Appendix A: Selected Samoan Titles and Titleholders

(Sometimes preceded by ‘the’ unless linked to a personal name)

Afamasaga An important title in the district of A’ana, on the western side of . Notably held by Afamasaga Maua (from c. 1900 to 1918) and then his younger brother, Afamasaga Toleafoa Lagolago (from 1919 to 1933) One of the four paramount titles in Samoan genealogy, notably held by Malietoa Laupepa (from 1879 to 1898) and Malietoa Tanumafili I (from 1898 to 1939) Mata’afa One of the four paramount titles in Samoan genealogy held most notably by Mata’afa Iosefo from at least the early 1880s until his death in 1912 Mauga The High Chief of Bay in ’s Eastern District (American ). Notably held by Mauga Moi Moi (from c. 1900 to 1934) and, after a period of indeterminacy, Mauga Sialega thereafter. The Mauga titleholder generally held the District Governorship of the Eastern District under US Naval rule Taisi An important title in the Tupua lineage, notably held by Ta’isi O.F. Nelson, a prominent figure in both Samoan and papalagi circles, from around 1918 until his death in 1944 Tamasese One of the four paramount titles in Samoan genealogy, held most notably by Titimaea (from c. 1870 to 1891), Tupua Tamasese Lealofi I (from 1891 to 1915) and Tupua Tamasese Lealofi III (from 1918 to 1929) Toleafoa Like Afamasaga, an important title in the district of A’ana, on the western side of Upolu. Notably held by Toleafoa Lagolago (from c. 1910 to 1933) Tufele The High Chief of Fitiuta on eastern Ta’u Island in the Manu’a group (). Notably held by Tufele Fa’atoia (from c. 1925)

© The Author(s) 2019 261 B. Sacks, , Kirikiti and Imperialism in Samoa, 1879–1939, Palgrave Studies in Sport and Politics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27268-5 262 APPENDIX A: SELECTED SAMOAN TITLES AND TITLEHOLDERS

Tuitele The High Chief of Fofo ma Itulagi County in Tutuila’s Western District (American Samoa). Notably held by Tuitele Salatielu (from around c. 1915 to c. 1933), who was also a District Governor under the US Naval Administration  Appendix B: Select Foreign Officials in Samoa

American, British and German officials, c. 1879–1899

Brandeis, Eugen Premier in the German-backed Tamasese government of 1887–1888 Churchward, Acting British Consul, Mar 1882–Nov 1885 William B. Cusack-Smith, British Consul, May 1890–Jan 1895; Sep 1895–Mar 1898 T.B. Dawson, Thomas American Consul, 1878–c. 1882 M. Graves, John H. British Consul, Jul 1879–Mar 1882 Mahaffy, Arthur British official who held various positions in during the 1890s and 1900s. He visited Samoa during the mid-1890s Sewall, Harold American Consul, 1887–1890; 1891–1892 Stuebel, Oskar German Consul, 1883–1887; 1889–1891 Weber, Theodore Long-term manager of the Hamburg firm Godeffroy’s (later the DHPG) and German Consul 1870–1872; 1875–1880 Woodford, Acting British Consul, Jan–Sep 1895, later Resident Commissioner Charles M. of the British (1896–1915)

Officials in , 1900–1914

Schnee, Chief Justice, 1900–1901; Deputy Governor, 1900–1904 Heinrich Schultz, Erich Chief Justice, 1901–?; Deputy Governor, 1904–1911; Governor, 1911–1914

© The Author(s) 2019 263 B. Sacks, Cricket, Kirikiti and Imperialism in Samoa, 1879–1939, Palgrave Studies in Sport and Politics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27268-5 264 APPENDIX B: SELECT FOREIGN OFFICIALS IN SAMOA

Officials in German Samoa, 1900–1914

Solf, Wilhelm Governor, 1900–1911 (previously council chairman in provisional government of , 1899–1900)

Officials in US Naval Station Tutuila (later American Samoa), 1900–1939

Bryan, Henry F. Governor, Mar 1925–Sep 1927 Byington, Jr., M.B. Attorney General, c. 1936–c. 1937 Crose, William M. Governor, Nov 1910–Mar 1913 Evans, Waldo A. Governor, Nov 1920–Mar 1922 Graham, Stephen V. Governor, Sep 1927–Aug 1929 Gurr, Edwin W. Secretary of Native Affairs, 1900–1908 Hall, Sydney D. Secretary of Native Affairs, 1921–c. 1924 Lincoln, Gatewood S. Governor, Aug 1929–Mar 1931; Jul 1931–May 1932 Moore, Charles B.T. Governor, Jan 1905–May 1908 Poyer, John M. Governor, Mar 1915–Jun 1919 Sailor, H.A. Attorney General, c. 1935–c. 1936 Sebree, Uriel Commandant, Nov 1901–Dec 1902 Stearns, Clark D. Governor, Jul 1913–Oct 1914 Stronach, Alexander Secretary of Native Affairs, c. 1913–1918 Tilley, Benjamin F. Commandant, Feb 1900–Nov 1901 Underwood, Edmund B. Commandant/Governor, May 1903–Jan 1905

Officials in occupied German Samoa (1914–1920) and Western Samoa (1920–1939)

Allen, Stephen S. Administrator, May 1928–Apr 1931 Hart, Herbert E. Administrator, Apr 1931–Jul 1935 Loftus Tottenham, Provost Marshall of Occupying Force, Judge in Department of Arthur G. Native Affairs (1914–1918) Logan, Robert Administrator, Aug 1914–Jan 1919 Richardson, George S. Administrator, Mar 1923–Apr 1928 Tate, Robert W. Administrator, Jan 1919–Mar 1923 Turnbull, Alfred C. Administrator, Jul 1935–1946 Glossary

‘afakasi A Samoan transliteration of the English ‘half-caste’, but not nec- essarily with the same pejorative connotations. ‘aiga A family, referring to extended family, descent group and kinship as well as immediate family. aigofie A competitive fight between contestants using wooden clubs. aualuma A group comprising all the girls and women of the village (as distinct from those who ‘marry into’ the village). fa’a Samoa Literally ‘in the way of the ’, the term denotes any activity done according to Samoan custom and tradition. faʻaʻai A ‘food fine’ paid by the loser of a game; more generally, the forced contributions of food given by the vanquished to the victorious party in a conflict. fa’afafine Literally ‘in the way of a woman’, someone who is male at birth but who takes on both male and overtly female gender traits. fa’amasino A judge or consul; in the context of kirikiti, an umpire. faiaoga In the context of kirikiti, a coach or leader of the team who nota- bly leads chanting and dancing in the field. faife’au A pastor or minister in a church. faipule Literally ‘to have authority’, the name given to a class of Samoan officials under various colonial governments. fale An inhabited house, typically of Samoan design and construction.

© The Author(s) 2019 265 B. Sacks, Cricket, Kirikiti and Imperialism in Samoa, 1879–1939, Palgrave Studies in Sport and Politics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27268-5 266 GLOSSARY A Samoan longboat—usually around eighty feet long and carry- ing fifty or so oarsmen—used for racing. The design was originally adapted from European rowing boats. feagaiga A covenant or sacred bond between two parties, often used to describe the relationship between brother and sister. fitafita (fita) Literally ‘very courageous’, the Fitafita Guard is a special unit the US Navy comprising Samoan men. Under American adminis- tration they performed a series of policing and defence roles. fono The governing council of a village comprising its constituent matai. fuaiala One division of a single village. ‘ie toga Usually translated as ‘fine mats’ in English. They are not truly ‘mats’, however, but rather finely plaited cloth of bleached fibres ­bordered with red feathers. They have ceremonial significance and were often given as gifts by travelling parties and at weddings. (also ‘ava) A narcotic drink prepared from the roots of the ‘ava plant (piper methisticum). In Samoa, the drink is reserved for ceremonial occasions and important guests. kirikiti The Samoan transliteration of cricket, used here to delineate between cricket fa’a Samoa and the English form of the game. lape To sit and wish bad luck to an opposing party in the game of tagati’a. lotu A praying system or religion, later synonymous with ‘church’. malae The central gathering place of a village; an open space in front of the main fale of the village where social gatherings—including sports— take place. malaga The act of visiting; a travelling party. malo The conquering party in a conflict; a government. matai The head of an extended family (‘aiga) who holds a title bestowed by the ‘aiga. Their responsibilities include overseeing the family’s land and property. Mau Literally ‘to be firm’ or to hold a firm opinion; usually refers to the Mau a Pule movement against German rule and—more frequently— the anti-colonial O le that challenged the American and particularly administrations in the 1920s and 1930s. nu’u The basic political unit in Samoan life, comprising members of dif- ferent ‘aiga living in proximity to each other; a village. papalagi A foreigner, technically any non-Samoan person but usually describing someone of European or ‘white’ heritage. Equivalent of the term pākeha in Aotearoa/New Zealand. pate A wooden bat in kirikiti. Glossary 267 polo A ball, in kirikiti made from congealed raw rubber. poula A ‘night dance’, particularly the dancing that took place after the formal ceremonies that accompanied the arrival of a malaga party. It served as a means for unmarried men and women from different vil- lages to meet each other. prohibited it because of its sexual content. pulenu’u Literally ‘village authority’, an appointed official under various colonial administrations who was the colonial administration’s repre- sentative in the village; a ‘village mayor’. seuga lupe A customary Samoan pastime, typically practised by matai, in which pigeons were hunted using decoy birds and nets. Entire nu’u could be mobilised as part of the festivities. siva A dance accompanied by song, or less frequently the song itself. tagati’a A customary Samoan game in which participants threw a wooden ‘stick’ (the ti’a) and glanced it off a smooth ramp to impart maximum distance. It was an important antecedent to kirikiti. tavasaga An especially large tagati’a match played between two villages. tologa A customary Samoan game in which spears are thrown at a mark. tulafale A particular class of matai, often translated as ‘talking chief’ or ‘orator’. va Literally ‘the space in between’, but the term signifies ‘social space’ rather than emptiness; it is not a space that separates but rather space that relates two entities or individuals. References

Private Papers, Unpublished Manuscripts and Diaries

Alexander Turnbull Library (Wellington, New Zealand) Anon., ‘A Samoan cricket match’, 19. MS-Papers-2702. Allen, Stephen Shepherd (Sir), Notes on Samoa, 1882–1964, MS-Papers-1499. Bell Family: Papers, MS-Group-059. Cusack-Smith, Thomas Berry (Sir), 1859–1929: Papers, MS-Group-0066. Grattan, Frederick James Henry, 1909–1983: Papers relating to his government service in Western Samoa, MS-Group-0091. Tate, Robert Ward, 1864–1933: Papers, MS-Papers-0264.

L. Tom Perry Special Collections Brigham Young University (Salt Lake City, USA) Abinadi Olsen diary, MSS 1454, MMD, digital version available at http:// cdm15999.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/MMD/id/10051 (accessed 22 March 2018). Earl Stanley Paul diary, MSS 1797, MMD, digital version available at http:// contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/MMD/id/7950 (accessed 23 March 2018).

© The Author(s) 2019 269 B. Sacks, Cricket, Kirikiti and Imperialism in Samoa, 1879–1939, Palgrave Studies in Sport and Politics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27268-5 270 REFERENCES

Edwin Hezekiah Smart diary, 1898 (vol. 3), MSS SC 1608, MMD, digital version available at http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/MMD/ id/3678 (accessed 25 March 2018). Jennie Hill Leavitt Smith diary, MSS 2260, MMD, digital version available at http://cdm15999.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/MMD/ id/10608 (accessed 24 March 2018). Jesse J. Bennett diary, MSS 1406, MMD, digital version available at http://con- tentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/MMD/id/11241 (accessed 25 March 2018). Joseph Hatten Carpenter diary, MSS 349, MMD, digital version available at http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/MMD/id/9738 (accessed 25 February 2018).

Mitchell Library (Sydney, ) Papers concerning the , 1887–1935, MSS 39 [microfilm].

Pacific Manuscripts Bureau (Canberra, Australia) Pacific Manuscripts Bureau (PMB) 479: Western Samoa: English Summaries of Papers Relating to the German Administration, 1900–1914 [microfilm]. PMB 717: Merrill, Joseph H.—Journals, 1890–1903 [microfilm]. PMB 1198: Samoa Journal [Ernest George Neil], 1902–1918 [microfilm]. PMB 1278: LMS Samoan District Administrative Records, 1851–1973 [microfilm]. PMB 1290: C.M. Woodford (1852–1927), Papers on the Solomon Islands and other Pacific Islands, 1872–1927 [microfilm].

Official Records

National Archives and Records Administration— Pacific (NARA), San Bruno RG 284: Records of the Government of American Samoa, 1900–1966. RG 313: Records of Naval Operating Forces, 1849–1997. T1182: Records of the Government of American Samoa, 1900–1958 [microfilm]. REFERENCES 271

National Archives of New Zealand (ANZ), Wellington AGCA: Archives of the German Colonial Administration—Samoa. BMO: British Military Occupation of Samoa, 1914–1920. IT: Department of Island Territories.

Official and Semi-Official Publications Dalton, R.W., Trade of Western Samoa and the Tongan Islands, report prepared for the House of Commons (London: HM Stationery Office, 1919). Darden, T.F., Historical Sketch of the Naval Administration of the Government of American Samoa: April 17, 1900–July 1, 1951, report prepared for Department of the Navy (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1951). Kelly, John L., The South Sea Islands: possibilities of trade with New Zealand, report to the Auckland Chamber of Commerce (Auckland: H. Brett, 1885). , Mandate for German Samoa (Geneva: Imprimerie Kundig, 1920). New Zealand Ministry of External Affairs, Mandated Territory of Western Samoa (sixth report of the Government of New Zealand on the administration of, for the year ended the 21st March, 1926), report prepared for the League of Nations General Assembly (Wellington: Government Publisher, 1926). New Zealand Ministry of External Affairs, Mandated territory of Western Samoa (report of visit by W. Nosworthy, Minister of External Affairs to), report prepared for the League of Nations General Assembly (Wellington: Government Publisher, 1927). Noble, A.M., Codification of the regulations and orders for the government of American Samoa, report prepared by order of and supervision of W. Evans, Governor of American Samoa, and revised by succeeding governors to October 1930 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1931). Skerrett, Charles Perrin and Charles Edward MacCormick, Report of Royal Commission Concerning the Administration of Western Samoa, report prepared for New Zealand Royal Commission on Western Samoa (Wellington: Government Publisher, 1928). Tongan Premier’s Office, Government Blue Book (Tonga: Tongan Government, 1883). House of Commons, Correspondence respecting the affairs of Samoa, 1885–89, Command Papers (C. 5907), February 1890 (London: HM Stationery Office, 1889). 272 References

United Kingdom House of Commons, Further correspondence respecting the affairs of Samoa, Command Papers (C. 6973), May 1893 (London: HM Stationery Office, 1893). United States Congress, American Samoa Hearings before the commission appointed by the President of the United States in accordance with Public resolution no. 89, 70th Congress (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1931). United States Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1890). United States Department of State, Claims of American citizens, Apia, in the (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913).

Newspapers

Samoa Pull Thro’ (Apia, 1914–1915) Samoa Herald (Apia, 1930–1936) Samoa Times (Apia, 1915–1930) Samoa Times and South Sea Advertiser (Apia, 1888–1896) Samoa Times and South Sea Gazette (Apia, 1877–1881) Samoa Weekly Herald (Apia, 1888–1900) Samoanische Zeitung (Apia, 1900–1915)

New Zealand Auckland Evening Star (Auckland) Auckland Star (Auckland) (Wellington) Evening Post (Wellington) Free Lance (Wellington) Marlborough Express (Blenheim) New Zealand Herald (Auckland) New Zealand Truth (Wellington) Northern Advocate (Whangerei) Press (Christchurch) Star (Christchurch) Sun (Christchurch) References 273

Australia Age (Melbourne) Argus (Melbourne) Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney) Barrier Miner (Broken Hill, NSW) Courier Mail (Brisbane) Daily Mercury (Mackay, QLD) Goulburn Herald and County of Argyle Advertiser (Goulburn, NSW) Leader (Melbourne) Mercury (Hobart) News (Adelaide) Referee (Sydney) Sydney Mail (Sydney) West Australian (Perth)

United Kingdom Dundee Courier (Dundee) Times (London) Western Daily Press (Bristol)

United States Abbeville Press and Banner (Abbeville, S.C.) Boston Daily Globe (Boston) Morning Call (San Francisco) New York Times (New York) Pacific Commercial Advertiser () San Francisco Call (San Francisco) Washington Post (Washington, D.C.)

Magazine and General Periodical Articles Anon., ‘Individual and Family Life in Samoa’, Evangelical Magazine and Chronicle 30:2 (Sept 1852), pp. 563–565. Anon., ‘The Game of Cricket’, Sporting Review (Oct 1865), pp. 291–296. Anon., ‘A Deputation to Samoa’, Chronicle of the London Missionary Society (April 1888), pp. 136–139. Anon., ‘From Month to Month—South Seas’, Chronicle of the London Missionary Society (Feb 1897), p. 48. 274 REFERENCES

Anon., ‘New Methods of Work—Apia, Samoa’, Chronicle of the London Missionary Society (May 1897), pp. 112–113. Churchill, Llewella Pierce, ‘Sports of the Samoans’, Outing 33:6 (March 1899), pp. 562–568. Cousins, George, ‘The Past and Present of Samoa’, The Sunday at home: a family magazine for Sabbath reading 1835 (29 June 1889), pp. 407–411. Delaney, Richard E., ‘Among the South Sea Islanders’, Overland Monthly and Out West Magazine 72:1 (July 1918), pp. 11–25. Freeman, Lewis R., ‘Cricket in Samoa’, The Mid-Pacific Magazine 23:4 (April 1922), pp. 49–54. Gordon-Cumming, C.F., ‘A Glimpse at Samoa’, Wesleyan-Methodist Magazine 105 (July 1882), pp. 534–543. Irwin, George, ‘Samoan Odyssey—1’, Blackwood’s Magazine 293 (March 1963), pp. 225–226. “Logwood”, ‘Cricket in Samoa’, The Haverfordian 22:7 (Dec 1900), pp. 111–116. Polworth, Hugh M., ‘Church Life in the South Seas’, Mid-Pacific Magazine 3:4 (April 1912), pp. 363–370. Powell, H.A., ‘Cricket in Kiriwina’, The Listener 48:1227 (4 Sept 1952), pp. 384–385. Quinn, Lorena MacIntyre, ‘America’s South Sea Soldiers’, National Geographic 36:3 (Sept 1919), pp. 267–274. Stronach, Alexander, ‘The White Judge in Tutuila’, : the American Magazine on the Orient 21:4 (April 1921), pp. 357–380. Vine, Alfred H., ‘Holidays or Idle Days’, Wesleyan-Methodist Magazine 123 (Aug 1900), pp. 626–628. Wagstaff, Melvin G., ‘Messages from the Missions—Playing Ball’, Improvement Era 27 (March 1924), pp. 456–457. Whitmee, S.J., ‘A Missionary’s Work in Samoa’, The Congregationalist 8 (Aug 1878), pp. 474–486. Violette, P.L., ‘Notes d’un missionnaire sur l’archipel de Samoa (Océanie cen- trale)’, Les Missions Catholiques 3:101 (27 May 1870), pp. 174–176. Violette, P.L., ‘Notes d’un missionnaire sur l’archipel de Samoa (Océanie cen- trale)’, Les Missions Catholiques 3:106 (1 July 1870), pp. 215–216.

Books Angas, George French, : a popular description of the physical features, inhabitants, natural history, and productions of the Islands of the Pacific (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1866). Anon., Who’s Who 1914 (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1914). REFERENCES 275

Anon., The Cyclopedia of Samoa, Tonga, Tahiti, and the (Papakura: R. McMillan, 1983), originally published 1907. Appadurai, Arjun, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996). Bailey, Peter, Leisure and Class in Victorian : Rational Recreation and the Contest for Control, 1830–1885 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978). Baker, William J., Playing with God: Religion and Modern Sport (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007). Balme, Christopher, Pacific Performances: Theatricality and Cross-Cultural Encounter in the South Seas (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007). Barradale, V.A., Pearls of the Pacific: Being Sketches of Missionary Life and Work in Samoa and Other Islands in the South Seas (London: London Missionary Society, 1907). Bartlett, Reginald, A man like Bati: the Rev. Reginald Bartlett, edited by T. Wemyss Reid (London: Independent Press, 1960). Barty-King, Hugh, Quilt Winders and Pod Shavers: The History of Cricket Bat and Ball Manufacture (London: Macdonald and Jane’s, 1979). Baucom, Ian, Out of Place: Englishness, Empire, and the Locations of Identity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999). Bebbington, David W., Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s (London: Routledge, 1989). Bhabha, Homi, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994). Birley, Derek, A Social History of English Cricket (London: Aurum, 1999). Birley, Derek, The Willow Wand—Some Cricket Myths Explored (London: Aurum Press, 2000). Blaine, Delabere P., An encyclopaedia of rural sports: or a complete account, histori- cal, practical, and descriptive, of hunting, shooting, fishing, racing, and other field sports and athletic amusements of the present day (London: Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1840). Booth, Bradford A. and Ernest Mehew (eds.), The letters of , vol. 8 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995). Brantlinger, Patrick, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830– 1914 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988). Brewer, Karl W., Armed with the Spirit: Missionary Experiences in Samoa (Provo, Utah: Young House, 1975). Brewster, Adolph Brewster, The Hill Tribes of (London: Seeley, 1922). Brown, George, Melanesians and : their life-histories described and com- pared (London: Macmillan and Co., 1910). Campbell, I.C., A History of the Pacific Islands (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). Cashman, Richard, Patrons, Players and the Crowd: The Phenomenon of Indian Cricket (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1980). 276 REFERENCES

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Lectures, Webpages and Audiovisual Materials Hazelman, John, ‘Brief History of Marist Brothers Primary School Mulivai’, Marist Brothers Old Pupils Association, http://www.maristoldpupils.ws/brief- history-of-marist-brothers-primary-school-mulivai.html (accessed 7 March 2019). Leach, Jerry W., and Kildea, Gary, Trobriand Cricket: An Ingenious Response to Colonialism [video recording] (Canberra: Ronin Films, 1976). Marquand, James, Pacific Warriors [video recording] (Brighton: Three Wolves, 2015). Munro, Doug, ‘Logan, Robert’, in the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography: Te Ara—the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/ biographies/3l12/logan-robert (accessed 12 November 2018). Officer, Lawrence H. and Samuel H. Williamson, ‘Purchasing Power of British Pounds from 1270 to Present’, MeasuringWorth, https://www.measuring- worth.com/ppoweruk/ (accessed 11 April 2019). Vainuku, Tony and Cohn, Erika, In Football We Trust [video recording] (IFWT Productions, 2015). Index1

A Afamasaga Sialega, 212 A’ana District, 56, 146, 222 ‘Aiga, 53, 54, 191 Accommodation (strategy), 191–192, See also Kinship 257 Aigofie, 58 absence of, 214 Aitutaki, 34, 129 before partition, 194–198, 200–201 Alcohol, 113, 132, 167, 203 under American rule, 208–209, Aleipata, 99, 249n47 211–213 Allen, Stephen Shepherd, 112, 113, under German rule, 202, 204–206 116, 173, 235, 241 under New Zealand rule, 223, Allen, William, 169 225–226, 232, 233, 235–238 American administration, 7, 11, Acculturation, 22, 24, 27, 28, 30 103–110, 207, 209 ‘Afakasi, 13, 155–157, 165–174, 256 response of Samoans to, 207–214 and cricket, 167–168, 170–171 American Civil War, effects in Samoa, European status of, 167–171 158 and kirikiti, 168, 171–174 American football, 7–9, 41–42, 177, 209 before partition, 167–169 American officials, 89–90, 94, 95, under American rule, 169 103–110, 168, 195, 235 under German rule, 169–170 attitudes towards kirikiti, 90, under New Zealand rule, 170–173 106–110 use of the term, 17n33, 180n2 attitudes towards team sports, 106, Afamasaga Maua, 222, 227–230 159

1 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes.

© The Author(s) 2019 293 B. Sacks, Cricket, Kirikiti and Imperialism in Samoa, 1879–1939, Palgrave Studies in Sport and Politics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27268-5 294 INDEX

America, United States of Bartlett, Rev. Reginald, 145, 147 interests in Samoa, 94, 103–104, Baseball, 106, 135, 169, 175, 177, 157, 162, 174, 193 209 naval personnel and sport, 175, 177 Basketball, 106 role in sporting diffusion, 22, 24 , 64–65 Amherst, Josceline, 39 Belio, Kimo, 130 Aoloau, 90 Berlin Apia Conference, 193, 194, 200 European settlement and Treaty of, 11, 181n18 community, 10, 11, 90–91, Bellwald, Jean Edouard, 144 156–158, 166–167, 231 Betham, Montgomery, Jr., 221 protest in, 242–243 Billiards, 167, 174, 178 sporting life, 28–29, 37, 52, 94–95, Black Saturday, 173, 242 111–112, 155, 158–159, Blackwell, E. M., 210 162–164, 177, 196, 225–226 Blake, Rev. Edgar Brien, 68, 145 Apia Cricket Club, 28, 29, 96, 112, Bledisloe, Lord, 234 159, 162, 167, 171, 178, 179, Boating, 170, 203 189, 221, 222, 226, 230 Borabora, 129 Apia Park, 179 Borderlands, 30, 31 Apia , 112 Boundaries, 66 Apia Sporting Club, 159 Bowling, 63–65 Apia Sports Club, 98, 162, 169, 170, Bowling alleys, 174 196, 203 Bowls, 111, 177, 178, 209 , 170 Boxing Day Sports, 94, 159 Appadurai, Arjun, 23, 26, 27 Boys Brigade, 133, 147 Atenasio, 146 Boy Scouts, 112, 134 Athleticism, 4 Brandeis, Eugen, 93, 161, 194, 195, Athletics, 112–113, 117, 133, 162, 199, 200 177 Brewer, Karl W., 61 Aua, 109 Bricolage, 30, 31 Aualuma, 62, 82n62 Britain Australasian Methodist Missionary expatriate community in Samoa, 29, Society, 132 157–159, 162 Australia, 5, 24, 83n71, 84n82, interests in Samoa, 11, 94, 174, 151n29, 258 193, 255 Australian Methodists, 130, 132 limits of influence in Samoa, 37–39, 41 military personnel and sport, B 174–175, 180 Bangladesh, 5 role in sporting diffusion, 22–23 Barff, Charles, 34, 129 sporting culture in Samoa, 95, 98, Barradale, Victor, 142, 145 111 INDEX 295

British Club, 162 attitudes towards kirikiti, 128, 129, British Empire, 2, 4, 5, 22 138–148, 256 British officials, 27, 51, 96, 196, 197 See also Catholic missionaries; Latter attitudes towards kirikiti, 96–97 Day Saints (LDS); London Brown, Rev. George, 61, 137 Missionary Society (LMS); Bryan, Henry F., 89, 90, 107 Methodist Church; Seventh Byington, M. B., 212 Day Adventists Church building, 35, 90, 105, 200 Churchward, William Brown, 28, C 51–53, 59, 73, 95, 96, 171, 199, Cacao, 163 258 Cakobau, Ratu Edward Tuigi Class, 24, 66, 70 Tuivanuavou, 25 Clothing, 32, 34 Canada, 24, 26 Clowning, 66, 67, 69 Captains, 63, 66, 68–69, 74, 75 Coe family, 167, 169 , 5, 24, 27, 78, 84n82 Colonial (usage of term), 12 Carpenter, Joseph Hatten, 139–141, Colonialism 195 conflict within, 12, 157, 164, 165, Catholic Boys Cricket Club, 134, 256 225–226 and diffusion, 21 Catholic missionaries, 130, 133–134, in Samoa, 11–12, 90–91, 157, 138, 145–147 191 attitudes towards kirikiti, 144, 146 Samoan responses to (before attitudes towards Samoan pastimes, partition), 192–201 133–134, 138, 145–146 Samoan responses to (general), See also Christian missionaries 191–192, 256–257 Catholic schools, 134 Samoan responses to (under Catholic Young Men’s Club, 179 American rule), 207–214 Cederkrantz, Conrad, 93 Samoan responses to (under Chiefs, see Matai German rule), 201–207 Chinese labour, 101, 163, 165 Samoan responses to (under New Christian, 72, 75, 160, 161, 196 Zealand civilian rule), 232–247 Christianity Samoan responses to (under New influence on Samoan life, 141–142 Zealand military rule), origins in Samoa, 129–130 224–232 rivalry between denominations, See also Empire 145–146 Colonial officials, 89–117, 195, 256 Samoanisation of, 34–35, 142, attitudes towards kirikiti, 90, 147–148 92–100, 102–103, 106–109, Christian missionaries, 127–148 112–116 attitudes towards customary Samoan Colonised peoples, 2, 22–23, pastimes, 136–138 191–192, 254 296 INDEX

Coloniser-colonised distinction, as a shared social space, 155–156, 13–14, 258, 259 173, 180, 190, 192, 222, 228, Colonisers, 254, 255 235 identities and sport, 2 Croquet, 60, 96 Colonists, see White colonists Crossings, 30 Competitive/complementary Crowd behavior, 66–67, 84n82 behaviours, 56 Cuba, 31, 32 Condominium, 93, 97, 194 Cultural transfer, 2 Contact zones, 3, 4, 31–33, 40, 78, See also Diffusion; Hybridity; 157, 196, 254, 259 Syncretism; Transculturation Contest, 1–3, 78, 246, 254, 258–259 (concept) Contested space, 2, 32, 45n49, 246, Culture contact, 5, 30 254, 255 Cusack-Smith, Thomas Berry, 95, 96, Cook Islanders, 74 98, 175, 196, 197 Cooperation, see Accommodation Customary games, see Fa’a Samoa, and (strategy) customary games; Pigeon netting; Copra, 91–92, 99, 100, 104–105, Tagati’a 109, 160, 161, 164, 165, 170, Customary titles, 55, 102, 229 200, 208, 213 effects of kirikiti on harvest, 107, 161, 213 D taxes on, 105, 207, 212 Dances/dancing, 33, 62, 66–69, 72, Creolisation, 30, 31 132, 137, 143, 177 Cricket, 2–3, 8, 27–30, 59–60, 63–64, See also Night dances; Sivas 66–67, 70–71, 95, 145, 159, Darden, T. F., 208, 209 162, 164 Dawson, T. M., 94 associations with ‘Englishness’ and Debt, 93, 99, 200, 204 ‘Britishness,’ 2, 27, 95, 245 as a Samoan strategy, 193–194 as a contested space, 2–3, 246, 254, Deed of Cession, 103, 207 255 Deeken, Richard, 163 diffusion through the British Deutsche Handels-und Plantagen Empire, 23–25 Gesellschaft der Südseeinseln zu and military men, 111, 175, Hamburg (DHPG) 177–179 access to indentured in Samoa, 100, and missionnaries, 131–132 160, 163, 182n36 in Oceania, 8, 36–41 and German interests in Samoa, origins in England, 59, 63, 66 92–93, 95–96, 99–101, 160, samoanisation of, see Kirikiti 164, 200 Samoan use to navigate See also Godeffroy und Sohn, J. C. colonialism(s), 192–214, Diaspora 224–247, 254, 257 Oceanic, 73 scholarship on, 23 Samoan, 8, 10, 34, 73, 148, 258 INDEX 297

Diffusion, 4, 21–25, 42, 254, 259 Fa’a Samoa, 10, 35–36, 42, 53–59, limitations of, 25–30 61–63, 67, 71, 73, 75–78, 79n8, Duke of Gloucester, 172, 244, 98, 104, 192, 201, 207, 255 245 and appropriation of foreign practices, 35–36, 42 customary exchange within, 2, 41, E 47, 67, 78, 92, 98, 103, 139 Ellis, William, 136 and customary games, 56–59, 61, Empire, 2–4, 21–35, 27, 36–37 136–137 cultural correlates, 21 kirikiti’s significance within, 76–78, limits of control in Oceania, 36–37 174, 192 See also Colonialism See also Samoa Englishness, 2, 24, 27, 78, 197, , 209 245 Fagiema, 207 English public schools, 4, 64 Faiaoga, 85n94 Enlisted Men’s Club, 177, 209 See also Clowning Equestrian sports, 159, 164, 175 Faipules, 114, 205, 238 See also Racing See also Fono of Faipules Equipment and techniques, 63–66 Falealili, 128 Europeans, see Colonialism, in Samoa; Fauea, 129 Papalagi; White colonists Faumuina, Faamusami, 251n92 European status, 166–167 Fautasi racing, 42, 90, 106 Evangelicals, 127–134, 137, 138, Feagaiga, 82n59 145–147 Feasting, 66–69, 77, 128, 147 See also Christian missionaries; See also Kirikiti, attendant elements London Missionary Society and social context (LMS); Methodist Church Feleti School, 105, 109 Evans, Waldo A., 105 Fetu o Samoa, 112, 113, 117 ‘Everyday’ histories, 1, 3, 258 Fiji, 8, 10, 30, 32, 37, 54, 94, in Oceania, 6–9 191–192, 228, 230 Everyday resistance, 190, 193, cricket in, 25, 39–41, 222 224–225, 233, 257 Fine-mat exchange, 102, 105, 114, kirikiti as an example of, 194–195, 204, 239 206, 225, 240 First World War, 164 See also Resistance (strategy) Fitafita Guard and Band, 107, 169, 177, 208–211 Fiti, 62 F Fives, 60, 96 Fa’a’ai, see Food fines; Forfeit Flag Day, 34, 106, 212 Fa’afafine, 34, 83n64 Fono, 10, 53, 75 Fa’aluma, 68 Fonoimoana, 205 Fa’amasino, 75, 115 Fono of Faipules, 172, 233, 238 298 INDEX

Food (as a cultural form), 21, 34 settler community in Samoa, 101, See also Feasting 158, 162–164 Food fines, 70–72 Gilson, Richard, 157, 158, 174 Football, see American football; Rugby Godeffroy und Sohn, J. C., 91, 92, league; Rugby union; Soccer 99, 158, 160 Food fines, 70–72 See also Deutsche Handels-und Foreign Residents Society, 158 Plantagen Gesellschaft der Forfeit, 59, 66, 70–73, 115 Südseeinseln zu Hamburg Fourth of July celebrations, 90 (DHPG) Freeman, Derek, 55, 56 Golf, 112 France/French, 10, 129, 133, 142, Gordon, Sir Arthur, 51 151n29 Gordon-Cumming, Constance, 137 Fruean family, 168, 169 Goward, William, 133 Graham, Stephen, 103 Grattan, Frank, 76 G Graves, J. H., 28, 94 Gambling, 70–71, 73, 99, 132, 135, Great Depression, 116 137, 170, 224 Griffin, Harry, 146 See also Forfeit Group affiliation, 57, 61, 63, 166– Games, 57, 58, 62, 98 169, 172 ethic, 4, 22 See also Fa’a Samoa See also Fa’a Samoa, and customary Gurr, E. W., 210 games Guttmann, Allen, 22, 63 Gender, see Women and girls Gymnastics, 133, 177 German administration, 13, 97–103, 163–164, 169–170, 201–202 response to Samoans, 201–207 H German officials, 92, 93, 95, 98, 101, Hall, Sydney D., 105, 211 199–201 Hart, Herbert, 112, 116 attitudes towards kirikiti, 92–93, 95, Hawai’i/Hawaiian, 10, 33, 34, 130 96, 98–103, 199–201 Hempenstall, Peter J., 6, 54, 191, attitudes towards team sports, 95, 202, 229 98, 177 HMS Cormorant, 2, 28, 29, 176 Germany HMS Miranda, 176, 189, 190 interests in Samoa, 91–95, 99, 101, HMS Rapid, 155, 156 103–104, 157–158, 162, 174, Hockey, 234 193 Howe, Gilbert, 187n127 rivalry with other colonial powers, Huahine, 129 94–95, 197–199 Hughes, Thomas, 131 servicemen and recreation, 174– Hybridity, 27, 30, 31, 45n41, 175, 177, 187n117 45n42 INDEX 299

I and malaga, 29, 76, 77, 98, Ice hockey, 26 106–107, 114–116, 136, 139, Imperialism, see Empire 142, 145–147, 162 India, 5, 23, 24, 27, 78 metropolitan attitudes towards, Indigenisation, 27, 35, 258 19–20, 78, 161, 240 See also Hybridity; Syncretism; and navigating papalagi Transculturation (concept) colonialism(s), 192–214, Influenza epidemic, 113, 228, 232, 223–247 238 papalagi attempts to control, 93–94, Islanders, 6–7, 9, 258 99–100, 102–103, 106–110, in New Zealand, 77 112, 115–116, 141, 146, 193, 195, 200, 204 participation in, 60–63 K as ‘pro-British,’ 199, 204, 242 Kaiser’s Birthday, 98 and property damage, 69, 93, 107 Kaufman, Jason, 23, 24, 28 retransmission of the game by Kava, 62, 67, 160, 226, 228 Samoans, 41, 147 Kelsall, Thomas, 190 and Samoan politics, 93, 190, 198, King, Rev. Joseph, 127–129 240, 243 King’s Birthday celebrations, 240, 241 transculturality of, 35–43, 60, 63, Kingsley, Charles, 131 73–76 Kinship, 55, 57, 58, 63, 136, 167, and violence, 69, 75, 95, 107, 115, 169, 172 139, 211 See also ‘Aiga Krämer, Augustin, 33, 58 Kirikiti, 2, 3, 8, 29, 53, 59–62, 67, 69, 71, 73, 76–78, 95–100, 102, 106, 108, 109, 112–113, L 115–117, 135–141, 144–148, Labour, 91–93, 97, 100, 158, 156, 159–162, 164, 166, 168, 160–163 171–173, 176, 179, 190, Samoan refusal to provide, 91–93, 192–214, 223–247, 255, 257, 100 258 shortage in Samoa, 159–160, attendant elements and social 162–163 context, 66–70 Labour Party (in New Zealand), 116, cultural significance of, 8, 37, 238 76–77, 258 Lafo, 136 and economic disruption, 90–91, Lal, Brij, 191–192 93, 102, 108, 115, 160 Lalomauga, 100 equipment and techniques, 64–65 Land forfeit and ‘punishments’ in, 70–73 papalagi acquisition of, 10, 91, 158, as inherently subversive, 42–43, 163, 181n18 77–79 Land and Titles Office, 102 300 INDEX

Lauaki Namulauulu Mamoe, 202, 205 measures against, 98, 102, 105– Lape, 67, 68 107, 114, 116, 204, 212 Latter Day Saints (LDS), 60, 130, papalagi attitudes towards, 91–92, 134–135, 139–142 105–106, 128, 137, 138, 162 attitudes towards kirikiti, 139–144 , 92 attitudes towards other sports, Malietoa Laupepa, 93, 129, 156, 161, 134–135, 138 189, 190, 194, 195, 197–201, See also Christian missionaries 231 Lazarus, Neil, 27 Malietoa Talavou, 190, 198 League of Nations, 11, 111, 113, 232, Malietoa Tanumafili, 179, 228, 229, 243 235, 249n47 Leasina County, 90 Malietoa Vainu’upo, 35, 129 Leota, 143 Malifa School, 112, 234–235 Lepa, 92 Mangan, J. A., 4, 22, 23 Letuli, 207 Manoa, Samuela, 130 Leulumoega, 197 Manono, 145, 170 Levuka Cricket Club, 39 Manu’a, 11, 60, 72, 103, 106, Lincoln, Gatewood, 104, 107 207–209 Logan, Robert, 110–113, 177, 179, Maputasi, 212 224–228, 230–232, 234 Marianas Islands, 202 London Missionary Society (LMS), Marists, see Catholic missionaries 127–131, 133, 141, 142, 144, (MCC), 59 145, 170, 178 Masoe, Sina, 170 attitudes towards kirikiti, 128, 141, Massey, William, 165 142, 144, 146 Mata’afa Faumuina Fiame, 229 attitudes towards other pastimes, Mata’afa Iosefo, 102, 190, 199, 204 130–133 Mata’afa Salanoa, 249n47 See also Christian missionaries; Matai, 10, 28, 53–54, 57, 58, 62, 75, Evangelicals 102, 104, 111, 114, 191, 197, Lufilufi, 96, 145 204–205, 207, 208, 210–213, 227, 229, 233, 251n73 and kirikiti, 75, 144, 147, 179, M 197–198, 227 Magia, 196 role in colonial administration(s), Mahaffy, Arthur Arnold, 61, 65, 67, 102, 104, 195, 204–205, 208, 69, 75, 96, 97, 198 211–213 Malaga, 57, 58, 76, 77, 90–92, 98, role in customary Samoan pastimes, 102, 105, 107, 116, 128, 57, 60 136–138, 142, 204, 208, 212, Matautu, 61, 140, 167, 231, 253 237 Matautu Institute, 183n59 kirikiti as part of, 29, 57, 76, 77, 91, Mau, 11, 116, 171–173, 185n90, 145 233, 234, 238–247, 249n47, 257 INDEX 301

in American Samoa, 208, 233 Muscular Christianity, 131, 133 divisions within, 249n47 Music, 33, 67, 76, 94, 113, 133, 135, use of kirikiti, 172–173, 238–246 159, 174, 177, 208 women’s role in, 173–174, See also Singing 242–244 Mau a Pule, 202, 205 Mauga Moi Moi, 90, 109, 212 N Mauga Sialega, 212 Neil, Ernest, 137 Mauga Taufaasau, 143 Nelson, August, 170 McCormack, Bernardine, 134 Nelson, Rosabel, 173, 242, 243, McGirr, Herbert, 179, 187n127, 221 251n92 McKay, Cyril, 116 Nelson, Ta’isi O. F., 170–174, 241, Mead, Margaret, 36, 55–57 244, 245, 249n47 Meleisea, Malama, 53, 54, 166, 171, New Guinea, 100, 147, 163 201, 202, 204, 206, 224, 225, New Hebrides, 129 227–229 New Zealand, 5, 11–12, 24, 29, 37, Meleisea, Momoe Lupeuluiva, 235 41, 69, 73, 104, 110–117, 133, Meredith, Edward, 169 134, 164–165, 170–173, Methodist Church, 129–130, 132, 177–180, 191, 221–246, 258 133, 137, 145, 146 interests in Samoa, 110 See also Christian missionaries; servicemen and sport, 177–180, Evangelicals 221, 224 Military men, 174–180, 256 New Zealand civilian administration of See also America, United States of, Samoa, 11, 112–117, 164–165, naval personnel and sport; 170–173 Britain, military personnel and response of Samoans to, 232–246 sport; Germany, servicemen New Zealand military administration and recreation; New Zealand, of Samoa, 110–112, 177–179 servicemen and sport response of Samoans to, 221–232 Minns, Rev. George, 136 New Zealand officials, 110–117, 171, Mitchell, Mason, 235, 236 173, 177 Modernisation, 23, 63 attitudes towards papalagi sports, Moors family 110–113, 165 Mormons, see Latter Day Saints (LDS) attitudes towards kirikiti, 64–65, Muench, Priscilla, 173–174, 243 114–117 Muliatele, 237 Night dances, 35, 137–138 Mulinu’u, 95, 189, 191, 193, 197, See also Dances/dancing; Sivas 199, 200, 205 , 8, 41, 74, 165 Mulivai, 134 Nomad Club, 226 Municipal Council, 193, 198 Nosworthy, William, 115, 240–241 Murray, Rev. Archibald, 127–129 Nu’u, 41, 53–55, 57, 58, 63 Murray, Thomas P., 156 See also Fa’a Samoa 302 INDEX

O Protest (strategy), 191–192, 257 Oceania, 6–8, 30–32, 36, 258 under American rule, 207–208 historiography of, 6–8, 30 under German rule, 201–202 Officials, see Colonial officials; Samoan under New Zealand rule, 208, 233, officials 239–246 Oloa company, 230 Pulenu’us, 112, 115, 205, 206, 208, Olsen, Abinadi, 139 211, 214, 218n66, 238, 239, Ortiz, Fernando, 31, 32, 73, 255 251n73 See also Samoan officials Pulepule, 229 P Pull Thro’, 178 Pacific history,see Oceania, historiography of Pacific islanders, see Islanders Q Pago Pago harbour, 11, 89, 109, 143, Quoits, 177 209, 210, 212 American interest in, 94, 103–104, 157, 162, 174, 193 R Pakistan, 5 Race (classification), 24, 101, 113, Papalagi, 37, 77, 78, 91, 162, 172, 156, 166–167, 169 197, 228, 254 See also ‘Afakasi claims to Samoan land, 181n18 Racing, 94, 96, 98, 99, 111, 162, sports, 41–42, 98, 112, 196 169–170, 177, 203 See also Christian missionaries; See also Equestrian sports Colonial officials; Military men; Raiatea, 129 White colonists Rapa Nui, 10 Papase’ea, 171, 226 ‘Rational’ recreations, 132, 134, 136, Parsis, 23 138, 145 Pastors, 35, 55 Religion, 21, 24, 31, 33, 56 Paternalism, 113–115 See also Christianity Patterson, Orlando, 23, 24, 28 Resistance (strategy), 2, 26, 190–192, Paul, Earl Stanley, 142 257 Picnics, 177 before partition, 193–195 Pigeon netting, 58, 59, 137 under American rule, 208 Planters’ Association, 163 under German rule, 205, 206 Polo, 96, 167, 175, 196, 197 under New Zealand rule, 224, Polynesians, 7, 10 225, 229, 233, 238–240, 245, Poma, Guaman, 33, 34, 63, 70 246 Poyer, John M., 107 See also Everyday resistance Pratt, George, 63, 68, 71, 78 Richardson, George Spafford, 112, Pratt, Mary Louise, 4, 14n4, 32, 34, 114–116, 164, 165, 171, 172, 191, 254 232, 233, 238 INDEX 303

Rivalry 198, 227–228, 231, 240, 243, between foreign powers, 37, 94–95, 249n47 197–199, 202, 255 scholarship on, 6–8 between Samoans, 29, 41, 54–58, transculturation in, 33–35, 40–41, 70, 73, 194 51–79 Royal Vine Ula Club, 167 under American administration, Ruck, Rob, 7, 42 103–110, 207, 209 Rugby league, 9 under German administration, Rugby union, 7–9, 41, 42, 57, 97–103, 163–164, 169–170, 112, 113, 117, 164, 234, 201–202 252n106 under New Zealand administration, 110–117, 164–165, 170–173, 177–179 S Samoanisation, 29, 147 Sa’anapu, 55 See also Transculturation (concept), Safune, 235 in Samoa Sailor, H. A., 109 Samoan language, 21, 34, 45n42 Saleaula, 72 Samoan missionaries, 147 Salesa, Damon, 6, 91, 92, 110, 113, Samoan officials, 104, 109, 202, 148, 166, 170, 171, 239 204–206, 208, 210–213, Sālote, Queen of Tonga, 39 218n66, 223, 232 Saluafata, 68 See also Pulenu’us Samoa Sapapali’i, 129 colonial history before partition, Savai’i, 11, 28, 34, 77, 94, 97, 112, 10–11, 90–97, 157–162, 129, 130, 139, 155, 167, 170, 191–192 205, 206, 235 culture and society (see Fa’a Samoa) Scanlan family, 156, 168, 169, 174 customary athletic contests, 56–59, Schnee, H. A., 98, 204, 205 136–137 Schools, 42, 98, 106, 213, 234–235 diasporic community (see Diaspora, See also English public schools Samoan) Schultz, Erich, 76, 98–102, 144, 163, historical sketch of, 10–12, 90–92 178, 201, 206 language and linguistic notes, 13n1, Scouts, 106, 133 13n3, 17n33, 34, 45n42, Sebree, Uriel, 105, 207 76–77 Seventh Day Adventists, 130, 135 metropolitan perceptions of Sewall, Harold, 95 inhabitants, 19–20, 113–114 Shared social space, 32, 46n50, 54, mobility and movement, 54, 91–94, 144, 164, 180, 190, 192, 196, 99–100, 104, 106–107, 114, 197, 209, 214, 222, 224–232, 249n47 234 politics in, 37, 54, 57, 76, 92–95, Shore, Bradd, 55–58 97, 101–102, 165, 190–193, Sibree, James, 170 304 INDEX

Singing, 62, 66–69, 90, 100, 106, 132 ‘Rational’ recreations; Rugby See also Music union; Soccer; Sivas, 76, 90, 106, 128, 143, 236 Sri Lanka, 5 See also Dances/dancing; Night Stair, John B., 71 dances Stearns, Clark D., 106 Sloan, Donald, 60 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 1, 2, 56, 167 Smart, Edwin Hezekiah, 134 Stoddart, Brian, 5, 77 Smith, Jennie Hill Leavitt, 143 Stout, Robert, 110, 133 Soccer, 162, 164, 175, 209, 234 Stowers, James, 167 Social organisation, see Fa’a Samoa Stronach, Alexander, 210 Social space, see Shared social space Stuebel, Oskar, 76, 95, 199 Sogi, 61, 146 Swedish Drill, 145 Sogi Cricket Club, 167 Swimming sports, 133 Soldiers, 27, 178, 256 Symmetrical/asymmetrical Solf, Wilhelm, 98–102, 163–165, 169, relationships, 56 170, 201, 202, 204–206, 230 Syncretism, 30, 31 Solomon Islands, 160 South Africa, 5 Spectating/spectatorship, see Crowd T behavior Tagaloa, 229 Speechmaking, 67–69 Tagati’a, 58–61, 67, 68, 71, 75, 76, Spicer, Sir Albert, 127–129 138 Sport, 2, 3, 63, 66, 70, 99, 106, Tahiti/Tahitian, 32, 34, 129, 136 111–113, 131–135, 138, Taletale, Ioana, 167 151n29, 155, 158–159, 164, Taloga, 71 175–180, 254 Talune, 228, 237 contemporary significance for Tamasese, see Tupua Tamasese Lealofi Islanders, 7–9, 73–74, 148, I; Tupua Tamasese Lealofi III; 258 Tupua Tamasese Titimaea diffusion of, 3, 21–30 , 224 and Empire, 2–6, 21–25, 51–52, Tanumapua, 229 77, 113, 254–255, 258–259 Tate, Robert Ward, 61, 68, 69, 112, history in Oceania, 6–9, 36–42 113, 115, 222, 228, 229, 232, Samoan instrumental use of, 190, 234–237 196–197, 202–204, 208–209, Taxes, 104, 193, 194 227–228, 234–235 See also Copra, taxes on scholarship, 3–9 Tennis, 96, 164, 167, 169, 175, 177, and social boundaries in Samoa, 178, 196, 209 94–96, 98, 146, 159, 162, Te Rangi Hiroa, 58, 67 169–171, 175, 187n117 Teuila Festival, 8 See also American football; Athletics; Thomas, Rev. John, 145 Cricket; Polo; Racing; Tilley, Benjamin F., 103, 207, 210 INDEX 305

Toeaina Club, 179, 222, 226, Tupua Tamasese Titimaea, 93, 96, 228–231 100, 160, 161, 194, 198–201 Toelupe, 205 Turnbull, Alfred Clarke, 116 Tofae, 195 Turner, George, 71 Tokelau, 8, 33, 41 Tutuila, 11, 28, 34, 94, 97, 103, 104, Toleafoa Lagolago, 179, 180, 221, 106, 107, 129, 155, 160, 177, 222, 226–231, 236 195, 207, 208, 210, 212, 213 Tolo, 235 Tologa, 58, 137 Tonga, 10, 28, 40–41, 52, 74, 94, U 129–130, 136, 145, 197, 242, , 100 253 Umpires, 59, 61, 74, 75, 197 cricket in, 37–39 Underwood, Edmund, 106, 143 Tottenham, Alfred Loftus, 111, 112, United Kingdom, see Britain 226, 228 United States of America, see America, Traditional authority, 58, 102, 201 United States of See also Fa’a Samoa Unshelm, August, 91 Transcultural diffusion, see Diffusion Upolu, 11, 28, 55, 68, 77, 94, 96, 97, Transculturation (concept), 3, 4, 202, 237 30–33, 40, 45n49, 255, 259 Uvea, 130 of cricket, 51–79 in Samoa, 33–35, 40–42 See also Diffusion; Hybridity; V Syncretism Va, 54, 192 Trobriand Islands, 8, 31, 36, 41, 78, See also Shared social space 87n143 , 61, 176 Tuala Silivelio, 206 , 189 Tuatagaloa, 229 Vaimea, 221 Tufele Fa’atoia, 209 , 173, 226, 241, 243 Tuimalealiifano Paisami, 251n92 Van Bottenburg, Maarten, 26 Tuimalealiifano Si’u, 249n47 Vanuatu, 129 Tuitele Salatielu, 90, 160, 213 Victorian society, 22, 66, 67, 70, 72 Tulafale, 72 Villages, see Nu’u Tuli’au, 229 Vinuela, 226 Tungī, Viliame, 39 Violette, Théodore, 133, 146 Tupou I, George (Siaosi), King of Voeux, William Des, 39 Tonga, 38 Volleyball, 177 Tupou II, George (Siaosi), King of Tonga, 38–39 Tupua Tamasese Lealofi I, 112, 203, W 226–229 Wagstaff, Melvin, 135 Tupua Tamasese Lealofi III, 241–243, Wallington, Edward, 39, 40 245, 249n47 Weber, Theodor, 94 306 INDEX

Wendt, Albert, 31, 34, 54 and customary Samoan pastimes, Wesley, John, 131 62, 82n57 Wesleyan Methodist Church, see and kirikiti, 62–63, 68, 83n64, 143, Methodist Church 169, 173–174, 231 , see Caribbean papalagi versus Samoan roles in White colonists, 10, 90–92, 157–165, sport, 231 256 role in the Mau, 173–174, 242–244 attitudes towards kirikiti, 100, Woodford, Charles, 96, 97 160–163, 165 sporting pursuits, 52, 158–159, 164 See also Papalagi Y Whitmee, Rev. Samuel, 132 Yorkshire, 84n82 Wightman, Sivia, 169 Young Men’s Institute, 133 Williams, John, 34, 56, 129, 136 Williams, Richard, 99, 205, 206, 230 Women and girls Z and cricket, 60, 62 Zimbabwe, 5