Water Saving Potential in Agriculture in Europe: Findings from the Existing Studies and Application to Case Studies
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Water saving potential in agriculture in Europe: findings from the existing studies and application to case studies FINAL REPORT European Commission DG ENV 12 January 2012 In collaboration with: Project description CLIENT: European Commission DG ENV CONTRACT NUMBER: Study contract N° 070307/2010/579306/ETU/D1 REPORT TITLE: Final report Water saving potential in agriculture in Europe: findings from PROJECT NAME: the existing studies and application to case studies DATE: 12 January 2012 AUTHORS: Ms. Sandra Berman, BIO Intelligence Service Dr. Ulrike Jana, BIO Intelligence Service Mr. Eric Hoa, BIO Intelligence Service Ms. Perrine Lavelle, BIO Intelligence Service Ms. Caroline Geoffroy, BIO Intelligence Service Dr. Tim Hess, Cranfield University Dr. Jerry Knox, Cranfield University Ms. Meg Postle, Risk & Policy Analysts Ltd. Ms. Teresa Fenn, Risk & Policy Analysts Ltd. Ms. Sophie Upson, Risk & Policy Analysts Ltd. Dr. Pierre Sonigo, BIO Intelligence Service KEY CONTACTS: Sandra Berman or Pierre Sonigo + 33 (0) 1 53 90 11 80 + 33 (0) 1 53 90 11 80 [email protected] [email protected] ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: We warmly thank the experts who contributed to the data gathering and provided valuable information on responses and/or for the case studies. DISCLAIMER The project team does not accept any liability for any direct or indirect damage resulting from the use of this report or its content. This report contains the results of research by the authors and is not to be perceived as the opinion of the European Commission. Please cite this publication as: BIO Intelligence Service (2012), Water saving potential in agriculture in Europe: findings from the existing studies and application to case studies, Final report prepared for. European Commission DG ENV Photo credit: cover @ Tim Hess ©BIO Intelligence Service 2012 Water saving potential in agriculture in Europe: findings from the existing studies and 2 | application to case studies Table of Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 13 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 19 1.1 Water and agriculture 20 1.2 Existing information and remaining gaps 21 1.3 Content of the report 25 CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW OF WATER USE, ABSTRACTION AND CONSUMPTION BY AGRICULTURE 27 2.1 Definitions 27 2.2 Methodology 29 2.3 Data gathered 30 2.3.1 National data 30 2.3.2 Annual data 33 2.3.3 River basin data 34 2.3.4 Seasonal data 36 2.3.5 Findings of the research 36 2.3.6 Discussion 37 CHAPTER 3: IDENTIFICATION OF RESPONSES FOR WATER SAVINGS IN AGRICULTURE 41 3.1 Technological and management approaches to reducing water losses 42 3.1.1 Storage losses (on-farm dams & reservoirs): 43 3.1.2 Distribution conveyance losses 45 3.1.3 Transpiration 46 3.1.4 Evaporation losses 48 3.1.5 On-farm conveyance losses 52 3.1.6 Runoff losses 52 3.1.7 Drainage losses 54 3.2 Using water from other sources 55 3.2.1 Water re-use 56 3.2.2 On-farm storage 57 3.2.3 Water harvesting 57 3.3 Socio-economic responses 58 3.3.1 Water regulation and allocation 58 Water saving potential in agriculture in Europe: findings from the existing studies and | 3 application to case studies 3.3.2 Water auditing and benchmarking 59 3.3.3 Water Pricing and trading 60 3.3.4 Consumer / market pressure 61 3.3.5 Dissemination of best practice, training and awareness-raising 62 3.3.6 Agricultural water productivity/crop selection 62 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS OF EXISTING STUDIES ON THE RESPONSES TO SAVE WATER IN AGRICULTURE 65 4.1 Response 1: Improvement of irrigation systems 65 4.1.1 Presentation of the studies 66 4.1.2 Lessons learned 69 4.1.3 Transferability to other river basins 69 4.1.4 Policy recommendations 70 4.2 Response 2: Deficit irrigation strategies 70 4.2.1 Presentation of the studies 70 4.2.2 Lessons learned 78 4.2.3 Transferability to other river basins 78 4.2.4 Policy recommendations 79 4.3 Response 3: Reduction of evaporation during storage 80 4.3.1 Presentation of the study 80 4.3.2 Lessons learned 83 4.3.3 Transferability to other river basins 83 4.3.4 Policy recommendations 83 4.4 Response 4: Decreasing soil evaporation 84 4.4.1 Presentation of the studies 84 4.4.2 Lessons learned 87 4.4.3 Transferability to other river basins 88 4.4.4 Policy recommendations 88 4.5 Response 5: Irrigation scheduling 89 4.5.1 Presentation of the studies 89 4.5.2 Lessons learned 90 4.5.3 Transferability to other river basins 91 4.5.4 Policy recommendations 91 4.6 Response 6: Reducing runoff 92 4.6.1 Presentation of the studies 92 4.6.2 Lessons learned 94 4.6.3 Transferability to other river basins 94 Water saving potential in agriculture in Europe: findings from the existing studies and 4 | application to case studies 4.6.4 Policy recommendations 94 4.7 Response 7: Water-table management 95 4.7.1 Presentation of the studies 95 4.7.2 Lessons learned 101 4.7.3 Transferability to other river basins 102 4.7.4 Policy recommendations 102 4.8 Response 8: Water reuse 103 4.8.1 Presentation of the studies 103 4.8.2 Lessons learned 105 4.8.3 Transferability to other river basins 106 4.8.4 Policy recommendations 106 4.9 Response 9: Changing planting date 107 4.9.1 Presentation of the studies 107 4.9.2 Lessons learned 110 4.9.3 Transferability to other river basins 111 4.9.4 Policy recommendations 111 4.10 Response 10: Crop selection 112 4.10.1 Presentation of the studies 113 4.10.2 Lessons learned 116 4.10.3 Transferability to other river basins 117 4.10.4 Policy recommendations 117 4.11 Synthesis of the findings 119 CHAPTER 5: CASE STUDIES 121 5.1 Cyprus 122 5.1.1 Characteristics of the Cyprus RB 122 5.1.2 Water pressures and challenges in the agricultural sector 128 5.1.3 Initiatives for sustainable water management 131 5.1.4 Conclusion 141 5.2 France 142 5.2.1 Characteristics of the Adour-Garonne RB 142 5.2.2 Water saving issues and level of water stress 144 5.2.3 Initiatives for sustainable water management 145 5.2.4 Conclusion 156 5.3 Italy 157 5.3.1 Characteristics of the Po river basin 157 5.3.2 Water saving issue and level of water stress 159 Water saving potential in agriculture in Europe: findings from the existing studies and | 5 application to case studies 5.3.3 Initiatives for sustainable water management 161 5.3.4 Conclusion 168 5.4 UK: Use of storage reservoirs to reduce water stress from spray irrigation 169 5.4.1 Introduction 169 5.4.2 Characteristics of the Anglian RBD 171 5.4.3 Climate and Vulnerability to Climate Change 171 5.4.4 Demand for Water and Impacts of Abstraction 172 5.4.5 The Costs and Benefits of Irrigation Reservoirs 178 5.4.6 The Potential Benefits for Water Stress in the Anglian RBD 187 5.4.7 Conclusions 194 5.5 Synthesis of the case studies 197 CHAPTER 6: FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 201 REFERENCES 211 ANNEX 1: LIST OF THE CONSULTED SOURCES USED IN THE DATABASES 223 ANNEX 2: SHARE OF IRRIGATED AND IRRIGABLE AREAS IN EACH MS 232 Water saving potential in agriculture in Europe: findings from the existing studies and 6 | application to case studies List of Tables Table 2-1: Definitions of water abstraction, use and consumption 28 Table 2-2: Countries for which some data at river basin (RB) level was found 34 Table 4-1: Typical project irrigation efficiencies, in percent (Hamdy, 2005) 67 Table 4-2: Phenological phases of the crop cycle 71 Table 4-3: Percentage of seasonal irrigation volumes saved by controlled water stress on peach in respect to normal irrigation regime (Source: Mannini, 2004) 71 Table 4-4 : Irrigation treatments 73 Table 4-5: Effects of different irrigation treatments on vegetative growth: trunk cross selectional area (TCSA) (cm²) and winter pruning (dry matter), on Flordastar peach during the experimental period 73 Table 4-6: Effect of different irrigation treatments on Flordastar peach yield (kg trees-1 and number of fruits tree-1) during the experimental period 74 Table 4-7: Total evapotranspiration ET (mm) and annual application rates M (mm) 75 Table 4-8: Yield and average mass of one fruit 76 Table 4-9 Water savings in a design dry year from mulching with 50% and 100% mulch for maincrop potatoes and sugar beet, at three sites in UK (Hess, 1997). 85 Table 4-10: Amount of irrigation water applied to different crops in the demonstration fields 90 Table 4-11: Frequency distribution of rainfall amount and 30-min maximum intensity in various class intervals during the experimental period 93 Table 4-12: Irrigation water applied in the control treatment and the used rainfall in the mini- catchment and perforated soil treatments during the experimental period 94 Table 4-13: Irrigation, precipitation, ET and water deficit (mm) in 1995 and 1996 (Meija et al, 2000) 97 Table 4-14: Effect of three water table depths on maize yield, grain yield and harvest index and on soybean grain yield, harvest index and number of pods per plant for 1995 and 1996 (Meija et al, 2000) 97 Table 4-15 Summary of irrigation needs for different crop planting strategies (Weatherhead et al., 1997) 109 Table 4-16 Total and optimum water consumption (it represents the rainfall and the irrigation water) for maize, sunflower and sorghum 115 Table 4-17: Synthesis of the findings 119 Table 5-1: Land Use in Cyprus (Fatta et al., 2005) 128 Table 5-2: Distribution of irrigated areas by crop and water use 132 Water saving potential in agriculture in Europe: findings from the existing studies and | 7 application to case studies Table 5-3: Reuse of Urban Wastewater in Cyprus (Fatta et al.