Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 126 (2015) 426–437
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association
jo urnal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pgeola
Geodiversity, geoconservation and geotourism in Hong Kong
Global Geopark of China
Lulin Wang *, Mingzhong Tian, Lei Wang
School of Earth Science and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history: In addition to being an international financial center, Hong Kong has rich geodiversity, in terms of a
Received 22 November 2014
representative and comprehensive system of coastal landscapes, with scientific value in the study of
Received in revised form 20 February 2015
Quaternary global sea-level changes, and esthetic, recreational and cultural value for tourism. The value
Accepted 26 February 2015
of the coastal landscapes in Hong Kong was globally recognized when Hong Kong Global Geopark
Available online 14 April 2015
(HKGG), which was developed under the well-established framework of Hong Kong Country Parks and
Marine Parks, was accepted in the Global Geoparks Network (GGN) in 2011. With over 30 years of
Keywords:
experience gained from managing protected areas and a concerted effort to develop geoconservation and
Coastal landscape
geotourism, HKGG has reached a mature stage of development and can provide a well-developed
Hong Kong Global Geopark
Geodiversity example of successful geoconservation and geotourism in China. This paper analyzes the geodiversity,
Geoconservation geoconservation and geotourism of HKGG. The main accomplishments summarized in this paper are
Geotourism efficient conservation management, an optimized tourism infrastructure, a strong scientific
interpretation system, mass promotion and education materials, active exchange with other geoparks,
continuous training, and effective collaboration with local communities. This useful information for
preserving geoheritage and developing geotourism can help geoparks in the primary stage of
development in China and other countries.
ß 2015 The Geologists’ Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction the geodiversity will be sustained. Furthermore, the geosite
concept, defining a geoheritage site as a place with scientific,
The concepts of geodiversity, geoheritage, geosites, geoconser- historical and cultural heritage interest, accessible for visits and
vation, geotourism and geoparks are closely related and have studies, is well acknowledged internationally (ProGEO, 1998; Cleal
significantly evolved in the last decade. The term ‘‘geodiversity’’ et al., 1999; Todorov and Wimbledon, 2004; Ruban, 2010; Ruban
was first used in 1993 as the geological equivalent of biodiversity and Kuo, 2010). Geodiversity, therefore, comprises a diversity of
(Sharples, 1993). A commonly used definition of geodiversity by geoheritage and can be quantified with an account of geosite types,
Gray (2013) is ‘‘the natural range (diversity) of geological (rocks, type counterparts, and their ranks.
minerals, fossils), geomorphological (landforms, topography, Geoconservation, now a growing activity, is defined by Prosser
physical processes), soil and hydrological features. It includes (2013) as ‘‘action taken with the intent of conserving and
their assemblages, structures, systems and contributions to enhancing geological, geomorphological and soil features, pro-
landscapes’’. Despite some initial resistance and concerns about cesses, sites and specimens, including associated promotional and
the validity of implied parallels with biodiversity, the term has awareness-raising activities, and the recording and rescue of data
gained international acceptance and its use has rapidly expanded or specimens from features and sites threatened with loss or
worldwide in recent years (Gray, 2008; Gordon et al., 2012; damage’’. In practice, it is thought to be a more concise way of
Erikstad, 2013; Gray et al., 2013). referring to geological, geomorphological and soil conservation
Geoheritage refers only to the components of geodiversity in a and relates to activities aiming to conserve various geosites for
given place (Dixon, 1996; Gray, 2004; Bruno et al., 2014) with the future generations (Prosser et al., 2013).
understanding that as long as the geoheritage sites are preserved, Among geodiversity settings, the most prominent examples of
geoconservation are geoparks (Yeung, 2008; Erikstad, 2013; Wang
et al., 2014; Dong et al., 2014). The organization of geoparks as a
tool for dissemination of the value for protected geosites can be
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 1082320640.
linked to the 1st International Conference on Geological Heritage
E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Wang).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pgeola.2015.02.006
0016-7878/ß 2015 The Geologists’ Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Wang et al. / Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 126 (2015) 426–437 427
in Digne, France in 1991 (Patzack and Eder, 1998). Reflecting the With numerous islands and a long coastline, the coastal
desire to strengthen both international recognition and local landscape is well developed. The region has a sub-tropical monsoon
appreciation of geodiversity, the European Geoparks Network was climate, characterized by high humidity, high temperatures, ample
established in 2000 (Zouros, 2002; Zouros and Martini, 2003). The rainfall, and frequent typhoons during the summer and autumn
year 2004 marked a further important step in cooperation and months (Davis, 1999; Yim, 2001). The average annual temperature,
geoconservation with the establishment of the UNESCO-endorsed rainfall and relative humidity are 23.1 8C, 2382.7 mm, and 78%,
Global Network of National Geoparks, known as the GGN, which respectively. Rivers in this area are mostly small, short waterways,
defines a geopark as a well-defined area that contains one or more the longest only about 8000 m in length. The headwaters are short
geoheritage sites selected on the basis of scientific importance, and the flow rapid, manifesting seasonal characteristics.
rarity, scenic quality, or relation to geological history, events and This area lies to the southeast of the Lianhuashan Fault Zone of
processes (Eder and Patzak, 2004; UNESCO, 2014). As of November the Cathaysian block (Fig. 1a) and displays the same dominant
2014, 111 geoparks, including 31 in China, were current members structural trend (Campbell and Sewell, 1997; Sewell et al., 2000).
of the GGN, facilitated by UNESCO. The other 80 global geoparks This defines the linear nature of the coastline. The southeast
are distributed in 31 countries around the world. structural trend has controlled the geometry of the present river
With the rapid development of geoparks attheglobal, national and valleys, ridges, as well as the morphometry of the coastal estuaries,
regional levels, geotourism, which is tourism and recreation based on channels, bays and headlands (Fyfe et al., 2000).
geology and landscapes, has evolved into an important industry The terrain of this region is composed mainly of Devonian and
(Hose, 2000; Hose and Wickens, 2004; Dowling and Newsome, 2010; Permian sedimentary rocks cropping out mainly in the Northeast
Zouros, 2010a,b; Jin and Ruban, 2011; Bruno and Perrotta, 2012; New Territories Sedimentary Rock Region and the Late Jurassic to
Farsani et al., 2012; Gordon, 2012; Hose and Vasiljevic, 2012) and is Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks with hexagonal columnar joints in
regarded as a vehicle for geoconservation (Hose, 2011). the Sai Kung Volcanic Rock Region (Lee et al., 1997; Sewell et al.,
As the current part of the geological record, Quaternary 2012). The details of the present landscape of Hong Kong were
geoheritage is widespread, with a cover of superficial (drift) formed mainly during the Quaternary, evolving slowly as the
deposits of this age in many lowland regions and preserved crustal plates migrated, tectonic forces raised and depressed the
landforms related to Quaternary processes in uplands (Bridgland, land, the climate changed, and the sea level fluctuated. From the
2013). Thus, in accordance with geodiversity (Gray et al., 2013), Paleocene to the Quaternary, the area experienced crustal uplift
Quaternary geoheritage is of great value because of the wide range affected by the Himalayan Orogeny. Persistent weathering and
of environmental changes and processes represented in this strong wave erosion further sculpted the landscapes of Hong Kong.
period, many of which record the glacial-interglacial climatic As the last glacial period came to an end, the sea level rose. Peaks
fluctuations that have been the over-arching characteristic of this created by crustal uplift were partially submerged and became
geological era (Brown and Gordon, 2011). However, Quaternary islands. A new coastline was established, with typical coastal
geoheritage tends to be ‘‘high-maintenance’’ (Burek, 2012; Bridg- depositional landforms forming in sheltered locations and diverse
land, 2013), since the conservation objects are generally Quater- coastal erosional landforms developing in the steeper, more
nary sediments of superficial and unconsolidated nature, such as exposed eastern area (Li and Yan, 1999).
loess, and landforms that are constantly developing and changing,
such as karst and coastal landforms (Tian and Cheng, 2009). These 3. Geodiversity and geosites
factors confirm that Quaternary geoheritage represents an
important element of geoheritage, and is worth protecting from The HKGG has well preserved geodiversity due to minimal
possible threats, and promoting as a significant and attractive exposure to humans. The main geoheritage is the coastal land-
component of geodiversity. Quaternary geology is an important scapes (see Table 1 and Fig. 2). Hong Kong is blessed with a long
focus of geoparks such as HKGG (Tian, 2012). The HKGG, approved indented coast. The shorelines within the geopark boundary
by the GGN Bureau in 2011, has an extensive coastal landscape of extend for over 150 km, showcasing a representative and
scientific, esthetic, recreational and cultural value, with geocon- comprehensive system of coastal features. Of particular note are
servation sites which provide a detailed record of climatic and the large-scale hexagonal columnar jointed volcanic rocks, a
environment changes throughout the Quaternary (Fyfe et al., 2000) world-class geological attraction (Fig. 2a and e–i). The coastal
and is the important site for studying global sea-level changes landscapes are controlled primarily by the orientation or aspect of
(Yim, 1999; Wong et al., 2003; Zhang and Ge, 2013). The the coastal sections and the characteristics of the rocks. Coastal
establishment of HKGG has not only opened up new opportunities processes have shaped the outline of Hong Kong, controlling the
and created enthusiasm for geoconservation, but has also provided base level of streams, and determining the fate of fluvial sediments
a major geotourism destination and attraction (Wu et al., 2011). In (Fyfe et al., 2000). Tide, wind and waves are the main driving forces
this paper the coastal geoheritage of HKGG is described in terms of of the coastal processes, resulting in an abundant geoheritage of
its characteristics and landform-forming processes. Geoconserva- coastal landscapes, including diverse coastal types, coastal
tion and geotourism in HKGG are analyzed, and HKGG’s successful erosional landforms and coastal depositional landforms. This has
experience in preserving geoheritage and developing geotourism created a rugged, often cliffed coastline with an intricate pattern of
are discussed, as it provides useful information for the future headlands and bays, and a number of small islands in the east areas
development of geoparks in China. of the geopark (Morton, 1996), where coastal erosion predomi-
nates. In contrast, due to less dynamic formation conditions, the
2. Study area west area of HKGG has a more subbed, depositional coastline of
beaches and muddy tidal inlets. In the south part of the geopark,
The HKGG is situated in the northeast part of Hong Kong, the erosion of volcanic rocks has resulted in the development of
bordering mainland China in the north and facing the South China steep cliffs, which are normally fronted by rocky wave-cut
Sea in the south (Fig. 1a). The geopark covers two regions – the platforms.
Northeast New Territories Sedimentary Rock Region and the Sai The coastal geoheritage features in the study area are classified
0 00 0 00 0 00
Kung Volcanic Rock Region (22815 11 to 22833 11 N; 114812 59 on the basis of their characteristics and the processes that formed
0 00
to 114826 32 E), which are divided into eight geo-areas, them (Table 1), and the geosites are determined as geomorphologic
2
distributed over a total area of 49.85 km (Fig. 1b). sites (geomorphosite) (Panizza, 2001).
428 L. Wang et al. / Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 126 (2015) 426–437
Fig. 1. Study area. (a) Simplified tectonic map of Southeast China. The bold black dashed line denotes the Lianhuashan Fault Zone. The red box shows the present study area.
(b) Distribution of coastal landscapes in HKGG with location of cultural and ecological sites (revised by Yeung and Chan, 2010). (1) Beach (Cheung Sha Wan); (2) Abrasion
Canyon; (3) Corals and Seaweed Beds; (4) Tin Hau Temple; (5) Marine Terrace; (6) Sea Cave; (7) Wave-cut Platform; (8) Sea Stacks; (9) Tin Hau Temple; (10) Hakka Fishing
Village; (11) Sand Spit (Pak Sha Tau Tsui); (12) Biogenic Coast (Lai Chi Wo); (13) Hakka Fishing Village; (14) Muddy Coast; (15) Wave-cut Platform (Yan Chau); (16) Muddy
Coast; (17) Corals; (18) Corals; (19) Muddy Coast; (20) Sandy Coast; (21) Sandy Coast; (22) Sandy Coast; (23) Shell Bank; (24) Fish-culture Zone; (25) Fish-culture Zone; (26)
Beach(Tai Long Wan); (27) Beach(Ham Tin Wan); (28) Beach(Sai Wan); (29) Rocky Coast; (30) Beach(Long Ke Wan); (31) Sea Cave; (32) Sea Stack(Po Pin Chau); (33) Beach
(Pak Sha Chau); (34) Beach; (35) Tombolo; (36) Tin Hau Temple; (37) Sea Arch(Wang Chau Kok); (38) Corals; (39) Rocky Coast; (40) Sea Arch(Lam Wan Kok); (41) Sea
Cliff(Bluff Island); (42) Sea Arch(Sha Tong Hau); (43) Rocky Coast; (44) Sea Cave; (45) Tin Hau Temple. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
L. Wang et al. / Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 126 (2015) 426–437 429
Table 1
Summary of coastal landscapes in HKGG.
Class Type Distribution
Coast Rocky coast Along the southern coast of HKGG
Sandy coast In Mirs Bay and Tolo Channel
Muddy coast North of HKGG
Biogenic coast Mangroves along the coast of Lai Chi Wo and northeastern deep bay of HKGG
form the most typical biogenic coast
Coastal erosional landform Sea cave The northeastern and southern coast of HKGG
Sea cliff Southeast of HKGG, the tallest around Bluff Island
Sea arch Along the southeastern coast of HKGG
Sea stack Po Pin Chau, eastern Tung Ping Chau
Wave-cut shore platform South of Tung Ping Chau, Yan Chau in Double Haven
Abrasion canyon Northwest of Tung Ping Chau
Marine terrace Southwest of Tung Ping Chau
Coastal depositional landform Beach Cheung Sha Wan on Tung Ping Chau, Tai Long Wan, Pak Sha Chau, Kiu Tau,
Sai Wan, Long Ke Wan, Ham Tin Wan
Sand spit Pak Sha Tau Tsui at the northwestern corner of HKGG
Tombolo Sharp Island at southeastern HKGG
Shell bank The southern coast of Ma Shi Chau
3.1. Coastal types the 30-m-high Tiu Chung Arch and the 24-m-high Sha Tong Hau
Arch (Yeung and Ng, 2008).
The coastal types in HKGG are classified according to material
composition as the coasts of rock (Fig. 2a), sand (Fig. 2b), mud 3.2.4. Sea stack
(Fig. 2c) or biogenic material (Fig. 2d). The distinctive morphology Sea stacks in HKGG are well developed and some have a
of the coastal types is chiefly determined by their position relative spectacular shape, making them a popular destination for both locals
to the main fluvial influences, in particular those from the Pearl and tourists. Po Pin Chau, in the south part of HKGG is a sea stack
River, and the main oceanic regimes (Huang, 1984). (Fig. 2i). It was once a headland, part of Fa Shan, but cracks between
the vertical volcanic rock columns expanded gradually under the
3.2. Coastal erosional landforms relentless impact of waves and erosion, forming first a sea cave and
then a sea arch. The top of the sea arch eventually collapsed,
A great many steep, rocky coasts in HKGG have been visibly separating what is now Po Pin Chau from the main island, forming an
changed by wave erosion. Soluble rock in the north part of the isolated sea stack. Another two huge sea stacks are about 7–8 m
geopark, such as limestone and dolomite, dissolves as waves wash high, situated on a wave cut platform on Tung Ping Chau, at the
against it (Nau, 1979; Taylor et al., 1990; Lai, 1991), and the more northeast tip of HKGG. The sea stacks are well known as watchtower
durable rock in the south part of the geopark, such as rhyolitic tuff, stones after their shapes, which is like the ‘‘watchtower’’ of an
has been fractured by the enormous pressures caused by waves ancient village. The perspective views on the top of sea stacks
slamming into it (Davis et al., 1997). generate a feeling of the mystery of nature (Fig. 2j).
3.2.1. Sea cave 3.2.5. Wave-cut platform
In the northeast part of HKGG, sea caves, 1–2 m high and 0.5– Rocky wave-cut platforms are distributed along the north coast
1 m wide, are linearly distributed along the bottom of the of HKGG. The width and morphology of these wave-cut platforms
sedimentary rock beds, which are easily eroded by seawater. depend on wave energy, lithology, position of the surf zone, and
The south part of HKGG has well developed sea caves 5–7 m high, tidal range (Trenhaile, 2000, 2001; Dickson, 2006; Waele et al.,
1–2 m wide and 3–5 m long (Fig. 2e). The caves are developed both 2009). Owen (1995) described two types of platforms, sub-tidal
above and below sea level. Several shallow underwater sea caves and supra-tidal, both of which generally slope gently seawards.
exist off the coast and on the islands, providing important evidence Sub-tidal platforms are present around Tung Ping Chau in the east
of sea-level change. part of Mirs Bay, which is open to direct wave action from the
South China Sea (Fig. 2k). The platforms were formed by erosion
3.2.2. Sea cliff from high-energy wave action. There are supra-tidal platforms in
The coastlines in the southeast part of HKGG are made up of sheltered areas of Double Haven, where the impact of wind and
volcanic rocks, some of which have almost vertical columnar waves is minimal, but erosion caused by salinity and weathering is
joints. These characteristic columnar joints, along with strong common. Yan Chau is a supra-tidal platform with an interesting
wave action, have led to the formation of high, steep cliffs, shape, like that of a stone seal (Fig. 2l). It is one of the famous
spectacular formations of high scientific value (Xing et al., 2011). geosites called ‘‘Six Treasures of Double Haven’’.
The tallest sea cliffs in HKGG, around 140 m high, are around
Bluff Island (Fig. 2f). Sea caves have developed in some of the 3.2.6. Abrasion canyon
cliffs. In the northeast part of the geopark there is an abrasion canyon.
The north-south interlinked canyon, 5 m wide, 10 m high and 20 m
3.2.3. Sea arch long, was originally part of the main island of Tung Ping Chau,
When two sides of a sea cave sustain continuous, violent wave but was penetrated and then separated by wave erosion along a
erosion, the water eventually breaks through, forming a sea arch. north-south trending fault (Zhang et al., 2009) (Fig. 2m).
Along the southeast coast of HKGG, the collapse of some of the
volcanic rock columns has resulted in fascinating tall sea arches. 3.2.7. Marine terrace
The top four sea arches in HKGG are the 45-m-high Lam Wan Marine terraces along rocky coastlines in northeast HKGG are
Kok Arch (Fig. 2g), the 40-m-high Wang Chau Kok Arch (Fig. 2h), controlled by changes in environmental conditions and by tectonic
430 L. Wang et al. / Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 126 (2015) 426–437
activity in recent geological times. Southwest of Tung Ping Chau is foundation has provided an important framework for geocon-
a well-defined sequence of uplifted marine terraces from the servation in HKGG. At present, HKGG is protected by the Country
Holocene (Zhang et al., 2009), featuring a well preserved lower Parks Ordinance and Marine Parks Ordinance, which forbid all
terrace, a widely eroded higher terrace and another still higher activities that may destroy the biological, geological or cultural
terrace, which rises over 20 m above sea level (Fig. 2n). environment in the geopark. The Agriculture, Fisheries and
Conservation Department (AFCD) is charged with the legal
3.3. Coastal depositional landforms responsibility of developing and managing the protected areas
(Wong, 2013). This legal framework not only has ensured the
The coasts along the west part of HKGG were primarily shaped formal protection of the geosites in HKGG, but is the foundation
by sediment deposition, particularly by longshore drift of sand. for planning and managing HKGG.
3.3.1. Beach 4.2. Zoning for geoconservation
The beaches in Pak Sha Chau, Sai Wan, Long Ke Wan, Kiu Tau
and Tai Long Wan (Fig. 2o) are the most significant depositional Gray (2005) stated that geodiversity should be conserved for
features (Yu et al., 2013). Like most of the beaches in and around two main reasons – its value and threats against it. Geodiversity
HKGG, they are formed on coasts with a southerly aspect, facing should be protected not only for its fragility or potential
the prevailing wind and waves. The beach sediment is sand, irreversible loss, but for its enormous value to mankind, from its
typically quartz-rich. The beach at Ham Tin Wan is noted for large cultural, esthetic and economic value to its functional and
waves with very long wavelengths that are associated with educational benefits. In 2009, public deliberations in Hong Kong
collapsing or surging breakers. Consequently, they build a steep indicated a clear consensus to place geodiversity at the top of the
beach profile. agenda, particularly in view of its value for geotourism and
education. The three-tier protection zoning system HKGG subse-
quently introduced was based on this consensus (see Table 2 and
3.3.2. Sand spit
Fig. 3).
The sharp sand spit at Pak Sha Tau Tsui, in the northwest corner
Core Protection Areas in HKGG are places which have been
of HKGG resembles an ink brush (Fig. 2p). Vast amounts of sand
preserved in their natural state and are very sensitive to human
were moved by longshore transport and built up off a point of land,
impact. These places have, therefore, been designated mainly for
forming a sand spit, a fingerlike ridge of sediment that extends out
conservation purposes. No infrastructure is permitted, including
into the open water.
pier or trails, as they have low carrying capacity and are often
dangerous for casual visitors. In order to protect important
3.3.3. Tombolo
geoheritage and prevent accidents due to strong waves and steep
There is special tombolo in the southeast part of the geopark,
cliffs, visitors are not encouraged to land in these areas. Sightseeing
which is a striking but rare feature formed by longshore drift.
is suitable only on boat tours on calm summer days.
At low tide, the 700-m-long gravel tombolo emerges, linking
Special Protection Areas are places which already have basic
Sharp Island with Kiu Tau, a much smaller island, allowing
visitor facilities, such as trails, and thus have medium carrying
visitors to walk from Sharp Island to Kiu Tau along the tombolo
capacity and sensitivity. Apart from conservation purposes, these
(Fig. 2q). The unique tombolo and picturesque beauty and
places are ideal for education and science popularization.
views have made Sharp Island one of most popular geosites in
Integrated Protection Areas have high carrying capacity. Most
recent years.
visitor facilities, such as kiosks, barbeque sites, and camping sites,
are already in place in these geopark areas. Thus, in addition to
3.3.4. Shell bank conservation and education, these places can serve recreational
On the south coast of Ma Shi Chau is a layered shell bank, about purposes (Yeung and Chan, 2010).
5 m wide and 80 m long (Fig. 2r), consisting mainly of mollusk
shells and shell fragments. The shell bank indicates a relocation of 4.3. Local communities and young people – the main force of
the ancient coastline, and is a good resource for studying the geoconservation
history of the coast development.
As ignorance is thought to be one of the greatest threats to
4. Geoconservation in HKGG geodiversity (Gray, 2004, 2008; Hose, 2005), one of the best ways
to raise the public awareness of the value of the geoheritage is
4.1. Conservation legal framework through education and promotion (Dunbar, 2007; Loon, 2008). In
the early stage of the geopark project in Hong Kong, when the
Hong Kong, like many big cities, faces strong pressure for geopark concept was new to the local community, the AFCD
development with its high population density, so there is always started consulting and liaising with local organizations. As trust
a temptation to encroach on sensitive sites for various social uses, and confidence developed, a number of local engagement projects
such as roads, utilities or housing. Other potential pressure on the were initiated as a way to enhance public awareness of
geopark comes from natural hazards and visitor impact. The geoheritage, such as setting up local geoheritage centers, organiz-
subtropical climate with high precipitation in summer accel- ing geological tours and events, and developing and promoting
erates the weathering and erosion of the geoheritage and cultural geopark cuisine. Over time, they have created a respectful and
relics in the geopark. For example, falling hexagonal columns on mutually beneficial relationship with the local communities,
the sea cliffs pose a potential danger to visitors. Human factors which is a valuable and integral asset to the geopark. The
also present a threat, as visitors who do not follow the economic benefits gained through sustainable tourism and
geoconservation code, for example, may cause damage to the revitalization of traditional culture provide incentives for local
rocks and landforms by digging, defacing, littering, and so forth. people to support conservation in their area. Furthermore, formal
Thus, legislation protecting the geodiversity is important for the school groups are the most typical and easiest group to engage
sustainability of the geopark. Since the designation of first with local geodiversity (Worton and Gillard, 2013). HKGG
Hong Kong Country Parks in the 1970s (Yeung, 2007), the legal organizes activities and provides logistical support to convey
L. Wang et al. / Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 126 (2015) 426–437 431
432 L. Wang et al. / Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 126 (2015) 426–437
Table 2
The three-tier protection zoning system of HKGG (Yeung and Chan, 2010).
Protection level Vulnerability Carrying capacity Naturalness Safety level Locality name
Core Protection Area High Low High Low Fa Shan of High Island, Ninepin Group and Ung Kung Group
Special Protection Area Medium Medium Medium Medium Ma Shi Chau, Lai Chi Chong and High Island Reservoir East Dam
Integrated Protection Area Low High Medium High Lai Chi Wo, Tung Ping Chau, Sharp Island and Tai Long Wan
geoscientific knowledge and environmental and cultural concepts story about a certain coastal feature or an entire coastal
to students. This is accomplished through protected and inter- landform, for example, catering for visitors of different
preted geosites, geoheritage centers, trails, guided tours, school backgrounds. The materials are currently available on the
class excursions, educational materials and displays, seminars, HKGG website and in its publications.
and so on. One such activity organized for young people is a (2) Quality tour guides are essential for providing worthwhile
rock-cleaning activity for students (Fig. 4a). The activity not only tours for visitors. In Hong Kong, there are currently over
effectively restores the natural appearance of the rocks, but helps 5000 tour guides, but the number of geotourism guides is
the participants understand the irreversible impact of the limited. In order to encourage existing tour guides to upgrade
destruction of our invaluable geoheritage. HKGG has also put a their skills and knowledge to provide high-quality geotours, a
lot of effort into providing training for teachers so that they can two-level tour-guide system for HKGG has been developed:
carry out geological education activities such as ‘‘Rock Classroom’’ Recommended Geopark Guides (R2G) and Accredited Geopark
and ‘‘Rock Academy’’ on their own. In terms of HKGG’s contribution Guides (A2G). Routine training and periodic assessments for
to promotion and geological education, a growing number of local the guides have been organized (Fig. 4b). The training includes
communities and young people are getting enthusiastically basic knowledge of the geosites in HKGG, covering geology,
involved in geoconservation, which sustains the geopark’s culture and ecology; an understanding of the code for visiting
conservation efforts now and in the long term. geosites in HKGG, especially regarding safety requirements and
geoconservation; and seminars on geotourism. In addition,
5. Geotourism in HKGG effective interpretation can contribute to sustainable tourism
and recreation (Moscardo, 1998). A Hong Kong Geopark
Supported by its strategic location as the gateway to China’s Handbook for tour guides was published, with voice-over in
huge, rapidly expanding market, Hong Kong is a world famous free Cantonese, English, Putonghua, Japanese and Korean, which
port and modern metropolis. In addition to being an international has greatly facilitated interaction between the guides and
financial center, Hong Kong boasts a wealth of geosites, in foreign visitors.
particular, a representative and comprehensive coastal landscape, (3) For the development of geotourism and sustainable geological
which presents a wide range of geological and geomorphological education, the HKGG has set up two visitor centers and four
features. Geodiversity, together with an appealing ecological local geoheritage centers as a partnership project among local
environment, creates an attractive tourist product. For this reason, villagers, local environmental organization and the govern-
with the rapid development of HKGG, geotourism has evolved to ment (Fig. 4c and d). These centers function both as transport
become a hot new industry, which can help promote geoconserva- hubs to the geosites in HKGG and museums to enrich visitors’
tion and an understanding of earth science through appreciation experience and knowledge. Combining pictures, text and
and learning (Newsome and Dowling, 2010; Hose, 2011, 2012). modern technology (interactive panels, presentations and
The development of geotourism through HKGG which is one of audiovisual effects), the exhibits in the centers give an
the first geoparks in the world to be established in a densely overview of HKGG including general information about the
populated metropolis, illustrates that geotourism can occur in coasts, coastal features, formation processes of coastal land-
urban areas just as appropriately as in natural areas (Zhang, 2000; forms, geopark coastal landscapes and their scientific value,
Ng, 2007; Ng et al., 2010; Dowling, 2010). In order to harmonize marine life and cultural relics.
the geoheritage and urban contexts of HKGG, various measures (4) A number of cultural and ecological sites can be found in the
had been taken to develop geotourism and good results have been geopark, such as Tin Hau temples (Fig. 2s), traditional Hakka
obtained. fishing villages dating back to the late 18th century (Fig. 2t),
several fish-culture zones (Fig. 2u), and more than 60 hard coral
(1) The most important aspect of geotourism is interpreting the species and extensive seaweed beds in the surrounding waters.
geoheritage information in a way that makes it easily Eight geotrails and two boat-tour routes have been developed
accessible and understandable to the public. Accordingly, to link these cultural and ecological sites with the geological
HKGG developed an integrated interpretation system, which highlights of the sites (Fig. 4). Along the geotrails, the
comprises different types of geological interpretation in five geodiversity is explained, including its relationship with the
levels, from easy (level 1) to expert (level 5). For example, two surrounding biodiversity, and the historical and cultural
to three levels must meet the needs of the majority of visitors, aspects of the region. Information is shared through interpre-
so there are clear guidelines that ensure all interpretation tive panels, leaflets and signs (Fig. 4e). To provide high-quality
materials are easily understandable. Geological jargon and boat tours, the geopark and local boat rental companies have
esoteric terms are avoided to some extent. The information had two geopark-themed yachts designed (Fig. 4f), with
uses an imaginative combination of text and visuals to tell a geopark decorations on both the interior and exterior. Visitors
Fig. 2. Photos of typical coastal landscapes in HKGG. (a) Rocky coast; (b) Sandy coast; (c) Muddy coast; (d) Mangrove coast; (e) Sea cave; (f) Sea cliff; (g and h) Sea arch; (i and j)
Sea stack; (k) Sub-tidal platform; (l) Supra-tidal platform; (m) Abrasion canyon; (n) Marine terrace; (o) Beach; (p) Sand spit; (q) Tombolo; (r) Shell bank; (s) Tin Hou Temple;
(t) Traditional Hakka Fishing village; (u) Fishermen in the fish-culture zone.
All the photos provided by the Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department.
L. Wang et al. / Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 126 (2015) 426–437 433
Fig. 3. Map of protection zones of HKGG (revised by Tian et al., 2009).
can learn about the geology of coast as they cruise past the (6) HKGG stimulates economic activity and sustainable develop-
coastal landscape. ment through geotourism. The coastal geosites are an
(5) To promote HKGG as a brand for visitors, a geopark logo was important element in the economic development of the region
designed, comprising eight columns, representing the special and the center of geotourism development. HKGG is located in
hexagonal volcanic columns in HKGG (Fig. 4g). The logo won the northeast part of Hong Kong (Fig. 1), which is relatively
‘‘The Outstanding Greater China Design Awards 2010’’. unpopulated except for traditional villages dependent on
434 L. Wang et al. / Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 126 (2015) 426–437
Fig. 4. Geoconservation activities and geotourism facilities in HKGG. (a) Rock-cleaning activity; (b) Training for the guides; (c) Visitor center; (d) Geoheritage center; (e)
Interpretive panels outside; (f) Geopark-themed yacht; (g) Logo of HKGG; (h) Geopark gourmet; (i) Safety warning board; (j) Interpretive panel corresponding to the stop on
geotrail; (k) Definitive stamps of HKGG; (l) Science popularization publications of HKGG available in the bookstore; (m) Geopark hotel with videos and the leaflets of HKGG in
the lobby.
All the photos provided by the Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department.
L. Wang et al. / Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 126 (2015) 426–437 435
fishing, mariculture and agriculture. However, these primary wardens, while the remote coastal areas are patrolled using
industries have been declining in recent decades due to rural- Marine Parks patrol vessels, in order to prevent any illegal
urban migration and the decline in fishery resources. To assist development or activities.
fishermen in the geopark area who have been affected by (2) Optimizing the tourism infrastructure
declining harvests, HKGG has been providing them with Most of the geosites in HKGG are in close proximity to the
training and assistance with a view to engaging them as boat city, and Hong Kong’s well-developed public transport system
operators or tour guides for geotourism to help them increase makes it easy for individual visitors to visit most geosites in the
their income. In addition, with a view to promoting the coastal integrated protection areas and special protection areas on
landscape in an interesting and understandable way through their own. The eight main geotrails in the geopark (Fig. 4) are
nonconventional means while engaging the local community, accessible by public bus, minibus, ferry, or a combination of
HKGG, together with Sai Kung District Council and the Sai Kung these, along with hiking. To help visitors choose and prepare for
Food and Beverages Association, has been working with Sai the visit, the geopark website provides video clips, public
Kung restaurants to make gourmet meals depicting geological transport information, trail length and difficulty level, a map
concepts, such as typical coastal landforms in HKGG (Fig. 4h). and highlights of each trail, as well as a trail leaflet, which can
Four leading restaurants are participating in the project and be downloaded and printed (http://www.geopark.gov.hk/
over 10 dishes have been developed. en_s5a.htm), or obtained at geopark visitor centers. Basic
visitor facilities, such as piers, trails, safety warning boards
(Fig. 4i) and toilets, are provided.
6. Discussion
(3) Strong scientific interpretation system
In general, the interpretation of geosites may be easy and
The focus of geoparks is geoheritage, geology and landscapes,
interesting to geoscientists but difficult and dull for non-
which are part of an integrated concept of protection, education
specialists. As pointed by Hose (2012), geo-interpretation is not
and sustainable development. Geoparks achieve their goals
about ‘‘dumbing down’’ the science but rather developing
through geoconservation, education and geotourism (Dowling,
vehicles to convey a message to tourists using a gradual
2010; Tian, 2012). With the rapid development of geoparks in
journey of knowledge. Thus, the major point of interpretation is
China, the geoparks have made some significant advances in
the phrase ‘‘as perceived by people’’ (Erikstad, 2013). Since
implementing geoconservation and developing geotourism.
Hong Kong National Geopark was approved by the Ministry of
However, some geoparks in China are still in the primary stage
Land and Resources (MLR) of China in 2009, interpretative
of development, and there remain problems restricting the
boards and panels for the geosites have been upgraded several
positive development of geoconservation and geotourism that
times to ensure that visitors find the content interesting and
need to be addressed, such as inefficient conservation manage-
easy to understand. All the panels have undergone a series of
ment, the lack of geopark legislation, ineffective interpretation of
editorial revisions to simplify the content for easy understand-
geological features for visitors, uninspiring museum exhibits,
ing and are provided in English and Chinese. After several years
and a lack of local community participation, all of which affect
of exploration and experience, all the interpretative boards and
the development of geotourism (Dong et al., 2014; Wang et al.,
panels now have a standard format with eight elements: (1) the
2014). The establishment of HKGG marked a new phase of nature
GGN logo, the National Geopark of China logo and the Hong
conservation in Hong Kong, and with its development reaching
Kong Geopark logo to increase geopark visibility; (2) a concise
the mature stage, it can be used by the geoparks in China and
and interesting heading; (3) a short explanation of the main
other countries which are still in the primary stage of
geosite features; (4) diagrams illustrating the formation of the
development as a model of good practices for geoconservation
features; (5) a representative photo of the feature; (6) a map
and geotourism. To summarize the development of HKGG, the
showing the geotrail and location of the panels along the trail;
successful experience is as follows:
(7) the code number of the geosite; and (8) a mark indicating
the location of the panel (Fig. 4j). To cater for the needs of boat
(1) Effective conservation management
tours, a special interpretation system has been designed, using
The HKGG is managed under the previously existing
a speaking pen and a special map which allow tourists to listen
management framework for protected areas in Hong Kong. This
to an interpretation text by pointing to a geosite on the map.
management system comprises three bodies: the policy maker,
(4) Mass promotion and education material
which is the Environment Bureau, advisors, which form a Task
Force, and the management authority, which is the AFCD. The AFCD has teamed up with the Hong Kong Tourism Board
to promote HKGG to visitors by organizing and participating in
The Environment Bureau of the Hong Kong Government is
exhibitions and geo-cultural activities. With the support of a
the policy bureau for HKGG. It formulates the related policies
local business group involved in the transport industry, videos
and offers direction to the operations department. The Task
on various interesting geosites in HKGG and an MTV clip of the
Force on HKGG was established to give advice on strategies for
HKGG theme song have been broadcast on public buses and
the development of HKGG. The Task Force members include
ferries. The broadcasts have greatly aroused the public’s interest
academic experts, geologists, representatives of nongovern-
in the geosites. On 24 July, 2014, Hong Kong Post launched a new
mental organizations, government officials and overseas
set of definitive stamps with 16 different denominations with
advisors. Working together with the policy maker and advisors,
‘‘HKGG of China’’ as the theme (Fig. 4k). These definitive stamps
the AFCD is the statutory management authority of the
display the unique coastal landscape of HKGG. According to
geopark. It is responsible for all aspects of the implementation
UNESCO (2014), geoparks should have three targets: conserva-
of the geopark project, including conservation, management,
tion, education and development of the local economy through
visitor services, etc. Under the Country and Marine Parks
geotourism. It can be said that among the main goals of geoparks
Branch of the AFCD, five divisions are involved in the
are preserving unique geoheritage and introduce it as a tourist
management of the geopark. The daily management duties
attraction, and popularizing geological science. Over the last
of HKGG are shared among different divisions of the depart-
decade, the AFCD has partnered with many nongovernmental
ment. For example, foot patrols are carried out by park
436 L. Wang et al. / Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 126 (2015) 426–437
organizations to publish over 200 books, which are sold in major (2) Optimization of tourism infrastructure.
bookstores in Hong Kong (Fig. 4l). This has proved to be the most (3) Reinforcement of the science interpretation system.
effective means of science popularization and has been widely (4) Effectiveness of mass promotion and education.
welcomed by the public. (5) Taking the initiative in organizing exchange and learning
(5) Active exchange and training activities activities.
To ensure that HKGG policies are in line with the GGN (6) Engaging in close collaboration with local communities.
requirements, representatives from HKGG have visited over
20 geoparks in mainland China, Japan, Australia and Europe to Through these effective measures and unremitting effort, HKGG
learn from good examples, and Mainland and overseas experts has become a major tourist destination, and this can be used as a
have been invited to visit HKGG to give valuable advice. Every model for the development of geoconservation and geotourism in
year representatives from HKGG also attend various conferences other geoparks. One serious challenge that HKGG faces, however, is
organized at home andabroad. These visits have been very useful the potential conflict between geoconservation and scientific
in helping to identify areas for improvement and in learning how observation. In HKGG, there are designated geoheritage protection
to make changes. HKGG has also established a sister arrange- areas, but there is no clear indication of places where sampling is
ment with six global geoparks, such as English Riviera Global allowed or prohibited for scientific study. In the long run, we
Geopark, United Kingdom; Marble Arch Caves Global Geopark, suggest HKGG designate certain areas where geologists have
United Kingdom/Republic of Ireland; and Geo-Naturpark access to samples for geoscience research.
Bergtrasse-Odenward, Germany. In general, activities with the
six sister geoparks include organizing workshops, mutual Acknowledgements
promotion, exchanging specimens for display, and mutual visits.
In addition, arrangements are made to ensure that all geopark This work was supported by an investigation program of the
staff receive basic training on geology, geoconservation, AFCD, of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administra-
geotourism and geoparks, which not only is fundamental to tive Region (Grant No. AFCD/SQ/92/14). We are very grateful to
the good management of the geopark, but also supplements and Dr. Ka-ming Yeung, Alvin Ng and T.K. Woo of the geopark division
strengthens the work of geoconservation and geotourism. of the AFCD for their help during the field investigation.
(6) Collaboration with local communities
HKGG’s efforts and experience in encouraging local
References
participation in HKGG could be of great value in geoconserva-
tion and geotourism. Geoconservation has gradually become a Brown, E., Gordon, J., 2011. Climate change: learning from our geological past. Earth
strong movement in local communities in Hong Kong since the Heritage 35, 25–26.
Bruno, D.E., Crowley, B.E., Gutake, J.M., Moroni, A., Nazarenko, O.V., Oheim, K.B.,
Association for Geoconservation, Hong Kong (AGHK) was set up
Ruban, D.A., Tiess, G., Zorina, S.O., 2014. Paleogeography as geological heritage:
in 2006 with the aim of promoting the importance of
developing geosite classification. Earth-Science Reviews 138, 300–312.
geoconservation. This has expedited geopark development Bruno, D.E., Perrotta, P., 2012. A geotouristic proposal for Amendolara territory
(northern ionic sector of Calabria, Italy). Geoheritage 4, 139–151.
by arousing public awareness of the importance of protecting
Bridgland, D.R., 2013. Geoconservation of Quaternary sites and interests. Proceed-
valuable geoheritage and encouraging public participation in
ings of the Geologists’ Association 124, 612–624.
geotourism. This has helped create strong public interest, Burek, C., 2012. The importance of Quaternary geoconservation. Quaternary News-
letter 126, 25–33.
appreciation and knowledge of geoheritage, as well as support
Campbell, S.D.G., Sewell, R.J., 1997. Structure control and tectonic setting of Mesozoic
for the geopark. Furthermore, HKGG plays an important role in
volcanism in Hong Kong. Journal of the Geological Society 154, 1039–1052.
rural development through local involvement in geopark and Cleal, C.J., Thomas, B.A., Bevins, R.E., Wimbledon, W.A.P., 1999. Geosites – an
international geoconservation initiative. Geology Today 15 (2), 64–68.
geotourism activities. HKGG engages local communities in
Davis, A.M., 1999. Quaternary stratigraphy of Hong Kong coastal sediments. Journal
designing new tourist facilities, such as trail alignment, content
of Asian Earth Sciences 17, 521–531.
selection and material selection. The local communities also Davis, D.W., Sewell, R.J., Campbell, S.D.G., 1997. U-Pb dating of Mesozoic igneous
rocks from Hong Kong. Journal of the Geological Society 154, 1067–1076.
make recommendations on the location of the interpretation
Dickson, M.E., 2006. Shore platform development around Lord Howe Island, south-
panels and safety warning boards. In the development of the
west Pacific. Geomorphology 76, 295–315.
boat tours, the boat operators are involved in suggesting visitor Dixon, G., 1996. Geoconservation: An International Review and Strategy for Tas-
routes which meet different requirements. To promote local mania. Miscellaneous Report. Parks and Wildlife Service, Tasmania, pp. 1–101.
Dong, H.M., Song, Y.G., Chen, T., Zhao, J.B., Yu, L.P., 2014. Geoconservation and
development through geodiversity, HKGG encourages local
geotourism in Luochuan Loess National Geopark, China. Quaternary Interna-
companies to invest in and contribute to the development of
tional 334–335, 40–51.
the local economy. This engagement spans several sectors, such Dowling, R., Newsome, D., 2010. Geotourism: a global activity. In: Dowling, R.,
Newsome, D. (Eds.), Global Geotourism Perspectives. Goodfellow Publishers,
as geopark hotels (Fig. 4m), geopark gourmet (Fig. 4h) and
Woodeaton, pp. 1–17.
providers of outdoor leisure activities, and plays a very
Dowling, R.K., 2010. Geotourism’s global growth. Geoheritage 3 (1), 1–13.
important role in geotourism development. It is obvious that Dunbar, P.K., 2007. Increasing public awareness of natural hazards via the Internet.
Natural Hazards 42 (3), 529–536.
HKGG contributes positively to the daily lives of local
Eder, F.W., Patzak, M., 2004. Geoparks – geological attractions: a tool for public
communities by working together with them.
education, recreation and sustainable economic development. Episodes 25,
162–164.
Erikstad, L., 2013. Geoheritage and geodiversity management – the questions for
7. Conclusion
tomorrow. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 124, 713–719.
Farsani, N.T., Coelho, C., Costa, C., 2012. Geotourism and geoparks as gateways to
sociocultural sustainability in Qeshm rural areas, Iran. Asia Pacific Journal of
As geodiversity, geoconservation and geotourism are rather
Tourism Research 17, 30–48.
new, emerging topics in the earth science field (Hjort and Luoto,
Fyfe, J.A., Shaw, R., Campbell, S.D.G., Lai, K.W., Kirk, P.A., 2000. The Quaternary
2010; Gordon et al., 2012), HKGG puts a lot of effort into promoting Geology of Hong Kong. Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil Engineering
Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region,
geodiversity, geoconservation and geotourism. In addition to a
pp. 1–43.
good management foundation, the main achievements in promot-
Gordon, J.E., 2012. Rediscovering a sense of wonder: geoheritage, geotourism and
ing geoconservation and geotourism in HKGG are as follows: cultural landscape experiences. Geoheritage 4, 65–77.
Gordon, J.E., Barron, H.F., Hansom, J.D., Thomas, M.F., 2012. Engaging with geodi-
versity – why it matters. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 123, 1–6.
(1) Establishment of effective conservation management.
L. Wang et al. / Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 126 (2015) 426–437 437
Gray, M., 2004. Geodiversity: Valuing and Conserving Abiotic Nature. John Wiley Engineering Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Adminis-
and Sons, Chichester, UK 434 pp. trative Region, pp. 1–157.
Gray, M., 2005. Geodiversity and geoconservation: what, why, and how? In: Sewell, R.J., Tang, D.L.K., Campbell, S.D.G., 2012. Volcanic-plutonic connections in
Santucci, V.L. (Ed.), Papers Presented at the George Wright Forum. pp. 4–12. a tilted nested caldera complex in Hong Kong. Geochemistry Geophysics
Gray, M., 2008. Geodiversity: the origin and evolution of a paradigm. In: Burek, C.V., Geosystems 13, Q01006.
Prosser, C.D. (Eds.), The History of Geoconservation, vol. 300. The Geological Sharples, C., 1993. A methodology for the identification of significant landforms
Society, London, Special Publications, pp. 31–36. and geological sites for geoconservation purposes. Technical Report. Forestry
Gray, M., 2013. Geodiversity: Valuing and Conserving Abiotic Nature, 2nd ed. Commission Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania.
Wiley-Blackwell, , pp. 3–14. Taylor, G., Workman, D.R., Peart, M.R., 1990. The rocks of Ping Chau, Mirs Bay, Hong
Gray, M., Gordon, J.E., Brown, E.J., 2013. Geodiversity and the ecosystem approach: Kong. Geological Society of Hong Kong Newsletter 8, 46–50.
the contribution of geoscience in delivering integrated environmental manage- Tian, M.Z., 2012. Rising national geoparks and geoheritage conservation of China
ment. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 124, 659–673. developed a new research field of the Quaternary science. Quaternary Interna-
Hjort, J., Luoto, M., 2010. Geodiversity of high latitude landscapes in northern tional 279–280, 492.
Finland. Geomorphology 115, 109–116. Tian, M.Z., Cheng, J., 2009. Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology. Geology
Hose, T.A., 2000. European ‘‘geotourism’’ – geological interpretation and conserva- Publishing House, Beijing, pp. 1–307 (in Chinese).
tion promotion for tourists. In: Barettino, D., Wimbledon, W.A.P., Gallego, E. Tian, M.Z., Wu, F.D., Zhang, J.P., Wang, L.L., Xie, L.L., Liu, S.W., 2009. Comprehensive
(Eds.), Geological Heritage: Its Conservation and Management. ITGE, Madrid, report of Hong Kong Geopark. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Depart-
pp. 127–146. ment, Hong Kong SAR Government (in Chinese).
Hose, T.A., 2005. Geotourism and interpretation. In: Dowling, R.K., Newsome, D. Todorov, T., Wimbledon, W.A.P., 2004. Geological heritage conservation on inter-
(Eds.), Geotourism. Elsevier, Oxford, UK, pp. 221–241. national, regional, national and local levels. Polish Geological Institute Special
Hose, T.A., 2011. The English origins of geotourism (as a vehicle for geoconserva- Papers 13, 9–12.
tion) and their relevance to current studies. Acta Geographica Slovenica 51 (3), Trenhaile, A.S., 2000. Modeling the development of wave-cut shore platforms.
343–359. Marine Geology 166, 163–178.
Hose, T.A., 2012. 3gs for modern geotourism. Geoheritage 4 (1–2), 7–14. Trenhaile, A.S., 2001. Modeling the effect of late Quaternary interglacial sea levels
Hose, T.A., Vasiljevic, D.A., 2012. Defining the nature and purpose of Modern on wave-cut shore platforms. Marine Geology 172, 205–223.
Geotourism with particular reference to the United Kingdom and South-East UNESCO, 2014. Guidelines and Criteria for National Geoparks Seeking UNESCO’s
Europe. Geoheritage 4 (1–2), 25–43. Assistance to Join the Global Geoparks Network (GGN). United Nations Educa-
Hose, T.A., Wickens, E., 2004. Typologies, tourism locations and images: meeting tional, Scientific and Cultural Organization, , pp. 1–13.
the real needs of real tourists. In: Weber, S., Tomljenovic´, R. (Eds.), Reinventing Waele, J.D., Mucedda, M., Montanaro, L., 2009. Morphology and origin of coastal
a Tourism Destination: Facing the Challenge. Institute for Tourism, Zagreb, karst landforms in Miocene and Quaternary carbonate rocks along the central-
pp. 103–114. western coast of Sardinia (Italy). Geomorphology 106, 26–34.
Huang, J., 1984. Changes in deltas and major rivers of China in historical periods. In: Wang, L.L., Tian, M.Z., Wen, X.F., Zhao, L.L., Song, J.L., Sun, M., Wang, H., Lan, Y.H., Sun,
Whyte, R.O. (Ed.), The Evolution of the East Asian Environment, vol. 1. Centre for M., 2014. Geoconservation and geotourism in Arxan-Chaihe Volcano Area, Inner
Asian Studies, The University of Hong Kong, pp. 320–338. Mongolia, China. Quaternary International 349, 384–391.
Jin, Q., Ruban, D.A., 2011. A conceptual framework of tourism crowding manage- Wong, C.G., 2013. Country parks and marine parks in Hong Kong. Shanghai Urban
ment at geological heritage sites. Natura Nascosta 43, 1–17. Planning Review 6, 6 (in Chinese).
Lai, K.W., 1991. Stratigraphy of the Ping Chau Formation. Geological Society of Hong Wong, W.T., Li, K.W., Yeung, K.H., 2003. Long term sea level change in Hong Kong.
Kong Newsletter 9, 3–23. Hong Kong Meteorological Society Bulletin 13, 23–40.
Lee, C.M., Chen, J.H., He, G.X., Lai, K.W., 1997. Stratigraphical sequence of Worton, G.J., Gillard, R., 2013. Local communities and young people – the future
Hong Kong. Journal of Stratigraphy 21, 161–181 (in Chinese with English of geoconservation. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 124, 681–690.
abstract). Wu, F.D., Tian, M.Z., Zhang, J.P., Wang, L.L., 2011. Resource types and construction
Li, J.S., Yan, Y.D., 1999. Formation and evolution of island in the Hong Kong area. features of Hong Kong National Geopark. Acta Geoscientica Sinica 32 (6),
Marine Sciences 1, 61–64 (in Chinese with English abstract). 761–768 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Loon, A.J.V., 2008. Geological education of the future. Earth-Science Reviews 86, Xing, G.F., Ng, C.Y., Tao, K.Y., Ng, S.L., Chen, R., Jiang, Y., Li, Z.M., Yu, M.G., 2011.
247–254. Petrological study of High Island Formation volcanic columns in the Hong Kong
Morton, B., 1996. Protecting Hong Kong’s marine biodiversity: present proposals, National Geopark. Geology in China 38 (4), 1079–1093 (in Chinese with English
future challenges. Environmental Conservation 23 (1), 55–65. abstract).
Moscardo, G., 1998. Interpretation and sustainable tourism: functions, examples Yeung, K.M., 2007. 30th Anniversary of Country Park. Friends of the Country Parks,
and principles. Journal of Tourism Studies 9 (1), 2–13. Hong Kong, pp. 1–195 (in Chinese).
Nau, P.S., 1979. Geological notes on the sedimentary rocks of Ping Chau Island, Mirs Yeung, K.M., 2008. Geodiversity – a new challenge for nature conservation in Hong
Bay, Hong Kong. Annals of the Geographical, Geological and Archaeological Kong. In: Proceedings of Asia-Pacific Seminar on Geological Conservation and
Society. University of Hong Kong 7, 33–41. Sustainable Development, Hong Kong, pp. 47–58.
Newsome, D., Dowling, R., 2010. Geotourism: The Tourism of Geology and Land- Yeung, K.M., Chan, Y.N., 2010. Rediscovering geology and Hong Kong. Agriculture,
scape. Goodfellow Publishers, Oxford, pp. 1–300. Fisheries and Conservation Department, Hong Kong SAR Government.
Ng, Y.C.Y., 2007. The Urban Geopark Concept as a tool in geological conservation in Yeung, K.M., Ng, C.Y., 2008. Landmark Excursions. Friends of the Country Parks,
a metropolitan city – the Case of Hong Kong. In: Proceedings of the 2nd Hong Kong, pp. 1–199.
International Symposium on Development within Geoparks. Geological Pub- Yim, W.W.S., 1999. Radiocarbon dating and the reconstruction of late Quaternary
lishing House, Beijing, pp. 247–255. sea-level changes in Hong Kong. Quaternary International 55, 77–91.
Ng, Y.C.Y., Fung, L.W., Newsome, D., 2010. Hong Kong geopark – uncovering the Yim, W.W.S., 2001. Stratigraphy of Quaternary offshore sand and gravel deposits in
geology of a metropolis. In: Dowling, R.K., Newsome, D. (Eds.), Global Geotour- the Hong Kong SAR, China. Quaternary International 82, 101–116.
ism Perspectives. Goodfellow Publishers, Oxford, pp. 179–191. Yu, F., Switzer, A.D., Lau, A.Y.A., Yeung, H.Y.E., Chik, S.W., Chiu, H.C., Huang, Z., Pile, J.,
Owen, R.B., 1995. Rock platforms – characteristics and origins. Hong Kong Geologist 2013. A comparison of the post-storm recovery of two sandy beaches on Hong
1, 43–45. Kong Island, southern China. Quaternary International 304, 163–175.
Panizza, M., 2001. Geomorphosites: concepts, methods and examples of geomor- Zhang, J.P., Wu, F.D., Tian, M.Z., Xie, L.L., Liu, S.W., Wang, L.L., 2009. Tung Ping Chau-
phological survey. Chinese Science Bulletin 46, 4–6. Geopark Field Guide. Friends of the Country Parks, Hong Kong, pp. 1–17.
Patzack, M., Eder, W., 1998. UNESCO Geopark, a new programme – a new UNESCO Zhang, X.Q., 2000. High-rise and high-density urban form: the development of Hong
label. Geologica Balcanica 28 (3–4), 33–35. Kong. In: Jenks, M., Burgess, R. (Eds.), Compact Cities – Sustainable Urban Forms
ProGEO, 1998. A first attempt at a geosites framework for Europe – an IUGS for Developing Countries. Spon Press, London, pp. 245–254.
initiative to support recognition of world heritage and European geodiversity. Zhang, Y., Ge, E., 2013. Temporal scaling behavior of sea-level change in Hong Kong
Geologica Balcanica 28 (3–4), 5–32. – multifractal temporally weighted detrended fluctuation analysis. Global and
Prosser, C.D., 2013. Our rich and varied geoconservation portfolio: the foundation Planetary Change 100, 362–370.
for the future. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 124, 568–580. Zouros, N., 2010a. Lesvos Petrified Forest Geopark, Greece: geoconservation, geo-
Prosser, C.D., Brown, E.J., Larwood, J.G., Bridgland, D.R., 2013. Geoconservation for tourism, and local development. The George Wright Forum Journal 27, 19–28.
science and society – an agenda for the future. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Zouros, N., 2002. The European Geoparks Network: geological heritage protection
Association 124, 561–567. and local development. Episodes 25, 165–171.
Ruban, D.A., 2010. Quantification of geodiversity and its loss. Proceedings of the Zouros, N., 2010b. Geotourism in Greece: a case of the Lesvos Petrified Geopark. In:
Geologists’ Association 121, 326–333. Dowling, R.K., Newsome, D. (Eds.), Global Geotourism Perspectives. Goodfellow
Ruban, D.A., Kuo, I., 2010. Essentials of geological heritage site (geosite) manage- Publishers, Oxford, pp. 215–229.
ment: a conceptual assessment of interests and conflicts. Natura Nascosta 41, Zouros, N., Martini, G., 2003. Introduction to the European Geoparks Network. In:
16–31. Zouros, N., Martini, G., Frey, M.-L. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd European
Sewell, R.J., Campbell, S.D.G., Fletcher, C.J.N., Lai, K.W., Kirk, P.A., 2000. The Pre- Geoparks Network Meeting, Natural History Museum of the Lesvos Petrified
quaternary Geology of Hong Kong. Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil Forest, Lesvos, pp. 17–21.