuel loading by size class, and total fuel loading in tons per acre (T/A). The timber class layer contains the basal area, habitat structure series, tree height, crown base height, and percent crown closure. As mentioned previously, aggressive fire suppression policies in place since the early 1900’s have kept wildfire activity to a minimum. However, given present fuel loading and forest conditions, it is simply a matter of time before wildfire starting under the right conditions will become a stand replacement event. As fuel loads increase, there is a proportional increase in wildfire’s resistance to control. The Inyan Kara Mountain project area is not immune to this same reality. Therefore, it is important to identify the current fuel loading and the Desired Future Condition (DFC). Fuel loading observations were taken from the summit on 45 degree transect lines, every 200ft. Point locations were mapped and used to break the project area into fuel model types. These measurements were entered into the Excel program for analysis. Resource specialists have determined a range of four to eight tons per acre of down and woody material as desirable to meet the DFC. This fuel loading will allow for improved seedbed, increase wildlife understory habitat, while still providing for small mammal habitat. The Inyan Kara Mountain project area currently has a weighted mean fuel loading of 8.53 tons per acre (See Table 4). The weighted mean falls outside the identified range of 4 to 8 tons per acre.

Table 4, Fuel Loading in Weighted Average Tons Per Acre FM 2 FM 8 FM 9 FM 10 WEIGHTED MEAN 7.18 .17 .68 .50 8.53

These fuel loadings will naturally increase without a disturbance to break the cycle of accumulation. This paper does not evaluate the rate of accumulation for the fuels. A future study is recommended to further assess the fuels accumulation in the Inyan Kara Project area. Behave Predictions

BEHAVE runs were computed to assess potential fire behavior, based on the 50th and 90th percentile weather. There are some assumptions and limitations for the fire behavior model, BEHAVE, which must be noted. Fire behavior predictions are for the flaming front, surface fires, in continuous and uniform fuels, topography and weather. They are simply an average, with a factor of 2 (-50% to +200%) being the acceptable range, which can be expected from the

outputs. In other words, the actual behavior of a real fire under the exact conditions modeled may display a range of one half to two times the values displayed. See Appendix A4.

There are 13 standard fuel models: 3-grass, 4-brush, 3-timber, 3-slash (Anderson, Hal. 1982). The following is a brief description of the fuel model (FM) types located in the project area. Appendix A5.

Fuel Model 2 (grass) Grass is usually present in an open timber brush over story, or meadow vegetative structure. Contributors to fire intensity are grass, in addition to litter and dead-down stem wood from the open shrub and over story. Open shrub lands and pine stands or scrub oak stands that cover one- third to two-thirds of the area may generally fit this model. There may be stands that contain pockets of fuel that generate higher intensities, producing some fire brands. Typically the fuel bed depth will be comprised of less than three-inch diameter material. Fuel loading will be between 3-5 tons per acre (T/AC). Below are the BEHAVE predictions for Fuel Model 2.

Fuel Model 2, Grass Group Percent Rate of Spread Flame Length Fire Line Int. Weather

50th 23 5.2 201 90th 24 5.3 217

Fuel Model 8 (timber litter) Slow burning ground fires with low flame lengths characterize this fuel model, although the fire may encounter an occasional ”jackpot” or heavy fuel concentration that can flare up. Only under severe weather conditions involving high temperatures, low humidity, and high winds do these fuels pose an increased fire hazard due to erratic fire behavior. Under closed canopy conditions this model produces a layer of mainly needles, leaves and occasionally twigs that support fire spread and intensity. This model typically has a fuel bed depth of about three inches.

Fuel Model 8, Timber Group Percent Rate of Spread Flame Length Fire Line Int. Weather

50th 1 .9 4 90th 2 1 5

Fuel Model 9 (timber litter) This fuel model is characterized by concentrations of dead and down woody material that may contribute to possible torching of trees, spotting and crowning. Fuel loads range from 5-20 T/AC. The carrier of fire in this model is primarily loosely compacted pine litter with limited fine herbaceous fuel present. 14

Fuel Model 9, Timber Group Percent Rate of Spread Flame Length Fire Line Int. Weather

50th 5 2.3 33 90th 6 2.5 48

Fuel Model 10 (timber) This model is characterized by dead and down fuels on the forest floor resulting from over maturity and dying trees from insect/disease mortality. Spotting, crowning out, and torching of individual trees is more frequent in this fuel situation, leading to potential fire control problems. Fuel loads range from 12-25 T/AC.

Fuel Model 10, Timber Group Percent Rate of Spread Flame Length Fire Line Int. Weather

50th 8 4.9 182 90th 8 5.1 199

FOFEM Fuel Consumption Predictions

Current suppression techniques will allow fuel loading to increase, unless a major fire event occurs. This will result in a continued departure from the DFC. As stated earlier in this paper, fire occurrence is not high but small, low intensity fires are common. The effect of these low intensity fires aids in maintaining these fuel-loading levels and replicates the historic fire regime, although at a much smaller scale. The low intensity fire effects can be estimated by using the computer-modeling program, First Order Fire Effects (FOFEM). First order fire effects are the effects the fire has directly on tree mortality, fuel reduction, mineral soil exposure and smoke production. The computer model Fire Family Plus was used to generate average 10 and 1000 hour fuel moistures for each month. A summary of FOFEM outputs for percent reduction of fuel consumption by fuel model, by month is illustrated in Table 5. An example of a FOFEM run is in Appendix A6.

Table 5, Monthly Percent of Fuel Reduction in Fuel Model

Month FM2 FM 8 FM 9 FM 10 JUNE 30 35 22 17 JULY 51 46 39 39 AUGUST 52 51 47 49

Evaluation of FOFEM outputs indicates that fires in June will be at a level for maintaining the fuel loading at the current or slightly lower levels. This slight reduction is due to increased live fuel moisture during the early growing season. As the grasses and forbs reach seasonal maturity, the predicted consumption increases to approximately 50 percent. This trend will continue until fall precipitation in September.

Conclusion of Fuels The current weighted mean level of fuel loading, at 8.53 T/A, in the Inyan Kara Mountain project area falls outside the established range of four to eight tons per acre. This indicates that the project area is moving away from the Desired Future Condition A WFU fire can maintain or reduce fuel loading within the project area, enhancing diversity and moving Inyan Kara Mountain towards its Desired Future Condition. In fuel model 2, a fire can reduce the loading by 30 to 50 percent depending on the season of occurrence. This action would create the disturbance needed to aid in the start of the return of the Desired Future Condition. Likewise, a fire in fuel models 8, 9, and 10 can reduce loading from 17 to 49 percent.

Economics Analysis

Alternative A - Suppression costs

It is impossible to predict or produce a model to represent future wild fire occurrences in the Inyan Kara project area. Examination of past events can give assumptions on what may provide a basis for predicting future events. It is safe to assume that fire starts will continue to occur in the future.

Suppression costs obtained for the Black Hills National Forest National Fire Management Analysis System (NFMAS) show Class A, B, C total fire cost per acre of $5727 for Fire Management Analysis Zone 4 (FMZ 4). The mean suppression total cost per acre for Inyan Kara fires differs with $8592 from 1985 to 1999. The costs for Inyan Kara Mountain are elevated due to topography, control techniques, and cultural resource significance. For comparison, this cost per acre was derived from the actual cost compounded to 1997. See Table 6. A compounding formula for future values was used. (Rideout 1995)

Figure 1, Compounding Formula

Fc = p(1+I)n Where: or Fc=p(1+I)-n Fc = Future cost p = Present cost I = Interest rate (standard .04) n = Number of years Example Fc = 5727(1 +.04)3 Fc = 6442.10

Table 6, 1997 Cost Per Acre

Class FMZ 4 Inyan Kara A 3593 3955 B 1326 3946 C 808 691

A linear regression calculation was performed on both FMAZ 4 and Inyan Kara Mountain cost per acre basis. The result of this calculation is a coefficient of correlation of 0.646. This value in its relationship to 1 will determine whether the FMAZ 4 cost per acre can be used to predict the cost per acre of Inyan Kara Mountain. Since the correlation of coefficient has a marginal fit at 0.646, the actual Inyan Kara costs have been used for this analysis.

An extensive review of the NFMAS Analysis on the pre-fire benefits and Net Value Change (NVC) was performed. The result of this search found that due to the size restrictions and guidelines of the project area pre-fire benefits and NVC is minimal. Therefore benefit costs and NVC are not included in the analysis. This is not to say that a low intensity fire does not provide benefits to the resource. Additional ecosystem benefits of allowing fire to return to the Inyan Kara project area would be creating a vegetation mosaic with better variation (age and Size class), diversity of plant species and wildlife habitat as defined in the DFC.

This cost per acre will be projected for a specified time period: 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020. Table 9, shows the cost of suppression per acre for the individual time periods. Figure 2 is a graph that also depicts this information.

Table 9, Projected Suppression Cost Per Acre (Alt. A) Size Class 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

A $4,449 $5,413 $6,585 $8,012 $9,748

B $4,439 $5,400 $6,570 $7,994 $9,725

C $778 $946 $1,151 $1,400 $1,704

Figure 2

Suppression Cost Per Acre yrs. 2000 - 2020

$10,500 $9,750 $9,000 $8,250 $7,500 2000 $6,750 2005 $6,000 2010 $5,250 $4,500 2015 $3,750 2020 $3,000 $2,250 $1,500 $750 $0 A B C Size Class

Alternative B - Cost of Wildland Fire Use program

The Black Hills National Forest does not have a Wildland Fire Use program (WFU) in place at this time. In evaluating other National Forest and National Park Service WFU programs the cost per acre ranged from $.50 per acre to $600 per acre. These costs were gathered in Wilderness areas of several thousand acres where size and private land withholdings are not a significant factor. The landscape of the Inyan Kara project area does not fit these criteria. As stated earlier in this paper the project is surrounded by private land and is small in comparison to other WFU areas. It has to be recognized that using other cost per acre will not match this project area due to the stated differences. However, this is not to say that a WFU program cannot be implemented in a small area like Inyan Kara.

Under this economic analysis, implementing a WFU is the focal point. The daily costs of assigned personnel were calculated using the previously stated assumptions and the U.S. Office of Personnel Management General Schedule. The total daily cost was divided by the average acres per size class to determine a cost per acre. Table 10, summarizes the cost of monitoring a WFU. Figure 3 also depicts the information graphically.

Table 10, Projected Monitoring Cost Per Acre (Alt. B) Size Class 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

A $1,179 $1,434 $1,745 $2,123 $2,583

B $765 $931 $1,132 $1,378 $1,676

C $319 $388 $472 $575 $699

Figure 3

Monitoring Cost Per Acre yrs. 2000 - 2020

$2,800 $2,600 $2,400 $2,200 $2,000 2000 $1,800 2005 $1,600 2010 $1,400 2015 $1,200 $1,000 2020 $800 $600 $400 $200 $0 A B C Size Class

Conclusions of Economic Analysis

The following table is a compilation of Alternative A and Alternative B for year 2000 to show a summary of cost per acre.

Table 11, 2000 Analysis Summary CLASS ALTERNATIVE ALTERNATIVE A B SAVINGS A $4,449 $1,179 $3,270 B $4,439 $765 $3,674 C $778 $319 $459

The additional selected years also indicated similar results. These costs reflect the locale of the area. A WFU program has numerous variables that affect the timeframes and number of personnel monitoring a fire, altering cost per acre. It is recommended that all costs and time be tracked carefully for fives years, then a re-analysis of the program be performed.

Conclusion of Alternatives

Based on the evaluation of the fuel loading and cost per acre comparison, this report recommends Alternative B, with allowing for a Wildland Fire Use to be implemented in the Inyan Kara project Area. This alternative will aid in maintaining or reducing fuel loads, reducing cost of suppression over time, and aid in the start of returning Inyan Kara Mountain to a Desired Future Condition.

Definitions

Appropriate Management Response – A response strategy to a wildland fire that is based upon pre-approved parameters determined by the location of a wildland fire, the fire use objectives for the area, the current and expected fire weather/behavior, suppression resource demands and political considerations.

Desired Future Condition (DFC) – A portrayal of the land or resource conditions that are expected to result if goals and objectives are fully achieved.

Ecosystem – A unit of land that supports certain plant and animal communities along with physical features associated with that land.

Energy Release Component (ERC) – A National Fire Danger Rating System term used by fire managers to assess the potential fire behavior in forest fuels. Heat per unit area in a flaming front.

Escaped Wildland Fire – A Wildland fire which has exceeded initial attack suppression actions.

Fire Area Simulator (Farsite) – A software program that simulates the spread and behavior of fires under conditions of heterogeneous terrain, fuels and weather.

Fire season – The time of year during which fires are likely to occur, spread and do sufficient damage to warrant fire control. In Wyoming, the season has been defined as June 1 – September 15.

Fire Effects – Refers to what influences a fire has on an area, changes in vegetation, animal life and other landscape factors.

Fire Intensity – How hot a fire burns, as indicated by the length of the flames.

Fireline – A line scraped or dug, by hand or mechanically in the soil, to break up fuels.

Fire perimeter – The outer edge of the fire.

Fire Return Interval – The number of years between two successive fires documented in a designated area.

Fire season – The time of year during which fires are likely to occur, spread and d sufficient damage to warrant fire control. In Wyoming, the season has been defined as June 1 – September 15.

Fire severity – a term used to describe how damaging a fire is to a certain site. 22

Fuel type – The type of forest vegetation in which a fire is burning.

Monitoring – The process that a wildland fire and it’s effects are determined to be within pre-established fire use parameters. Monitoring involves the observation and documentation of weather and fire behavior elements.

Maximum Management Area (MMA) – A technical term associated with wildland fire use plan. This is a perimeter drawn around a fire area by fire managers to show the total area a fire can influence before effects and impacts could be determined negative. This is not a predication of how large a fire might become. If fire approaches the pre-determined line, mangers will look at action to be taken.

Natural Ignition – A fire ignited by a natural event such as lightning.

Prescription – Specified environmental conditions (e.g. fuel moisture, wind, temperature, relative humidity, etc.) in which a management ignited fire or a natural fire is allowed to burn.

Suppression – A management action intended to extinguish a fire or alter its direction of spread.

SASEM – A computer dispersion model to predict ground level particulates and visibility impacts from a single source.

Wildland Fire – An unscheduled ignition in wildland fuels which is to be promptly controlled in an appropriate manner.

Wildland Fire Situation Analysis (WFSA) – A document that is prepared whenever a wildland fire has exceeded, or has the potential to exceed pre-planned fire use parameters. The WFSA also provides guidelines for incident managers so as to minimize fire impacts.

Wildland Fire Use(WFU) – An unscheduled, non-human caused ignition in wildland fuels, which has been deemed appropriate for obtaining pre-planned fire use objectives. All Wildland Fire Use projects must have fire behavior parameters established within a pre-approved fire use plan prior to ignition.

Literature Cited

Agee, James K. 1993. Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest Forest. Island Press. Washington D.C.

Elwonger, W.G. 1983. Soil Survey of Crook County, Wyoming. USDA Soil Conservation Service and Forest Service in cooperation with the Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station.

Fisher, R. F.; Jenkins, M. J. 1986. Fire and the Prairie-forest Mosaic of Devils Tower National Monument. The American Midland Naturalist. 117: 250-257.

Hassrick, Royal B., 1964. The Sioux. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.

Rideout, Douglas B., Principles of Forest and Environmental Economics. January 1997.

Rothermel, R.C., 1983.How to Predict the Spread and Intensity of Forest and Range Fires, GTR- INT-143. Ogden, Utah. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.

References

Agee, James K. 1993. Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest Forest. Island Press. Washington D.C.

Anderson, Hal E. 1982. Aids to Determining Fuel Models for Estimating Fire Behavior. USDA Forest Service. GTR INT-122. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. Ogden, UT.

Bailey, Andy. Fire Weather Meterologists, National Weathe Service, 2000 (summarized conversations regarding summer storm patterns in Inyan Kara area) Rapid City, SD.

Black Hills National Forest n.d.A Final Environmental Impact Statement. Black Hills National Forest, Custer, SD. n.d.B Land and Resource Management Plan. Black Hills National Forest, Custer, SD.

Bock, Jane H.; Bock Carl E. 1983. Effects of Fires on Woody Vegetation in the Pine-grassland Ecotone of the Southern Black Hills. The American Midland Naturalist.

Brown, Peter M.; Sieg, Carolyn Hull. 1996. Fire History in Interior Ponderosa Pine Communities of the Black Hills, South Dakota, USA. International Journal of Wild land Fire. 6(3): 97-105.

Elwonger, W.G. 1983. Soil Survey of Crook County, Wyoming. USDA Soil Conservation Service and Forest Service in cooperation with the Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station.

Fisher, R. F.; Jenkins, M. J. 1986. Fire and the Prairie-forest Mosaic of Devils Tower National Monument. The American Midland Naturalist. 117: 250-257.

Froiland, Sven G., 1978. Natural History of the Black Hills. Center fro Western Studies, Augustana College, Sioux Falls, SD.

Hassrick, Royal B., 1964. The Sioux. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.

Johnston, June. Lead Dispatcher, Custer Coordination Center, Black Hills NF 2000, Rocky Mountain Region, USDA Forest Service.

Mauch, Dennis. Bearlodge Fuels Specialist, Black Hills NF 2000 (summarized conversations of unique characteristics on Inyan Kara), Rocky Mountain Region, USDA Forest Service.

Rideout, Douglas B., Principles of Forest and Environmental Economics. January 1997.

Roesler, Galen. Fire Behavior Analyst and Silviculturist, Black Hills NF 2000, Rocky Mountain Region, USDA Forest Service.

Sieg, Carolyn Hull; Severson Keith E. 1996.Managing Habitats for White-tailed Deer: Black hills and Bear Lodge Mountains of South Dakota and Wyoming. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report RM-GTR-274. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.

Turchen, Lesta V.; McLaird, James D. 1975. The Black Hills Expedition of 1875. Dakota Wesleyan University Press. 1975.

APPENDICIES

A 1: National Register of Historic Places Map

A 2: Inyan Kara Historical Fires Map

A 3: Percentile Weather Calculations

A 4: BEHAVE run example

A 5: Fuel Model Map

A 6: FOFEM run example