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Balancing the Tides JoAnna Poblete Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Nam auctor faucibus odio, a scelerisque magna sollicitudin ac. Cras condimentum lacus elementum massa pharetra malesuada. Fusce ac eros varius, viverra urna scelerisque, egestas neque. Fusce tellus arcu, euismod ut rutrum faucibus, elementum quis sem. Fusce auctor sollicitudin lacus, sed sagittis libero tincidunt ac. Praesent vestibulum Balancing tellus a massa ultrices, et mattis augue ultricies. Aliquam at turpis a nisl portti- tor rhoncus id a lacus. Integer a risus eu sapien porta vestibulum. Aenean posu- ere non diam a posuere. Duis laoreet congue tellus, posuere aliquam leo facilisis quis. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Orci varius natoque penatibus et magnis dis parturient montes, nascetur ridiculus mus. Morbi mattis the Tides consequat lacus, ut aliquet dolor accumsan non. Proin suscipit molestie convallis. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Proin quam justo, feugiat non accumsan et, congue sit amet mi. Marine Practices in Vestibulum consectetur mauris et nisl ultrices, eget hendrerit dui vestibulum. Balancing the Mauris gravida sodales nulla eu mattis. Nam tincidunt eu ante vel euismod. Ali- American Sāmoa quam laoreet lacus quis tellus efficitur, vitae porttitor leo pulvinar. Integer dapi- bus gravida quam quis vehicula. Nulla metus nulla, suscipit in porta non, fermen- tum eget urna. Integer quis turpis felis. Sed finibus sem non elementum volutpat. Phasellus pulvinar orci tortor, sed congue elit pharetra eu. Curabitur sodales, dui a luctus semper, metus erat iaculis risus, ut facilisis leo mi vitae lorem. Pellentesque elementum dui ex, in pulvinar nibh maximus ut. Quisque commodo sem in finibus aliquam. Proin enim odio, laoreet a urna id, tempus pulvinar nulla. Nam vestib- ulum mauris a enim interdum cursus. Donec nunc nisl, suscipit in accumsan ut, JoAnna Poblete suscipit sed ante. Ut aliquam auctor gravida. Pellentesque pharetra ac tellus sit amet aliquet. Nullam vel magna a nibh luctus facilisis. Aliquam nunc nunc, pellentesque consectetur facilisis a, venenatis non est. Fusce egestas sem iaculis nunc ultrices scelerisque vel et tortor. Curabitur et ultricies neque. Nunc at ultrices odio. Duis quis metus non erat ornare inter- dum. Phasellus ut tellus ultrices, vehicula augue eget, aliquet quam. In massa dui, egestas quis urna a, pretium mollis magna. Praesent imperdiet ultricies sapien, eget dictum neque pulvinar congue. Mauris sed enim ut diam dictum sollicitudin. Curabitur imperdiet velit sed lectus convallis consectetur. Nunc sollicitudin sagit- tis volutpat. Pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas. Mauris diam nisl, pellentesque quis metus quis, pulvinar consectetur justo. In quis felis at erat fermentum varius. Balancing the Tides Balancing the Tides Marine Practices in American Sāmoa JoAnna Poblete • University of Hawai‘i Press Honolulu © 2020 University of Hawai‘i Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 25 24 23 22 21 20 6 5 4 3 2 1 University of Hawai‘i Press books are printed on acid- free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Council on Library Resources. Cover photo of Pago Pago Bay by author. is book is published as part of the Sustainable History Monograph Pilot. With the generous support of the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the Pilot uses cutting-edge publishing technology to produce open access digital editions of high-quality, peer-reviewed monographs from leading university presses. Free digital editions can be downloaded from: Books at JSTOR, EBSCO, Hathi Trust, Internet Archive, OAPEN, Project MUSE, and many other open repositories. While the digital edition is free to download, read, and share, the book is under copyright and covered by the following Creative Commons License: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Please consult www.creativecommons.org if you have questions about your rights to reuse the material in this book. When you cite the book, please include the following URL for its Digital Object Identier (DOI): https://doi.org/./ We are eager to learn more about how you discovered this title and how you are using it. We hope you will spend a few minutes answering a couple of questions at this url: https://www.longleafservices.org/shmp-survey/ More information about the Sustainable History Monograph Pilot can be found at https://www.longleafservices.org. Contents Preface ix Frequently Used Sāmoan Terms xiii List of Abbreviations xv Introduction 1 Chapter 1 Native Commercial Fishing and Indigenous Debates over Regulations in the U.S. Pacific 23 Chapter 2 Minimal Returns: Colonial Minimum Wage Issues and the Global Tuna Canning Industry 57 Chapter 3 The Devolution of Marine Sanctuary Development in American Sāmoa 83 Chapter 4 The Impact of the U.S. Imperial Grants System on Indigenous Marine Programs 111 Conclusion 135 Notes 143 Selected Bibliography 175 Preface As a Filipino- Chinese- Portuguese American PhD student in history at UCLA at the dawn of the twenty- first century, I started graduate school wanting to study Filipino American legal history. After taking an Asian American jurispru- dence course at the law school, I realized Filipinos had more legal connections to Puerto Ricans and Chamorros than other Asians who came to the United States due to the War of 1898, the subsequent Treaty of Paris, and the 1901 Insular Cases. From that moment, I knew I wanted to study and write about the expe- riences of U.S. colonials, whom I define as groups under the direct authority of the United States, across time and space. Overall, my intellectual goal is to make visible and center the histories of unincorporated territories and their peoples within larger U.S. narratives and American perspectives. While not a manageable dissertation project, my advisor and chair, Henry Yu, encouraged me to think of my desire to study the impact of unincorporated territorial status on colonized groups as a life- long career goal. I have been priv- ileged and fortunate enough to have the ability to follow this advice and engage in research projects about Filipinos and Puerto Ricans in Hawai‘i for my disser- tation and first book, American Sāmoans for this second book, and U.S. Virgin Islanders for a nascent third book project. In the long term, I hope my research, writing, and teaching can help us think comparatively about historical and con- temporary connections among all U.S. colonials for greater understanding and potential future coalition building. My research for Balancing the Tides started in 2008 during my time as a Car- olina Postdoctoral Faculty Diversity program fellow in the History Department at UNC- Chapel Hill. The success of my first trip was greatly facilitated by the initial contacts provided by Roderick Labrador, who got me in touch with Ja- cinta Galea‘i, and Stephen Thom, who connected me with the amazing Oreta Togafau (now Oreta Crichton). I am also forever grateful to my mother, Lucille, who accompanied me during the first week of this trip and bravely approached any Filipino she came across. Jacinta and Oreta provided my first taste of the generous Sāmoan spirit, fa‘a Sāmoa, one loaning me her car during the week- days and the other inviting me to stay in her home for this trip and every other ix x preface consecutive visit. The librarians at the Feleti Barstow Public Library, especially Cheryl Morales and Justin Maga, were extremely kind and helpful. Likisone Asotau also gave me an excellent tour of the Chicken of the Sea factory for a firsthand, close- up look at the tuna canning process. While I was able to publish a preliminary article in 2010 on the closing of the Chicken of the Sea factory, the next several years were full of teaching in my tenure- track position at the University of Wyoming and publishing my first book in 2014. I was finally able to return to my research in American Sāmoa that same year. Support from the Wyoming Institute for Humanities Research, the University of Wyoming International Travel Grant, the University of Wyoming College of Arts and Sciences Basic Research Grant, as well as research monies from my current institution, Claremont Graduate University, funded my trips to American Sāmoa from 2014 to 2016. I am so blessed that every year I have traveled to American Sāmoa, Oreta and her family have hosted me in their home. I am humbled and proud to be part of their ‘āiga, appreciative of all their professional and personal support through the years. Oreta also helped me set up meetings with several government officials and community members in 2014, who in turn recommended more people to contact and so forth until I interviewed over one hundred people related to my research topics for this project through this snowball approach. I am grateful for the time and support of every single individual who spoke with me, whether their name is mentioned in this work or kept confidential by request. Those who went above and beyond the normal scope of assistance during my research trips or while I was off- island include Clarence Crichton, Saumaniafaese Uikirifi, Nate Ilaoa, Keniseli Lafaele, Hillary Togafau, David Herdrich, Alice Lawrence, Patty Page, Joseph Paulin, Jeremy Raynal, and Fofō Sunia. In addition to individual interviews, primary source documents, archival materials, scientific reports, and historiographical texts were used to write this story of American Sāmoa. While working in this region has been a personal joy and honor, as a historian this orally based culture has sometimes presented challenges in locating and obtaining consistent written sources and data. Some histories in this work have been reconstructed through the tellings of multiple people and confirmed as best as possible with available documentary evidence. As scholar Fikret Berkes has stated, “The written page will never be an adequate format for the teaching of indigenous knowledge” (2012, 38).
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