Philosophical Papers and Reviews Vol. 2(3), pp. 27-33, October 2010 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/PPR ©2010 Academic Journals

Review

A Cartesian critique of the artificial

Rajakishore Nath

Department of Humanities and Social , Indian Institute of Bombay, Mumbai-76, Indian. E-mail: [email protected].

Accepted 26 May, 2010

This paper deals with the philosophical problems concerned with in the field of (AI), in particular with problems arising out of claims that AI exhibits ‘’, ‘thinking’ and other ‘inner’ processes and that they simulate intelligence and cognitive processes in general. The argument is to show how Cartesian is non-mechanical. Descartes’ of ‘I think’ presupposes subjective , because it is ‘I’ who . Likewise, Descartes’ of ‘I’ negates the notion of computationality of the mind. The of mind is and the acts of are identified with the acts of consciousness. Therefore, it follows that cognitive acts are conscious acts, but not computational acts. Thus, for Descartes, one of the most important aspects of cognitive states and processes is their phenomenality, because our judgments, , etc. can be defined and explained only in relation to consciousness and not in relation to computationality. We can only find computationality in and not in the mind, which wills, understands and judges.

Key words: Cartesian mind, artificial intelligence, physical symbols, non-mechanical mind, thought, intelligence, cognitive, , .

INTRODUCTION

It is not wrong to compare Descartes’ with the idea with problems arising from claims that AI exhibits of artificial intelligence (AI). Although the association of ‘consciousness’, ‘thinking’ and other ‘inner’ processes Descartes’ name with the notion of AI is bound to cause and that they simulate and cognitive some surprise both to the followers of Descartes and AI process in general. This paper deals with how Descartes’ scientists, the term ‘AI’, even though unnamed, was idea of mind is non-mechanistic. The study shall begin by already born in the period when Descartes was alive. It is giving a brief characterization of AI and how it defines true that AI is a distinct discipline, yet its philosophical mind. Secondly, an attempt will be made to understand problems are very important in the present scenario. In the of mind presupposed by artificial intelligence. the modern philosophy, we find that Descartes was As such, the study shall discuss about the nature of mind wondering whether or not it would be possible to create a because without proper understanding of Descartes’ that would be phenomenologically indistin- notion of mind, it is impossible to discuss contemporary guishable from man. He also advocated that animals are . Lastly, there is an argument that simply machines and human , if someone is to Descartes’ idea of mind is non-mechanistic because the possess an immaterial , might also simply be way AI scientists define mind is completely mechanistic considered as machines. One important concern is and to which the notion of computationality is applicable manifestation of his consideration of what it would mean and the mental qualities are credible to machines, but not to say that a machine thinks (Descartes, 2003). to . The main aim in this paper is to clarify We know what AI is and what it does in our unreflective Descartes’ notion of mind from a subjective point of view. moments. As such, when AI scientists ascribe the mental It is believed that Descartes’ notion of mind cannot be qualities or mind to machines, then this mechanistic explained or characterized in an artificial intelligence construction of mind brings about many philosophical approach and that they are the subjective mental states issues. This paper deals with philosophical problems which we can seen from the first- perspective of connected with research in the field of AI, in particular their proper understanding.

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE of intelligent activity of human beings in various ways. The hypothesis of artificial intelligence and its Artificial intelligence attempts to understand intelligent corollaries are empirical in nature whose or falsity is entities; but unlike philosophy, which is concerned with to be determined by experiment and empirical test. The intelligence, AI strives to build intelligent entities as well method of testing the results of artificial intelligence as understand them. There are many and comprises the following: many scientists who define AI differently. Haugeland defines artificial intelligence as, “the exciting new effort to (i) In the narrow sense, artificial intelligence is part of make think…. machines with minds, in the full , aimed at exploring the range of tasks and literal sense” (Haugeland, 1989). On the other hand, over which computers can be programmed to behave according to Bellman, it is “the of activities intelligently. Thus, it is the study of the ways computers that we associate with human thinking and activities such can be made to perform cognitive tasks, which generally as decision making, problem of solving …”( human beings undertake. Bellman, 1978). Let us look at these two from (ii) In the wider sense, artificial intelligence is aimed at different angles. Here, Haugeland and Bellman point out programs that simulate the actual processes that human that artificial intelligence is concerned with thought beings undergo in their intelligent behavior, and these process and reasoning. They have explained the simulated programs are taken as theories describing and machines as a mind that is completely associated with explaining human performance. Moreover, they are human thinking, that is to say, computers do think. tested by comparing the computer output with the human People with widely varying back-grounds and behaviour to determine whether both the result and also professional are contributing new and the actual behaviour of computers and are introducing new tools in this discipline. Cognitive closely similar (Simon, 1987). have developed new models of the mind based on the fundamental of artificial A digital computer is also an example of a physical intelligence, symbols, systems and pro- symbol system, a system that has the capability of input, cessing. Linguists are also interested in these basic output, storing, etc., following different courses of notions while developing different models in computa- operation. These systems are capable of producing tional , and philosophers, in considering the intelligence depending on the level of mechanical , problems and potential of this work towards sophistication they have. The computers with these non-human intelligence, have sometimes found solution capabilities behave intelligently like human beings, to the age-old problems of the nature of mind and according to the AI researchers. knowledge. However, we know that artificial intelligence is a part of in which there are designed intelligent MIND IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE systems that exhibit the characteristics we associate with intelligence in human behaviour, understanding Here, the states of mind in artificial intelligence will be learning, reasoning, and so on. It is explored. As we know, the main aim of artificial believed that into the nature of the mind can be intelligence is to reproduce mental mechanisms in gained by studying the operation of such systems. machines. That is to say, AI aims at producing machines Artificial intelligence researchers have invented dozens of with mind. Therefore, artificial intelligence is the discipline programming techniques that support intelligent that attempts to understand the nature of human behaviour. As such, artificial intelligence research may intelligence through the construction of computer have impact on science and technology in the following programs that imitate intelligent behavior. It also way: emphasizes the functions of the human and the analogical functioning of the digital computer. If we say (i) It can solve some difficult problems in chemistry, that machines have minds, then we have to ascribe biology, geology, and medicine. certain ‘’, ‘knowledge’, ‘’, ‘’, (ii) It can manipulate robotic devices to perform some ‘’, etc. to a machine. In that case, the useful, repetitive and sensory-motor tasks. machines will perform intelligent tasks and thus will behave like human beings. According to one extreme Besides, artificial intelligence researchers investigated view, the is just a digital computer and the different kinds of computation and different ways of mind is a . This view, as describing computation in an effort not just to create calls it, is strong artificial intelligence (Searle, 1996). intelligent artifacts, but also to understand what According to strong artificial intelligence, “the intelligence is. According to Charniak and McDermott, appropriately programmed computer with the right inputs (Tanimoto, 1987), their basic tenet is to create computers and outputs literally has a mind in exactly the same which think. Thus artificial intelligence expands the field sense that we all do” (Searle, 1987). This shows that the

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devices would not only refer to intelligent and have the process which is happening in the brain is a minds, but mental qualities of a sort that can be computational process and the mind is the alternative attributed to teleological functioning of any computational name of the brain which is a machine. device, even to the very simplest mechanical ones such The deals wholly with abstract as a thermostat. Here, the idea is that mental activity is objects such as turning machine, Pascal program, finite- simply the carrying out of some well-defined operations, state-automation and so on. These abstract objects are frequently referred to as an . We may ask here formal structures which are implemented in formal as to what an algorithm actually is. It will be adequate to systems. However, the notion of implementation is the define an algorithm simply as a calculation procedure of relation between abstract computational objects and some kind, but in the case of thermostat, the algorithm is physical systems. Thus, computations are often imple- extremely simple: the device registers whether the mented in synthetic silicon based computers, whereas, temperature is greater or smaller than the setting and the computational systems are abstract objects with a then, it arranges for the circuit to be disconnected in the formal structure determined by their states and state former case and to remain connected in the latter. For transition , in which the physical systems are understanding any significant kind of mental activity of a concrete objects with a causal structure determined by human brain, a very set of has to be their internal states and the causal relations between the designed to capture the complexity of the human mental states. It may be pointed out that a physical system activities. As such, the digital computers are implements a computation when the casual structure of approximations of the complex human brain. the system mirrors the formal structure of the The strong artificial intelligence view is that the computation. The system implements the computation, if differences between the essential functioning of a human there is a way of mapping the system states into the being (including all its conscious manifestations) and that computations states so that the physical states which are of a computer lie only in the much greater complication in causally related to the formal states are correspondingly the case of the brain. All mental qualities such as related formally (Chalmers, 1996). thinking, , intelligence, etc., are to be regarded, The is that there is rich causal dynamics inside according to this view, merely as aspects of this computers, as there is in the brain. There is real complicated functioning of the brain; that is to say that causation going on between various units of brain they are the features of the algorithm being carried out by activity, precisely mirroring of causation between the brain. The brain functions like a digital computer the . For each , there is a specific causal according to this view. Therefore, the supporters of link with other neurons. It is the causal patterns among strong AI hold that the human brain functions like a the neurons in the brain that are responsible for any Turing machine which carries out all sets of complicated conscious experiences that may arise. The brain, as computations. The brain is naturally designed like a says, “Happens to be a meat machine” computing machine to think, calculate and carry out (Pamela, 1979). He points out that the brain is an algorithmic activities. To strong AI supporters, the electrical and chemical mechanism, whose organization activities of the brain are simply algorithmic activities is enormously complex and whose evaluation is barely which give rise to all mental phenomena like thinking, understood, and as such, produces complex behavior in feeling, willing, etc. response to an even more complex environment. Artificial The field of artificial intelligence is devoted in large part intelligence understands the nature of human intelligence to the goal of reproducing mental activities in computa- in terms of the computational model of the mind. tional machines. The supporters of strong AI argue that Now the question is: What would the world be like if we we have every to believe that eventually had intelligent machines? What would the of computers will truly have minds. Winston says, such machines say about the nature of human beings “Intelligent must sense, move and reason” and their relation to the world around them? These (Winston, 1984). Accordingly, intelligent behaviour is questions have raised profound philosophical issues interpreted as giving rise to abstract automation. That is which will be discussed in due course. to say that an artificial, non-biological system could thus be the sort of thing that could give rise to conscious experience. For the supporters of strong AI, are DESCARTES’ REMARKS ON MIND AND ARTIFICIAL indeed machines and in particular, our mental behaviour INTELLIGENCE is finally the result of the mechanical activities of the brain. The basic idea of the computer model of the mind So far, we have discussed artificial intelligence and its is that the mind is the software and the brain is the of mind. In the Cartesian scheme of hardware of a computational system. The slogan is: “the mind, there is no place for computationality because the mind is to the program, as the brain is to the hardware” thought act is due to the subjective thinking thing, which (Searle, 1990). For strong AI, there is no distinction is the self. Again, this subjective thinking thing or the self between brain processes and mental processes, because is that which “doubts, understands, affirms, denies, is

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willing, is unwilling and also imagines and has sensory In Ryle’s understanding of mind, mind becomes as much ” (Descartes, 1984). The existence of the mechanical as the body and is therefore non-different thinking thing is the same as the existence of the from the body. However, Descartes refutes the subjective thinking thing, because it is the , who mechanistic reading of mind. As we have seen, thinks. All these subjective activities are non- Descartes is a dualist, rather than a mentalist. Descartes’ computational because the subjective activity is the first argument for the mind, which is distinct from the body, person perspective. The mental processes, for needs to be understood as an argument for the logical Descartes, are intentional and are the free acts of the possibility of their separate existence and not for the fact thinking subject. Therefore, this subjective attitude of that they exist independent of each other. The mind cannot be mapped mechanically in an algorithmic separability argument is as follows: “First, I know that system. everything, which clearly and distinctly understands is Descartes’ concept of ‘I think’ presupposes subjective capable of being created by God so as to correspond experience, because it is ‘I’ who experiences the world. exactly with my understanding of it. Hence, the fact that I Likewise, Descartes’ notion of ‘I’ negates the notion of can clearly and distinctly understand one thing apart from computationality of the mind. The essence of mind is another is enough to make certain that two things are thought and the acts of thoughts are identified with acts distinct, since they are capable of being separated at of consciousness. Therefore, it follows that cognitive acts least by God. The question of what kind of power is are conscious acts, but not computational or mechanical required to bring about such a separation does not acts. Thus for Descartes, one of the most important the judgment that the two things are distinct. Thus, simply aspects of cognitive states and processes is their by knowing that I exist and seeing at the same that phenomenality because of our judgments, understanding, absolutely nothing else belongs to my nature or essence etc. that can be defined and explained only in relation to except that I am a thinking thing, I can infer correctly that consciousness and not in relation to computationality. We my essence consists solely in the fact that I am a thinking can only find computationality in machines and not in the thing. It is true that I may have (or, to anticipate, that I mind, which wills, understands and judges. Descartes’ certainly have) a body that is very closely joined to me, dictum, “I think, therefore, I am” (Descartes, 1984). not nevertheless, on the one hand, I have a clear and distinct only establishes the existence of the self which thinks idea of myself, in so far as I am simply a thinking, non- and acts but also its freedom from mechanistic laws to extended thing; and on the other hand, I have a distinct which the human body is subjected to. idea of the body, in so far as this is simply an extended Moreover, when Descartes makes the distinction non-thinking thing. Accordingly, it is certain that I am between mind and body, he did not claim that the idea of really distinct from my body and can exist without it” the mind is that of a ghost, although he did say that the (Descartes, 1984). idea of the body is that of a machine. Following this, Ryle Descartes has already proved in the ‘Second in his book, ‘’ says that Descartes’ Meditation’ the existence of a thinking being that has a distinction between mind and body is a . He argues, clear and distinct of the mind as a thinking, “I shall often speak of it, with deliberate abusiveness, as non-extended thing. This is a proof of the non-mechanical ‘the dogma of ’. I hope to prove mind which is different from the body subject to that it is entirely false, and false not in detail but in mechanical laws. Similarly, in the ‘Fifth Meditation’, he ” (Ryle, 1985). According to Ryle, Descartes’ has shown that he has a clear and distinct idea of a body distinction between mind and body commits a category- as extended and a non-thinking substance. This is to mistake (Ryle, 1985). suggest that the mechanically existing body is As Ryle said, “my destructive purpose is to show that a ontologically distinct from the non-computational mind. family of radical category mistake is the source of the The afore-described distinction between mind and body double-life theory. The representation of a person as a supposes that there is no ‘ghost’ in the human body or ghost mysteriously ensconced in a machine derived from ‘ghost in the machine’. However, Descartes did not admit this argument, because, as is true, a person’s thinking, the existence of ghost in the machine. Had Descartes feeling and purposive doing cannot be described solely in admitted that there was a ghost in the human body, then the idioms of physics, chemistry and physiology. the mind itself would become computational, and there Therefore they must be described in counterpart idioms. would be no necessary distinction between the mind and As the human body is a complex organized unit, so the the body, because the ghost itself is a body; but human mind must be another complex organized unit, Descartes admits the distinction between mind and body though one made of a different sort of stuff and with a and this shows that the mind is non-computational. It is different sort of structure. Likewise, again, as the human mind, which has the capacity of intelligence and body, like any other parcel of , is a field of causes understanding. The Cartesian way of understanding the and effects, so the mind must be another field of causes concept of intelligence is anti-physicalist and anti- and effects, though not (Heaven be praised) mechanical behaviourist and hence is anti-mechanical. causes and effects” (Ryle, 1985). The human mind is beyond the sphere of

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computationality, because the human mind has innate every , however fleeting or remotely ideas, which are embedded as the innate dispositions of , the dualist is bound to admit the existence of the human mind. These ideas are a priori in the human a bodily state that is obtained when and only when the mind and are the basic in-born propensities. Descartes mental one is obtained. The bodily state is trivially observes, “my understanding of what a thing is, what specifiable in the dualist’s own terms, simply as the state truth is and what thought is, seems to be derived simply of accompanying a mind, which is in the mental state. from my own nature, but my hearing a noise, as I do now, Instead, one state is ascribed to the mind, and then, we or seeing the sun, or feeling the fire, comes from the may equivalently ascribe the other to the body. The mind thing which is located outside of me, or so I have hitherto goes by the bound and will not be missed” (, 1985). judged. Lastly, sirens, hippogriffs and the likes are my Quine’s position is that there are irreducible own invention” (Descartes, 1984). psychological properties, but all explanation is ultimately The afore-said of Descartes shows that physical. His account of our mental concepts emerges as innate ideas are not produced in us by the senses. If the he examines how we acquire them, how we learn them, ideas were conveyed to us by the senses like heat, etc. sound, etc., we would not have to refer to anything He explains, “such terms are applied in the light of outside ourselves, because they too would be innate. publicly observable symptoms: bodily symptoms strictly For Descartes, “the ideas of , colours, sounds and of bodily states and the mind strictly of mind state. the likes must be all the more innate, if, on the occasion Someone observes my joyful or anxious expression, or of certain corporeal motions, our mind is to be capable of perhaps observes my gratifying or threatening situation representing them to itself, for there is no similarity itself, or hears me talk about it. He then applies the word between these ideas and the corporeal motions.” ‘joy’ or ‘anxiety’. After another such lesson or two, I find (Descartes, 1985). Here, it follows that there is a myself applying those words to some of my subsequent distinction between innate and adventitious ideas and states in cases where no outward signs are to be that innate ideas are ideas, whereas observed beyond my report itself. Without the outward adventitious ideas are particular ideas. As such, signs, to begin with, mentalistic terms could not be learnt Descartes points out that hearing a noise, seeing the at all” (Quine, 1994). Quine opposes the Cartesian scene and feeling the fire are all particular ideas. dualism and therefore arrives at a behaviourist and (Descartes, 1984). Again, it must be noted that the functionalist conception of mind. He reduces the mental perception of the particular is not possible without the states like beliefs and other propositional attitudes to universal. Innate universal ideas are a necessary functional states. If both Chomsky and Quine are right requirement for the of the particular objects in about the nature of mind, then Descartes’ view of mind is the world. wrong. That is, if that human brain is the cause of the Following Descartes, Chomsky established that mental states, then we cannot but arrive at the conclusion language too is an innate faculty of the human . that the mental states are causally computable within a Language becomes the essence that defines what it is to physical system. Chomsky and Quine define the mental be human. Language is purely a syntactic system, qualities in terms of physical qualities. Therefore, they according to Chomsky, and it therefore has a logical form define mind in terms of the computational functions of the which is universal and innate to the world. Language brain. However, Descartes claims that all ideas in the must also have an essence, something that makes mind are mental representations (Descartes, 1984). language what it is and inheres in all . That In the ‘third meditation’, Descartes gives an extensive essence is called ‘universal grammar’ (George and Mark, account of ideas. He says, “thus when I will (or am afraid, 1999). Language does not arise from anything bodily. or affirm, or deny), there is always a particular thing Studying the brain and body can give us no additional which I take as the subject of my thought, but my thought into language. The basic tenets of Chomsky’s includes something more than the likeness of that thing. linguistics are taken directly from Descartes. The only Some thoughts in this category are called volitions or major tenet of Descartes that Chomsky rejects is the , which others called judgments” (Descartes, existence of the mental substance different from the 1984). The afore-said quotation shows that some human brain. Chomsky accepts that the human brain thoughts are images of things, that is, they represent embodies the innate grammatical structures. things in the world. In other words, they have an or Like Chomsky, Quine also affirms that there can be no content by which they are individuated as an idea of this philosophical study of the mind outside psychology: particular thing or being. Moreover, Descartes also progress in philosophical understanding of the mind is considers an ‘idea’ to refer to the ‘form’ of any thought. In inseparable from progress in psychology, because, his words, “I understand this term to mean the form of psychology is a ‘natural science’ studying a natural any given thought, the immediate perception of which phenomenon, that is, a physical human subject. Quine makes me aware of the thought. Hence, whenever, I argued, “a dualism of mind and body is an idle express something in words, and I understand what I am redundancy” (Quine, 1994), and holds “corresponding to saying, this very fact makes it certain that there is within

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me an idea of what is signified by the words in question” would not have the capacity to act intelligently in all sorts (Descartes, 1984). Therefore, the ideas, for Descartes of situations. Here, animal have not are thus representational and intentional in character. offered counter evidence to Descartes’ assumption that Descartes, unlike Hobbes and Gassendi, is not a human language is based on an entirely distinct principle, naturalist and keeps the thought content free from nor has modern linguistic philosophers dealt with their naturalization to which Hobbes and Gassendi are observations in serious way. For Chomsky, the main committed to. For them, thoughts are mechanical lessons to be learnt from the ‘Cartesian’ tradition in processes in the brain (Hobbes, 2003). In reply to linguistic are the idea of an innate, universal grammar Descartes, Gassendi says, “I thus realize that none of and the idea that the study of the structure of this these things the imagination enables me to grasp is at all argument will reveal the structure of thought or mind. relevant to this knowledge of which I posses, and that the Descartes’ argument that brutes or machines cannot mind must therefore be most carefully diverted from such think in the light of the general question of what makes an things if it is to perceive its own nature as distinctly as utterance or a symbolic structure meaningful is possible” (Hatfield, 2003). On the contrary, Descartes noteworthy. The kind of automatic, rule governed holds that individual acts of imagination, in as much as computation or symbol processing that a turing machine they are experiences, are relevant to grasping the nature instantiates and that can be performed by electronic of mind, because the mind is a thinking thing free from computers would not count as thinking in Descartes’ the mechanistic processes of the brain. What separates sense, nor would the mechanical operations of a Descartes’ dualism from contemporary functionalism and computer or , no matter how ingenious or intelligent, theories is not so much his distinction between an count as rational behaviour as he understands it. Not only immaterial mind and extended material body, as his did such a view makes thinking too narrow, it is based on notion of the human being is a unity of mind and body, precisely the kind of category mistake that Ryle attributes with the properties not reducible to either mind or body, to the Cartesians which have been discussed earlier. but dependent precisely on their ‘substantial’ union. Descartes is not a reductionist as he thinks that mind Descartes holds that thinking cannot be explained cannot be reduced to anything else and it must have an mechanically. His argument that brutes cannot think is autonomous existence alongside the existence of the equivalent to an argument that machines cannot think. material body. The ‘I think’ of the mental does not He thinks that no machine could have the capacity of deny the ‘I exist’ character in the world, rather it is an using the linguistic and other signs to express thoughts affirmation of it. In that sense, we cannot say that and to give appropriate responses to meaningful speech, Descartes has subjectivized the mental world and thus and the capacity to act intelligently or rationally in all sorts made it into a private world. He made every effort to keep of situations (Descartes, 1985). But what is so special an objective constraint on the subjective mind and thus about human language use and what does it show that forestalled all skeptical questions about the existence of the behaviour of any mechanism fails to show? A other minds. (Pradhan, 2001). This is because Cartesian machine could be construed to utter words corresponding doctrine of the mind and its inner experience do assume to bodily change in its origin, but could never use spoken that we know other minds as much as we know our own. words or other signs that are composed as we do to That is the reason why Descartes called the ‘I think’ the declare our thoughts to others, because “It is not absolute basis of all our knowledge-claims about others conceivable that the machine should produce different and the external world. Thus, the self or mind is arrangements of words so as to give an appropriately irreducible/not explainable in terms of the body or meaningful answer to whatever is said in its presence, as machines whether of Descartes or another’s. In view of the dualist of men can do. Secondly, even though such this, we can say that the Cartesian philosophy of the machines might do some things as well as we do them, mind is not based on a mistake and as such, it has or perhaps even better, they would inevitably fail in shown the right way to the understanding of the mind. others, which could reveal that they were acting not Of course Descartes would not have accepted the idea through understanding but only from the disposition of of mechanical or computational artificial intelligence, their organs. For the fact that reason is a universal because he may still be considered an important instrument which can be used in all kind of situations, forerunner of cognitive and computational view of the these organs need some particular disposition for each mind. The essence of the mind is rational thinking and particular action, hence it is morally impossible to have rational thought or cognition can be studied enough different ones in a machine to make it act in all independently of other phenomena, like sensation and contingencies of life in the way in which our reason emotions, in that Descartes stated that the body is makes us act” ((Descartes, 1985). dependent on mental phenomena, to which the mind is What Descartes is drawing to here is firstly, referred to as consciousness. Although Descartes did not no machine could have the capacity to use linguistic and identify mental thought with consciousness, emotions, other signs to express thoughts and give appropriate awareness, etc., he regarded that all these are conditions responses to meaningful speech, and secondly, machine of thought. While arguing the existence of mind,

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descartes talks about the mind acting in some particular Descartes R (2003). Discourse on Methods, Part-V, Clarke, Desmond location in the brain. As such, this is comparable to M. (trans), Descartes on Method and Related Writings, Penguin Books Ltd., England, pp. 24-30. contemporary literal talk about mental processes as George L, Mark J (1999). The Philosophy of Flesh: The Embodied Mind computational activity in the brain. Moreover, Descartes and its Challenge to Western Thought, Basic Books, New York, p. would not have accepted the mechanical application of 472. rules on syntactic structures as a sufficient condition for Hatfield Gary (2003). Descartes and the Meditations, Rutledge, New York. p. 120. rational symbol manipulation. The kind of automatic, rule- Haugeland J (1989). Artificial Intelligence: The Very Idea, MIT Press, governed computation or symbol processing that a turing USA, p. 2. machine instantiates and that can be performed by Hobbes T (2003). “Elements of Philosophy,” quoted in Lilli Alanen, electronic computers would not count as thinking from the Descartes’ Concept of Mind, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., p. 98. Cartesian point of view. Therefore, Cartesian thinking is Pamela M (1979). This view quoted by, in his Machines Who Thinks, neither reducible to a narrowly understood rational W.H. Freeman and Company, , p. 70. Pradhan RC capacity nor to consciousness because he clearly (2001). Recent Developments in , Indian Council mentions that consciousness is a necessary condition for of Philosophical Research, New Delhi, pp. 338-340. Quine WVO (1985). “States of Mind,” in J. Philosophy, LXXXII, p. 5. thought. Quine WVO (1994). “Ontological Relativity and other Essays” quoted by Christopher Hookway in his “Quine, William Van Orman,” in A Companion to the Philosophy of Mind, Edited by Samuel Guttenplan, REFERENCES Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, p. 521. Ryle G (1985). The Concept of Mind, Penguin Books Ltd., Middlesex, England, 1985, p. 17. Bellman RE (1978). An Introduction to Artificial Intelligence: Can Searle JR (1987). “Minds and without Programs,” in Mindwaves: Computers Think?, Boyd and Fraser Publishing Company, San Thoughts , Identity and Consciousness, C. Blakemore, Francisco, USA, quoted by Stuart J Russell and (2002), and S. Greenfield (ed.), Basil Blackwell, Oxford, p. 210. in Artificial intelligence: A Modern Approach, Tan Prints (India) Pvt., Searle JR (1996). Minds, Brains and Science, Harvard University Press, New Delhi, p. 5. Cambridge, Mass., p. 41. Chalmers DJ (1996). The Conscious Mind, , Searle JR (1990). ‘Is the Brain a Digital Computer?”, received a paper Oxford and New York, p. 321. from Descartes R (1984). The Philosophical Writing of Descartes, Vol. II, internet.(www.ecs.sotoh.ac.uk/~harnad/papers/py104/searle.comp.ht Edited and Translated by John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, ml.) Dougald Murdoch, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 19. Simon HA (1987). “Guest Forward” in Encyclopedia of Artificial Descartes R (1984). The Philosophical Writing of Descartes, Vol. II, Intelligence, Stuart C. Shapiro (ed.), Vol. 1, John Wiley and Sons John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, Dougald Murdoch, p. 54. Publication, New York, p. xi. Descartes R (1984). The Philosophical Writing of Descartes, Vol. II, Tanimoto SL (1987). The Elements of Artificial Intelligence, Computer Edited and Translated by John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, Science Press, Inc., Maryland, pp. 6-7. Dougald Murdoch, p. 13. Winston PH (1984). Artificial Intelligence, Addison-Wesley Publishing Descartes R (1984). The Philosophical Writing of Descartes, Vol. II, Company, London, p. 380. Edited and Translated by John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, Dougald Murdoch, 1984, p. 7. Descartes R (1985). The Philosophical Writing of Descartes, Vol. I, Edited and Translated by John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, Dougald Murdoch, p. 140. Descartes R (1985). The Philosophical Writing of Descartes, Vol.I, Edited and Translated by John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, Dougald Murdoch, p. 304.