Dig for fossils, build skeletons, and attract the most visitors to your museum!

TM SCAN FOR VIDEO RULES AND MORE! FOSSILCANYON.COM

Dinosaurs of North America edimentary rock formations of western North America are famous for the fossilized remains of dinosaurs The rules are simple enough for young players, but and other animals from the Triassic, Jurassic, and serious players can benefit Cretaceous periods of the Mesozoic Era. Your objective from keeping track of the cards that is to dig up fossils, build complete skeletons, and display have appeared, reasoning about them in your museum to attract as many visitors as possible. probabilities and expected returns, and choosing between aggressive Watch your museum’s popularity grow using jigsaw-puzzle and conservative plays. scoring that turns the competition into a race!

GAME CONTENTS

TM 200,000300,000 160,000 VISITORS VISITORS PER YEAR 140,000 VISITORS PER YEAR 180,000 VISITORS PER YEAR 400,000 VISITORS PER YEAR Dig for fossils, build skeletons, and 340,000 VISITORS PER YEAR RD COLOR ELETONS CA GENUS PERIODDIET SK FOSSIL VISITORSPARTS 360,000 VISITORS PER YEAR PER YEAR attract the most visitors to your museum! VISITORS PER YEAR PER YEAR Tyrannosaurus K C 1 4 500,000 Brachiosaurus J H 1 3 400,000 ON YOUR TURN: TM SCAN FOR VIDEO Triceratops K H 1 3 380,000 RULES AND MORE! Allosaurus J C 2 Dig 3 a first 360,000 card. If it is a fossil, keep it hidden. FOSSILCANYON.COM Ankylosaurus K H 2 If it 3 is an 340,000 action card, perform the action. TYRANNOSAURUS BRACHIOSAURUS TRICERATOPS Then dig a second card. 500,000 visitors/yr 400,000 visitors/yr 380,000 visitors/yr Quetzalcoatlus K C 2 3 320,000 Parasaurolophus K H 2 Trade 3 300,000(optional). Trade fossils one-for-one with another player. A second trade costs Deinonychus K C 1 two 2 fossils 240,000 to get one, and a third costs three. Stegosaurus J H 1 2 220,000 Bonus? If you completed one or more ×2 ×2 ×2 ×2 Pachycephalosaurus K H 2 skeletons 2 200,000 in steps 1 or 2, dig one bonus card. Coelophysis T C 2 (A 2 maximum 180,000 of one bonus card per turn.) ALLOSAURUS ANKYLOSAURUS QUETZALCOATLUS PARASAUROLOPHUS Dilophosaurus J C 2 Adjust 2 160,000your hand to have three or fewer 360,000 visitors/yr 340,000 visitors/yr 320,000 visitors/yr 300,000 visitors/yr Mosasaurus K C 4 hidden 2 140,000cards.

TABLE KEY PARASAUROLOPHUS OPTIONAL END-GAME BONUSES PACHYCEPHALOSAURUSPARASAUROLOPHUS K = Cretaceous Period (145–66 Ma) C = Carnivore (pair-uh-sore-AH-luh-fus) • “near crested lizard” J = Jurassic Period (201–145 Ma) H = Herbivore DILOPHOSAURUS(PAK-ee-SEF-uh-loh-SORE-us) • “thick-headed lizard” SMALL MEDIUM LARGE MOSASAURUS ×2 ×2 ×2 ×4 T = Triassic Period (252–201 Ma) COELOPHYSIS(die-LOHF-oh-SORE-us) • “two-crested lizard” 140,000 200,000 240,000 Dinosaurs of BRACHIOSAURUS(MOH-zuh-SORE-us)DIET • “Meuse river lizard” BRACHIOSAURUS(SEE-loh-FIE-sis) • “hollow form” visitors/year visitors/year visitors/year ALLOSAURUSANKYLOSAURUSPERIOD ALLOSAURUS(brack-ee-oh-SORE-us) • “arm lizard” ANKYLOSAURUSDIET (al-loh-SORE-us)(an-KIE-loh-SORE-us) • “di erentWEIGHT • lizard”“fusedPERIOD lizard” DIET Most carnivore Most Jurassic One of each North America PERIODWEIGHT LENGTHDIET DEINONYCHUS STEGOSAURUS COELOPHYSIS PACHYCEPHALOSAURUS DILOPHOSAURUS MOSASAURUS PERIOD LENGTHWEIGHTLENGTHWEIGHTLENGTHWEIGHT DIET skeletons skeletons Cretaceous LENGTHLENGTHLENGTHLENGTH WEIGHTWEIGHTWEIGHTDIET 240,000 visitors/yr 220,000 visitors/yr 180,000 visitors/yr 200,000 visitors/yr 160,000 visitors/yr 140,000 visitors/yr PERIOD 1,800 kg DIET PERIOD 5,000 kg 75 Ma 10 m DIET herbivore PERIODPERIOD 10 m 7 m193 Ma20 mLate3 mCretaceous45,00017Carnivore66 m Ma kg725 m kg13,0004.5 m kg400 kg (4,00066 Ma (11,000lb) lb) Herbivore(33 ft) 450 3,000kg kg 215 Ma Late Cretaceous(100,000(56 ft) (23 (55lb) ft) lb)(29,000(15Herbivore ft) lb) 15066 Ma Ma(33 ft) (23Early ft) (66 Jurassic ft) (10 ft) (880Carnivore (1,000lb) (6,600 lb) lb) This card is not normally used in the game, but you can 150 Ma Late CretaceousParasaurolophus was a hadrosaur, Carnivoreor “duck-billed”Carnivore dinosaur, Late JurassicLate TriassicThe diet of Pachycephalosaurus is uncertain. Some teethHerbivoreHerbivore were use it as a wild card or write on it to replace a card, Late Cretaceous 11 create a new action card, or even add your own dinosaur. Late Jurassic suitedA kink for in chewing thewith upper aplants, flattened jaw but(and snoutsome a gap likewere in thethe sharp billteeth) oflike a duck.carnivores CoelophysisMosasaurus is one had of twothe earliestrows of teeth17 SMALL MEDIUM LARGE AllosaurusWithAnkylosaurus its long was neck an was apexand heavily uprightpredatorwas characteristic armored posture, Brachiosaurus of Dilophosaurus 05 . known dinosaursin its upper in Northjaw, like America. snakes. couldand had eat leavesa clubbed from tail treetops for defense. 10 m (33 ft) high. 39 BONUS! that may have preyed on Stegosaurus. 51 ’. 140,000 visitors/yr BONUS! BONUS! 47 200,000 visitors/yr 240,000 visitors/yr 43 29

64 playing cards Six paleontologist 32 puzzle pieces Eight helper cards Rule booklet

TYRANNOSAURUS player tokensBRACHIOSAURUS TRICERATOPS for scoring 58 fossil cards 500,000 visitors/yr 400,000 visitors/yr 380,000 visitors/yr Six player reference cards Includes an forming 23 skeletons Not used in the Six museums, and two customizable cards educational section

ALLOSAURUS ANKYLOSAURUS QUETZALCOATLUS PARASAUROLOPHUS (see back cover for details)360,000 visitors/yr standard340,000 visitors/yr game320,000 visitors/yr 300,000 visitors/yr 23 skeletons, and that can be used as wild cards, about the science and six action cards three bonus pieces custom action cards, or behind the game DEINONYCHUS STEGOSAURUS COELOPHYSIS PACHYCEPHALOSAURUS DILOPHOSAURUS MOSASAURUS 240,000 visitors/yr 220,000 visitors/yr 180,000 visitors/yr 200,000 visitors/yr 160,000 visitors/yr 140,000 visitors/yr replacement cards SMALL MEDIUM LARGE BONUS! 140,000 visitors/yr BONUS! BONUS! 200,000 visitors/yr 240,000 visitors/yr How to play A player has completed a skeleton if they have one of each fossil type (e.g., skull, body, etc.) of the same genus. If a player Setup (See the illustrations on the next page.) has completed a skeleton, they must hand the fossils to the scorekeeper, who adds the skeleton to the player’s museum and One player is chosen to be the scorekeeper. This player keeps the puts the cards out of the game. puzzle pieces nearby and must have enough room on the table for the scoring puzzle. Each player chooses a color and takes the At the end of the setup phase, each player chooses up to three corresponding player reference card. The scorekeeper attaches fossils to keep hidden from other players. All of the player’s other the players’ museum puzzle pieces to each other in the order of fossils must be placed face up so other players can see. (Hidden play, with the first player’s museum at the top. fossils represent a paleontologist’s professional competitiveness; face-up fossils represent their scientific openness!) All players Shuffle the 64 playing cards (not the two customizable cards), reveal their face-up cards at the same time. If a player has two randomly discard four cards (don’t look at them!), and spread the or more face-up fossils of the same genus, the cards should be remaining 60 cards face down on the table. This is the dig site. placed on top of each other, but staggered, so the type of each STARTING HAND Each player-paleontologist digs (draws) a fossil is visible. See the illustrations on the next page. 2p 10 number of cards from the dig site according to the number of players (see the table at left) Playing 3p 8 without showing their cards to others. Players take turns in sequence. Your turn consists of four steps: 4p 6 If a player gets an action card (a card that is digging up cards, trading fossils, possibly collecting a bonus card, 5p 5 not a fossil), that player sets the card aside, and adjusting your hidden hand. 6p 4 face up, and takes a replacement card. After 1) Dig. (If there are no cards left to dig at the beginning of your each player has their full set of fossil cards, turn, go to “Ending the game.”) Dig a card from the dig site. If it is any face-up action cards are returned to the dig site, face down, a fossil, keep it hidden. If it is an action card, perform the action. and reshuffled into the dig site. Then, if there is another card in the dig site, dig a second card.

3 140,000 200,000 180,000 VISITORS VISITORS VISITORS PER YEAR PER YEAR PER YEAR

360,000 360,000 VISITORS VISITORS

PER YEAR PER YEAR

TM TM MOSASAURUS PACHYCEPHALOSAURUS COELOPHYSIS TM 360,000 360,000 (MOH-zuh-SORE-us) • “Meuse river lizard” (PAK-ee-SEF-uh-loh-SORE-us) • “thick-headed lizard” (SEE-loh-FIE-sis) • “hollow form” VISITORS VISITORS PER YEAR PER YEAR PERIOD LENGTH WEIGHT DIET PERIOD LENGTH WEIGHT DIET PERIOD LENGTH WEIGHT DIET 17 m 13,000 kg 4.5 m 450 kg 3 m 25 kg 66 Ma (56 ft) (29,000 lb) 66 Ma (15 ft) (1,000 lb) 215 Ma (10 ft) (55 lb) Late Cretaceous Carnivore Late Cretaceous Herbivore Late Triassic Carnivore

Mosasaurus constantly shed and replaced its teeth, The type species of Pachycephalosaurus is P. wyomingensis, Coelophysis had a long, S-shaped curved neck. so fossilized Mosasaurus teeth are plentiful. named for its discovery in Wyoming. Theropods of the late Cretaceous had relatively shorter necks. 56 45 41 360,000 360,000

VISITORS VISITORS

PER YEAR PER YEAR HIDDEN HAND HIDDEN

ALLOSAURUS ALLOSAURUS

HIDDEN HAND (al-loh-SORE-us) • “di erent lizard” (al-loh-SORE-us) • “di erent lizard” TM

PERIOD LENGTH WEIGHT DIET PERIOD LENGTH WEIGHT DIET 10 m 1,800 kg 10 m 1,800 kg TM 150 Ma 150 Ma TM (33 ft) (4,000 lb) (33 ft) (4,000 lb) TM ALLOSAURUS ALLOSAURUS TM Late Jurassic(al-loh-SORE-us) • “di erent lizard”Carnivore Late Jurassic(al-loh-SORE-us) • “di erent lizard”Carnivore

TM TM PERIODThe arms of AllosaurusLENGTH were powerfulWEIGHT and DIET PERIODThe arms of AllosaurusLENGTH were powerfulWEIGHT and DIET ended in three clawed fingers per hand. ended in three clawed fingers per hand. TM 10 m 1,800 kg 13 10 m 1,800 kg 13 150 MaALLOSAURUS(33 ft) (4,000 lb) 150 MaALLOSAURUS(33 ft) (4,000 lb) Late JurassicALLOSAURUSCarnivore Late JurassicALLOSAURUSCarnivore (al-loh-SORE-us) • “di erent lizard” (al-loh-SORE-us) • “di erent lizard” The arms of Allosaurus were powerful and Allosaurus used its large, heavily muscled tail

TM TM PERIOD LENGTH WEIGHT DIET PERIOD LENGTH WEIGHT DIET

TM ended in three clawed fingers per hand. to help maintain its balance. 10 m 1,800 kg 13 10 m 1,800 kg 12 150 Ma (33 ft) (4,000 lb) 150 Ma (33 ft) (4,000 lb) Late Jurassic Carnivore Late Jurassic Carnivore

TM

TM

TM Allosaurus was an apex predator Allosaurus was an apex predator HIDDEN HAND that may have preyed on Stegosaurus. that may have preyed on Stegosaurus.

11 11 TM ’. 43 DIET Herbivore 450 kg WEIGHT (1,000 lb) (1,000 4.5 m (15 ft) LENGTH 66 Ma

PERIOD Completing skeletons • Three fossil cards are Late Cretaceous VISITORS (PAK-ee-SEF-uh-loh-SORE-us) • “thick-headed lizard” PER YEAR 200,000 The dietThe is uncertain. of Pachycephalosaurus Some teeth were PACHYCEPHALOSAURUS suited for carnivores plants, like chewing sharp but some were PACHYCEPHALOSAURUS required to complete an Allosaurus skeleton, as

21 SCORE bones embedded in the skin. the in embedded bones

armored plates are called osteoderms, called are plates armored

HIDDEN HAND Ankylosaurus’

Herbivore Cretaceous Late

(11,000 lb) (11,000 ft) (23

66 Ma 66

25 5,000 kg 5,000 m 7

22 indicated by the number of pieces in the pie icons

with a wingspan comparable to a four-seater airplane. four-seater a to comparable wingspan a with

fused together to make the tail sti and strong. and sti tail the make to together fused

DIET WEIGHT LENGTH PERIOD

was one of the largest flying animals of all time, time, all of animals flying largest the of one was Quetzalcoatlus

tail bones were were bones tail Ankylosaurus’ of Several

(an-KIE-loh-SORE-us) • “fused lizard” “fused • (an-KIE-loh-SORE-us)

Carnivore Cretaceous Late

ANKYLOSAURUS Herbivore ANKYLOSAURUS Cretaceous Late

(36 ft) (36 (440 lb) (440

(23 ft) (23 (11,000 lb) (11,000

66 Ma 66

66 Ma 66 11 m 11 200 kg 200 MOSASAURUS

7 m 7

5,000 kg 5,000 140,000 visitors/yr

DIET WEIGHT WINGSPAN

PERIOD at the top left. (Other skeletons may require two, DIET WEIGHT LENGTH PERIOD

(ket-suhl-kuh-WAHT-lus) • “of the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl” god Aztec the “of • (ket-suhl-kuh-WAHT-lus) (an-KIE-loh-SORE-us) • “fused lizard” “fused • (an-KIE-loh-SORE-us)

QUETZALCOATLUS

QUETZALCOATLUS ANKYLOSAURUS ANKYLOSAURUS three, or four fossil cards.) Left: These three fossil TM TM

TM

cards do not complete a skeleton, as the #2 fossil

PER YEAR PER COELOPHYSIS MOSASAURUS

VISITORS 180,000 visitors/yr 140,000 visitors/yr

340,000 (which includes the hips and legs) is missing. If

PER YEAR PER

PER YEAR PER

VISITORS VISITORS 320,000

340,000 a player has these cards face up, they should be staggered as shown here, so all other players can see the fossils and their corresponding numbers Example initial setup for four players • Each player has three or fewer cards hidden in their in the pie icon. Right: These three fossil cards hand (shown as face down), and the rest of their cards are face up. Face-up cards of the same form a complete skeleton. genus are stacked but staggered, for easy viewing by other players. The red and green players have already completed skeletons, which are now in their museums. 4 If you have all the fossils needed to complete a skeleton (or two), Ending the game give the cards to the scorekeeper and have the skeleton(s) added When there are no cards left in the dig site at the beginning of a to your museum. player’s turn, all players place all their fossils face up in front of 2) Trade (optional). You may give one of your fossils (hidden or them. Each turn is now a trade only (step 2), and a player may face up) to another player by placing it face up in front of them. only trade if they have enough fossils to eventually complete a Immediately take one from their face-up fossils or blindly from skeleton. For example, a player may trade if they have two fossils their hidden fossils. Afterward, if either player has completed a and a two-fossil skeleton remains to be completed; if they have skeleton, the fossils go to the scorekeeper and the skeleton goes three fossils and two- or three-fossil skeletons remain to be to their museum. completed; or if they have four or more fossils. You may perform a second trade with any player, but this time you If a player does not have enough fossils to eventually complete will have to give two fossils to get one. Similarly, you may perform a skeleton, that player has no more turns, but other players may a third trade, at a cost of three fossils to get one. trade with them. 3) Possibly collect a bonus card. If you completed one or Players initiate trades

PARASAUROLOPHUS BRACHIOSAURUS more skeletons in steps 1 or 2, dig a single bonus card from the (step 2) in turn until no more 300,000 visitors/yr 400,000 visitors/yr dig site. If you complete another skeleton, give the fossils to the skeletons can be completed, MOSASAURUS MOSASAURUS TYRANNOSAURUS 140,000 visitors/yr 140,000 visitors/yr 500,000 visitors/yr scorekeeper. Note: If another player completed a skeleton during or until players reach a COELOPHYSIS PACHYCEPHALOSAURUS QUETZALCOATLUS DILOPHOSAURUS DILOPHOSAURUS your step 2, they do not get to collect a bonus card. stalemate where it is clear 180,000 visitors/yr 200,000 visitors/yr 320,000 visitors/yr 160,000 visitors/yr 160,000 visitors/yr

QUETZALCOATLUS PARASAUROLOPHUS ANKYLOSAURUS that no one will complete 320,000 visitors/yr 300,000 visitors/yr 340,000 visitors/yr 4) Adjust your hand. At the end of your turn, and only at the an additional skeleton. The COELOPHYSIS TRICERATOPS PACHYCEPHALOSAURUS MOSASAURUS end of your turn, adjust your hidden hand to have three or fewer 180,000 visitors/yr 380,000 visitors/yr 200,000 visitors/yr 140,000 visitors/yr player with the most annual fossils (unless the maximum number has been changed by an MOSASAURUS ALLOSAURUS ALLOSAURUS visitors to their museum 140,000 visitors/yr 360,000 visitors/yr 360,000 visitors/yr action card). All your other fossils must be face up in front of you. wins! (The tiebreaker is the You may move hidden fossils to your face-up fossils, or face-up The green paleontologist wins! most valuable skeleton.) fossils to your hidden hand. See Optional bonus scoring for end-of-game bonuses.

5 Rule variations Discard negative action cards Setup for a shorter game Three action cards have negative outcomes. You can leave these out of the game if they are too disappointing for young children. For a shorter game, initially discard 20 cards for a two-player game or 10 cards for three or more players. To discard 10 cards, Other game options discard one three-fossil skeleton, two two-fossil skeletons, and three random cards (do not look at them). To discard 20 cards, The Fossil Canyon™ cards can be used for many other games.

STARTING HAND discard three three-fossil skeletons, four Here are just a few: (SHORT GAME) two-fossil skeletons, and three random “Go Dig” 2p 10 cards. (Alternatively you could discard the 10 or 20 cards randomly, but this will likely This is an easy but fun game based on the old favorite “Go Fish.” 3p 10 result in fewer complete skeletons in the Discard the six action cards and deal seven fossils face down to 4p 8 game.) The rest of the cards are placed face each player. Place the rest of the fossils face down in a stack, the 5p 6 down in the dig site, and each player draws “dig pile.” If a player has a complete skeleton, the fossils are placed cards until they have the number of fossils out of the game and the skeleton is added to their museum. 6p 5 indicated in the table at left. Play continues On your turn, you ask another player, “Do you have [insert name as in the standard game. of a genus] fossils?” The genus must be one that you have in Optional bonus scoring your hand, e.g., Triceratops. If the other player has any fossils of that genus, they must hand over all of them. You may then make At the beginning of the game, players may agree to award end- another request, of the same player or another, for the same of-game bonuses: large bonus (240,000 visitors/year) for at least genus or another, and continue to make requests until the other one of each of the Cretaceous herbivore skeletons; medium bonus player has no fossils of the requested genus. In that case, the (200,000 visitors/year) for the most Jurassic skeletons; and small other player says “Go dig!” and you take the top fossil from the dig bonus (140,000 visitors/year) for the most carnivore skeletons. pile. If it matches the genus you requested, show it to the other Players may agree to different criteria for the bonuses. players and continue making requests. If not, play then passes to

6 the next player. Skeletons are added to a museum as soon as a 20 Questions player has a full set of fossils. Test your knowledge of the genera! Discard the six action cards, If you have no fossils at the beginning of your turn, take a fossil shuffle the fossil cards, and place them face down in a stack. from the dig pile (if it is not empty) and request fossils of the same One player (the answerer) draws a card, and the player to their genus. If there are no fossils left in the dig pile, you have no more left (the questioner) asks questions and tries to guess the genus. turns. Each question must be a yes/no question about information available on the card, e.g., “Did it live during the Cretaceous?,” The game ends when all skeletons have been completed. The “Was it a carnivore?”, “Was its length less than eight meters?”, player with the most annual visitors to their museum wins. or “Is it Coelophysis?” When the questioner guesses the genus Memory Game correctly, they get the card, and they become the answerer. For a two-player game, choose 16 fossil cards making two A questioner may choose to pass if they cannot guess the genus. different three-fossil skeletons and five different two-fossil In that case, the answerer discards the card face up (so everyone skeletons. Shuffle and put the cards face down in a 4x4 grid. Each can see) and draws a new card. turn, a player turns fossils face up until (1) the face-up fossils come Keep track of the number of questions each player asks with from different skeletons or (2) the face-up fossils make a complete paper and pencil. Each player is allowed to ask a total of 20 skeleton. In case of (1), the player turns the fossils face down again questions during the game. (Guessing the genus counts as a and their turn is over. In case of (2), the player takes the fossils, the question.) The game is over when all players have asked 20 scorekeeper puts the skeleton in their museum, and the player’s questions. The player with the most cards wins. The tiebreaker is turn is over. When all fossils have been taken, the winner is the the card with the highest number of visitors per year. player with the most annual visitors to their museum.

For a more challenging version or for more players, use more Even more games! For a cooperative version of Fossil fossil cards in a larger grid (e.g., 6x4), with a mix of two-, three-, Canyon™ and other variants, visit www.fossilcanyon.com. and four-fossil skeletons. If you come up with new rules you think others would enjoy, please share them at our website!

7 Fossil Science Learn more about the science behind the game.

The end of an era Sixty-six million years ago, an asteroid ten kilometers wide, traveling 20 kilometers per second, slammed into Earth with the energy of billions of nuclear bombs, creating the Chicxulub (CHICK-shoo-loob) crater off the coast of Mexico. The enormous energy at impact vaporized nearby material; caused air pressure pulses and fires that scoured nearby land; and triggered massive earthquakes and tsunamis that likely traveled many kilometers inland. The impact also ejected scorching hot debris into the atmosphere, which rained back down on Earth for days, causing fires around the world. Oceans became more acidic and ash and dust blocked the sun worldwide, leading to a prolonged “impact winter” and the collapse of food chains. After the dust cleared, increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, due to vaporized rock and worldwide fires, caused greenhouse warming that may have lasted 100,000 years. This catastrophe

wiped out the non-avian dinosaurs and brought the Mesozoic era to an EON end, clearing the way for the rise of mammals, including humans. 8 the sea, as well as acidification of the 66 Ma Ankylosaurus, Geological periods Mosasaurus, ocean. The mass extinction at the end Pachycephalosaurus, The history of Earth is divided into a of the Cretaceous began with increased Parasaurolophus, sequence of geological “eras,” and all Quetzalcoatlus, volcanic activity and falling sea levels, Cretaceous reptiles in this game lived during the Triceratops, and it culminated dramatically when an Period Tyrannosaurus Mesozoic Era, or the “age of reptiles.” The asteroid smashed into Earth, causing Mesozoic is divided into three “periods”: Deinonychus global climate change that led to the the Triassic, 252–201 Ma (“Mega annum,” collapse of food chains and the demise or millions of years ago); the Jurassic, of 75% of species, including all non-avian 145 Ma 201–145 Ma; and the Cretaceous, Allosaurus, dinosaurs. Brachiosaurus, 145–66 Ma. Mass extinctions mark the Stegosaurus boundaries of these geological periods. Drifting continents Jurassic For example, the Triassic began with the Period largest mass extinction, when 90-95% Because of plate tectonics (large-scale Dilophosaurus of all species, including 80-90% of all processes causing motion of Earth’s marine organisms and 70% of all land crust), a map of Earth today looks very 201 Ma Coelophysis vertebrates, were lost. The primary different from how it would have looked cause is believed to be an increase in during the Mesozoic. In the Triassic, the Triassic volcanic activity, leading to acid rain supercontinent Pangaea incorporated Period and rising temperatures on land and in nearly all dry land on Earth. Pangaea 252 Ma

The history of Earth, since its formation 4.6 billion years ago, is divided into four eons and ten eras. The current era is the Cenozoic; the previous era was the Mesozoic, the age of reptiles.

ERA Eoarchean Paleoarchean Mesoarchean Neoarchean Paleoproterozoic Mesoproterozoic Neoproterozoic Paleozoic Meso. C. EON Hadean Archean Proterozoic Phanerozoic 4600 Ma 4000 Ma 2750 Ma 541 Ma Present Day 9 Europe Eurasia Europe China North North North America China North China America America ANAA South A A OEAN ANAEA China OEAN Africa E OEAN OEAN Africa E OEAN Africa South South South America America America India India Australia India Australia Australia Antarctica Antarctica Antarctica

EARLY TRIASSIC • 251 Ma MIDDLE JURASSIC • 165 Ma LATE CRETACEOUS • 86 Ma

The changing map of Earth during the Mesozoic. In the Late Cretaceous, a shallow sea with abundant marine life, called the Western Interior Seaway, split western North America from eastern North America.

began to break up during the Jurassic, hind legs to be vertical under the body, and continued drifting led to the unlike the sprawling stance of a crocodile, continents we know today. Animals that for example. This erect arrangement may lived near each other during the Triassic have given dinosaurs advantages such have fossils on different continents today. as faster or more efficient locomotion, SPRAWLING STANCE ERECT STANCE the ability to support greater weight and (CROCODILES) (DINOSAURS) Dinosaurs and their therefore grow bigger, and the ability reptile cousins to breathe more easily while walking or Dinosaurs began to appear around 240 running. Pubic Ma, during the Triassic Period. Dinosaurs Dinosaurs include modern birds (avian bone are a subgroup of archosaurs, reptiles dinosaurs) and extinct non-avian including crocodilians, extinct pterosaurs dinosaurs. More than a thousand species SAURISCHIAN ORNITHISCHIAN HIP BONES HIP BONES (flying reptiles), and dinosaurs (including of extinct dinosaurs have been identified, birds). Dinosaurs are archosaurs that and more are being discovered every For saurischian dinosaurs, the pubic bone points evolved hips and femurs allowing the forward. For ornithischians, the pubic bone year. Our understanding of dinosaurs extends backward. Here, the dinosaur faces left. 10 Quetzalcoatlus Parasaurolophus Mosasaurus

Triceratops Stegosaurus Brachiosaurus

Ankylosaurus Dilophosaurus

Approximate relative sizes of large adult specimens. Allosaurus Tyrannosaurus Pachycephalosaurus Deinonychus Coelophysis 11 is constantly evolving, but dinosaurs are traditionally placed in and pterosaurs were not lizards! To avoid this confusion, one of two categories, depending on the shape of their hips: some people translate “saur” to mean “reptile” in the context of the saurischians (“lizard-hipped” dinosaurs), with a pubic bone dinosaurs and pterosaurs. pointing forward, and the ornithischians (“bird-hipped” dinosaurs), Animals are referred to in this game by their genus, such as with a pubic bone extending backward. Triceratops. A genus may include multiple species, such as Dinosaur groups Triceratops horridus and Triceratops prorsus. (T. horridus had a small nose horn and a long beak, while T. prorsus had a larger Major groups of saurischian dinosaurs include the theropods and nose horn and a smaller beak.) One of a genus’ species is the sauropods. Theropods are bipedal (two-legged) carnivores called the “type species,” meaning that this species will remain (meat eaters) such as Allosaurus, Coelophysis, Deinonychus, associated with the genus even if later taxonomic revisions Dilophosaurus, and Tyrannosaurus. This family of dinosaurs indicate the various species do not belong to the same genus. evolved into modern birds. Sauropods are quadrupedal (four- For Triceratops, T. horridus is the type species. The “type legged) herbivores (plant eaters) like Brachiosaurus. The largest specimen,” or “holotype,” is the unique skeleton or set of fossils land animals ever were sauropods. used to define the species. Although SUE at the Field Museum in Chicago is a much larger and more complete T. rex skeleton, Major groups of ornithischian dinosaurs include ornithopods, the holotype of T. rex is a partial skull and skeletal fragments the bird-footed herbivores like duck-billed Parasaurolophus; at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh that marginocephalians, the fringe-headed herbivores like thick- were found by Barnum Brown in 1902 and first to be named skulled Pachycephalosaurus and the beaked and horned Tyrannosaurus rex by Henry Osborn in 1905. Triceratops; and thyreophorans, armored herbivores like Ankylosaurus and Stegosaurus. Fossils and fossilization Quetzalcoatlus is an archosaur, but it is a pterosaur (flying reptile), A fossil is any evidence of ancient life preserved in rock, such as not a dinosaur. Mosasaurus is not an archosaur but a marine hardened impressions of footprints, coprolites (petrified poop), lizard classified as a squamate, an order of reptiles including and body fossils such as bones, teeth, and shells. A fossilized all lizards and snakes. Although “saur” and “saurus,” taken bone is a bone that becomes rock over many years, as mineral- from Greek, commonly translate as “lizard,” dinosaurs 12 Deinonychus

Allosaurus Pachycephalosaurus Dilophosaurus Stegosaurus

Coelophysis

Brachiosaurus Tyrannosaurus Parasaurolophus Triceratops Ankylosaurus

Sauropods* Theropods Ornithopods* Margino- Thyreophorans* cephalians*

Saurischians Ornithischians*

Crocodiles, Dinosaurs Pterosaurs* Others Quetzalcoatlus

Lizards, Snakes Archosaurs Turtles Mosasaurus

A simplified classification of reptiles, with a focus on dinosaurs. The * symbol indicates that the group is extinct. Reptiles 13 bearing ground water seeps into the bones and replaces Fossil-rich formations decaying organic tissue with minerals. Some of the richest dinosaur fossil sites in the world are in Older fossilized bones are usually found deeper in the ground, western North America. As one example, several hundred since younger sedimentary rock (rock formed by minerals and fossilized skeletons of Coelophysis are estimated to have been organic material depositing and cementing at the floor of a body preserved at Ghost Ranch in New Mexico, USA. Coelophysis lived of water) layers on top of older rock. during the Triassic, and it is one of the earliest known dinosaur genera in North America. Rarely is a complete skeleton found; museum skeletons are typically completed with casts (replicas made from other Two sedimentary rock formations in western North America are skeletons) or sculpted artificial bones. particularly well known for their dinosaur fossils: the Morrison Formation and the Hell Creek Formation. Conditions must be just right for fossilization; for example, the animal must be quickly buried to limit decay, decomposition, and The Morrison Formation, named for the town of Morrison, scavenging. As a result, only a very small percentage of dinosaurs Colorado, USA, is centered in Colorado and Wyoming, but it left behind fossil evidence. Nonetheless, exposed rock formations extends into Canada and through many western US states, of western North America have yielded abundant dinosaur fossils. including Montana, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. The sedimentary rock layers were deposited by rivers and

A dinosaur becomes a fossilized skeleton. From left to right: (1) The dinosaur dies near the edge of a river. (2) The body is covered by sediment and decomposes. Minerals replace the organic tissue. (3) The layers of sediment are compressed and harden into rock, and the bones become fossils. (4) Movement of the earth raises the layers of rock to the surface. (5) The rock erodes, exposing the fossils. 14 A view of the Green River at Dinosaur National Monument in Utah, USA. Different sedimentary rock layers (“strata”) are clearly visible. These rock layers resulted from deposition and cementing of sediment over many years. The rock was later uplifted by mountain-forming forces and then eroded. At some places in Dinosaur National Monument, this erosion has exposed dinosaur fossils. 15 AK

YT

NU NT

NL floodplains of the late Jurassic, and they BC AB range from about 156 Ma at the bottom SK MB MB of the formation to 146 Ma at the top. The QC western portion of the Morrison Formation ON was uplifted during the formation of the PE NB WA Rocky Mountains and subsequently eroded, NS exposing fossils of Allosaurus, Brachiosaurus, MT ND ME OR VT and Stegosaurus. Much of the Morrison MN NH IDID Formation remains buried under prairie to MA SD WI NY MA WY MI CT RI the east. IAIA PA NE NV OH NJ The sedimentary rock layers of the UT ININ MD DE CA ILIL Hell Creek Formation were deposited CO WV VA KS MO VA approximately 68 to 66 Ma, during the late KY NC Cretaceous. The Hell Creek Formation, AZ TN AZ OK NM named for Hell Creek in Montana, USA, AK SC SC extends through Montana, North Dakota, AL GA MS South Dakota, and Wyoming, along the TX LA changing western shore of the Western

FL Interior Seaway of the late Cretaceous. The Western Interior Seaway and its coastal plain environment, consisting of river deltas,

MEXICO Chicxulub Locations of fossils found of the animals in this game. Crater Most of the fossils found outside of western North America are of Mosasaurus. Data are taken from the Paleobiology Database and plotted using the online paleogeographic map generator at fossilworks.org. 16 swampy lowlands, and forested floodplains, provided an excellent environment for the fossilization of late Cretaceous animals such as Ankylosaurus, Mosasaurus, Pachycephalosaurus, Triceratops, and Tyrannosaurus.

Paleontology Paleontologists study ancient life. Much of the evidence of that life comes from fossil rocks, so paleontology is at the intersection of biology and geology. To find fossils, paleontologists use geological maps to identify exposed sedimentary rock formations (sandstone, shale, or limestone) of the right age. They then scan the ground, cliffs, or canyon walls for fossils that are visibly eroding out of the rock. Fragments of fossilized bone at the surface may indicate that larger bones are nearby, waiting to be excavated. Paleontologists find fossils (prospecting); dig them out using shovels, rock hammers, chisels, brushes, and other tools, and encase them in plaster field jackets for safe transportation (excavation); bring them back to the lab or museum for cleaning (preparation); record their identification, site, and geological information (accession); use advanced instruments to study the fossils and apply scientific techniques to gain further insight into © PETEPHOTOS MAKOVICKY ancient life; and publish their findings for others. Fossils may be Science advisor Akiko Shinya at work in the field and in the lab. Top: Akiko discovering the theropod Gualicho shinyae in Argentina in 2007. stored in a museum collection or displayed to the public. Bottom: Akiko carefully removing a fossilized bone from surrounding rock in the lab. The whitish outer surface of the rock is the plaster field jacket. 17 References and further reading

Recommended books Online resources The Complete Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Creatures, www.wikipedia.com • Wikipedia is always a great place to begin your further Dougal Dixon, Hermes House, an imprint of Anness Publishing, 2019. reading (but not end it!). Dinosaurs: The Grand Tour, second edition, Keiron Pim, The Experiment www.fieldmuseum.org/educators/learning-resources • Games, worksheets, Publishing, 2019. and other resources for educators from the Field Museum in Chicago.

National Geographic Kids Ultimate Dinopedia, second edition, Don Lessem www.dkfindout.com/uk/dinosaurs-and-prehistoric-life • An online version (author) and Franco Tempesta (illustrator), National Geographic Children’s of some of the beautiful illustrations and facts about dinosaurs taken from Books, 2017. DK’s books. Encyclopedia Prehistorica Dinosaurs: The Definitive Pop-Up, Robert Sabuda www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/dino-directory.html • A searchable directory of and Matthew Reinhart, Candlewick, 2005. dinosaurs from the Natural History Museum of London. The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs, second edition, Gregory S. Paul, www.amnh.org/explore/ology/paleontology • Games and other Princeton University Press, 2016. information on paleontology from the American Museum of Natural History. Dinosaurs: A Visual Encyclopedia, second edition, DK Publishing, a Division of www.nps.gov/dino/learn/nature/paleontology.htm • Learn about the Penguin Random House, 2018. dinosaurs of Dinosaur National Monument from the US National Park Service. fossil.fandom.com • Fossil Fandom Wiki, a wiki devoted to fossils. www.britannica.com • Encyclopedia Britannica online.

IMAGES AND CREDITS Some of the images used on the cards, instruction booklet, and box are used under license from Shutterstock.com. Our thanks to the creators of the images, who retain the copyrights. Instruction booklet: solarseven (asteroid impact, p8); stihii (fossilization process, p14); Zack Frank (rock strata, p15). Lifelike animal reconstructions used on the cards, booklet, and box: DM7 (Tyrannosaurus); Ton Bangkeaw (Brachiosaurus, Ankylosaurus); Matis75 (Triceratops); Warpaint (Allosaurus, Parasaurolophus); Herschel Hoffmeyer (Quetzalcoatlus, Stegosaurus, Dilophosaurus); Catmando (Coelophysis); Daniel Eskridge (Pachycephalosaurus); Dotted Yeti (Mosasaurus); Valentyna Chukhlyebova (Deinonychus). Booklet © Dec 2020 Polymath Play, LLC

18 TM The creators of

GAME DESIGNER SCIENCE ADVISOR Kevin Lynch Akiko Shinya We are parents, educators, and game enthusiasts. We have Kevin Lynch, PhD, is a professor of Akiko is the chief preparator of fossil three main priorities: mechanical engineering and director of vertebrates at the Field Museum in Chicago. the Center for Robotics and Biosystems She discovered Gualicho shinyae, a 1. F amily fun and bonding at Northwestern University. He is an bipedal carnivorous theropod from the late through game play that is award-winning instructor who has Cretaceous distantly related to Allosaurus, on enjoyable for both kids and co-authored three textbooks and teaches a dig in Argentina in 2007. (The genus name adults. It doesn’t matter online courses in robotics to thousands Gualicho is derived from a demon of local how educational a game of students around the world. Kevin’s two folklore.) Akiko spends several weeks each is if you don’t play it! young children were the inspiration and year in the field prospecting and excavating 2. Creativity and learning. first game testers for Fossil Canyon.™ fossils. She manages three labs at the Field Museum, where she leads her team of staff, Play creatively! students, and volunteers in the preparation of Learn something! GRAPHIC DESIGNER vertebrate fossils from all over the world. Nathan Martel 3. Supporting broad access to The Field Museum is a forward-thinking educational opportunities. Nathan is a graphic designer and scientific leader on a mission to explore, A portion of every sale is software developer. He primarily works protect, and celebrate nature and donated to a non-profit with universities and other mission-driven culture. For over 125 years, the Field has that provides educational organizations to give their important taken part in groundbreaking research all over the world while maintaining one of the world’s largest opportunities. educational messages a visual voice. collections of artifacts and specimens, used to inspire discovery, spark public engagement with science, and uncover solutions for a better world. 19 How many can you find?

The fossil cards in this game form 23 complete skeletons of 13 different CARD COLORGENUS PERIODDIET SKELETONSFOSSIL VISITORSPARTSPER YEAR reptile genera (“genera” is the plural of “genus”) from the Mesozoic Tyrannosaurus K C 1 4 500,000 Era, including 11 dinosaurs, a pterosaur (Quetzalcoatlus), and a marine lizard (Mosasaurus). Some skeletons are composed of two fossils, Brachiosaurus J H 1 3 400,000 some are composed of three, and the Tyrannosaurus skeleton is composed of four fossils. Triceratops K H 1 3 380,000 Each fossil card contains information about the animal, including Allosaurus J C 2 3 360,000 estimates of the length and weight of a large adult of the genus. The Ankylosaurus K H 2 3 340,000 weights, in particular, are only rough estimates. For comparison, the largest land animal alive today is the African bush elephant, and an Quetzalcoatlus K C 2 3 320,000 average adult male weighs approximately 6,000 kg. Parasaurolophus K H 2 3 300,000

The “values” of the skeletons, in visitors per year, are meant for fun, Deinonychus K C 1 2 240,000 not to actually reflect the popularity of the skeletons in a museum! Similarly, the number of complete skeletons of each genus is not Stegosaurus J H 1 2 220,000 meant to reflect the frequency of finding fossils in the field. For some Pachycephalosaurus K H 2 2 200,000 of these animals, only a few fossils have ever been found. Finding a complete skeleton is rare. Coelophysis T C 2 2 180,000 Dilophosaurus J C 2 2 160,000

TABLE K = Cretaceous Period (145–66 Ma) C = Carnivore Mosasaurus K C 4 2 140,000 KEY J = Jurassic Period (201–145 Ma) H = Herbivore T = Triassic Period (252–201 Ma)