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MULTIDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH International r CONFERENCE o

Held on: Monday 6th – Tuesday 7th November 2018 c At: , Thika - e

e d i n Sub-theme 1: Innovations in Computing for g organizational Competitiveness s Sub-Theme 2: Sub-theme 5: Innovations in Innovations in Hospitality Industry Business for for Organizational THEME Organizational o Competitiveness Competitiveness Innovation for Organizational f Competitiveness and Community Sub-Theme 3: Sub-Theme 6: Innovations in Sustainable Innovations in Education, Humanities Development Knowledge and Social Sciences for t Community Sustainable management for Development organizational competitiveness h

Sub-Theme 4: e Innovations in Preventive Healthcare for Community sustainable Development 1 Copyright © 2018 The Authors

No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated or transmitted in any form without prior written permission of the publisher.

ISBN: 978-9966-120-77-9

Published by: Gretsa University P.O Box 3 – 001000 Thika, Kenya The views expressed in contributions by the conference participants are not necessarily the views of Gretsa University, the publishers of this Conference Proceedings

Edited by:

[1] Prof. J. Kuria Thuo [2] Mugambi Frankline [3] John K. Gitau

November, 2017

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MULtidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book of proceedings is the result of the hard work of the Conference Organizing Committee Members and the monumental role played by various paper presenters who so willingly shared their ideas which we hope will eventually impact the ordinary Kenyans and contribute to the advancement of knowledge. Special thanks to cluster moderators, keynote speakers and Gretsa University Management for the support offered variously.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 III International Multidisciplinary Conference Organizing Committee Members

Prof. J. Kuria Thuo : Vice Chancellor Prof. George Reche : Director Research & Publication Dr. Gacuuru Wa Karenge : School of Business John Gitau : Head, Directorate of Distance Learning Florence Kaku : School of Business Francis Kimari : Head, ICT department Faith Kamau : Head, Students Recruitment & Experience Management Mugambi Frankline : Head, Library & Information Services Johnson Masinde : Library & Information Services Sarah Wagio : School of Business Faith Mueni : Head, School of Computing & Informatics

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 IV Keynote Speakers

Prof. Francis N. Kibera : Tonney Muiruri Mutungu : Managing Director, TMM Hospitality Limited Jeff Kariku : Group Managing Director, Coseke Group of Companies Don Victor Simon Gichuki : Managing Director, Records & Information Management East Africa Limited Dr. Moses Thiga : Dr. Daniel Wambiri : Dr. Ray Mutinda :

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 V Moderators

CLUSTER 1: Sub-Theme 1: Innovations in Computing for Organizational Competitiveness

Sub-Theme 6: Innovations in Knowledge Management for Organizational Competitiveness

Geoffrey Mariga : Murang‘a University of Technology Dr. Daniel Wambiri : Kenyatta University

CLUSTER 2: Sub-Theme 2: Innovations in Hospitality Industry for Organizational Competitiveness Sub-Theme 6: Innovations in Business for Organizational Competitiveness

Dr. Jonathan Mulwa Mwau : Rongo University Dr. Lilian Mwenda : Dedan Kimathi University of Technology Prof. J. Kuria Thuo : Gretsa University

CLUSTER 3: Sub-Theme 3: Innovations in Education, Humanities and Social Sciences for Community Sustainable Development Sub-Theme 4: Innovations in Preventive Health Care for Community Sustainable development

Dr. Mary Mugwe : Mount Kenya University Prof. Wabuke Bibi : Gretsa University

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 VI Welcome Remarks

By Prof. J. Kuria Thuo Vice Chancellor Gretsa University

Prof. Thuo opened the conference by welcoming all present and thanked them for accepting the university‘s invitation to the conference. He emphasized that since theory informs practice and vice versa, he was of the view that the research conference would be value adding to both academicians and practitioners in attendance.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 VII Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... III International Multidisciplinary Conference Organizing Committee Members ...... IV Keynote Speakers ...... V Moderators ...... VI Welcome Remarks ...... VII Table of Contents ...... VIII Key Note Speech 1 ...... XI Key Note Speech 2 ...... XIV Key Note Speech 3 ...... XVII Key Note Speech 4 ...... XIX Key Note Speech 5 ...... XXI Key Note Speech 6 ...... XXIV RESEARCH PAPERS PRESENTED ...... XXV Information Literacy as the Foundation for Developing Evidence Based Practice among Nurses at the Kenyatta National Hospital, Kenya ...... 2 By Mugambi F. M1 and Njoroge R. W2 ...... 2

Investigation of Mobile Service Adoption in Academic Libraries...... 8 By Masinde M. J1 and Wambiri D. M2 ...... 8

Determinants of Effectiveness of Automated Programming Code Assessment Systems: Case of a Learning Institution in Kenya ...... 17 By Mukunga C. W ...... 17

Implementing Learnability in Online Hostel Management System at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya ...... 24 By Vincent M...... 24

The Impact of Using Mobile Technology in Reducing Emergency Response Time for Emergency Response Services ...... 32 By Too Faith ...... 32

A Critical Review of Literature on Information Technology Infrastructure Flexibility ...... 39 By Iloki K.1, Muathe S.2 and Waithaka S.3 ...... 39

Magneto Hydrodynamic Turbulent Flow Past a Rotating Semi-Infinite Plate ... 48 By Maswai R.C 1 and Kinyanjui M.N 2 ...... 48

Customer Orientation of Service Employees and Guest Loyalty in Full-Service Restaurants in Thika Town, Kenya ...... 63 By: Kahuthu, J. K1, Nyokabi, K2, and Wanjiku, C. K3 ...... 63

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 VIII The Role of Corporate Social Responsibility in Managing Customer Perceptions: A Case Study of Wings to Fly Programme at Equity Bank Kenya ...... 79 By: Kimani M.W ...... 79

Financial Service Delivery at Kenya Canners Sacco in Thika Sub -County ...... 92 By: Kaku F. M ...... 92

Role of Top Management Towards Performance of Cafeteria Employees in Dedan Kimathi University of Technology ...... 100 By: Geoffrey C. M.1 and Chege P. W.2 ...... 100

A Critical Review of Literature on E-commerce Transaction Capability ...... 107 By: Mutuku M.1, Muathe S.2 and James R.3 ...... 107

Perceived Price and Brand Image on Customer Loyalty in Fast Food Restaurants in Nairobi City Business District, Kenya ...... 117 By: Irungu P. N1 and Gitau J.K2 ...... 117

The State of Strategy Implementation at Kahuho Uhuru High School ...... 126 By: Kahunja, J. W.1 and Chege, P. W.2 ...... 126

Influence of Service Convenience on Customer Loyalty in Commercial Banks: A Case Study of Equity Bank, Kirinyaga County, Kenya ...... 134 By: Kathure F1, Kahuthu, J. G.2 and Kuria, P.3 ...... 134

Staphyloccoccal Enterotoxins in Boiled Milk: Determination of Health Risk in Informally Marketed Milk in Kenya...... 145 By: W. Bibi ...... 145

Factors Enhancing Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation Among the People of Mosocho Division, Kisii County, Kenya ...... 154 By: Ongeri S. N...... 154

Enhancement of Effective Academic Performance in Public Day Secondary Schools in Thika Constituency, Kiambu County, Kenya...... 165 By: Kigera C. W. 1 and Wanyela L.2 ...... 165

Resource Curse in Kenya: A Case of Turkana County ...... 176 By: Oduli A...... 176

Proactive Management Measures, Rehabilitation Centres and Behavioural Change to Alcohol and Tobacco Usage Among Youth in the Slums of Nairobi County, Kenya ...... 184 By: Murigi E.M1, Muathe S.M.A.2, Kuria T.J.3 and Gikonyo N.K.4 ...... 184

Factors Influencing Anti-Social Behaviour Among School Going Students in Kiambaa Constituency of Kiambu County: The Role of Parental Guidance .... 201 By: Njendu P.G...... 201

A Preliminary Study of Aflatoxin Levels in Peanut Butter in Local Market in Kenya ...... 208

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981

IX By: W. Bibi1 and Kimathi, J.2 ...... 208

Factors Affecting the Performance of Madaraka Market Community Project at Kamenu Ward, in Thika Sub-County Kenya ...... 214 By Muthoni E. H1 and Muriuki J.M2 ...... 214

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981

X Key Note Speech 1

By Prof. Francis N. Kibera Professor of Strategic Marketing, University of Nairobi and Chairman Gretsa University Council

Topic: The Role of Universities in Innovation and Sustainable Development

Prof. Kibera started by thanking the University Management for organizing the conference. He noted that the conference gave the participants a chance to talk about the value of innovations and sustainable community development. He also noted the role of education in these two aspects. Education is a global door to freedom and there is every need to renew education so as to increase knowledge. He gave the example of a Chinese philosopher who said when carrots are planted they are harvested with finality but not so with a mango tree that is harvested for years. Prof. Kibera observed that the prevailing discourse emphasizes the University‘s place as paramount player in the delivery of: i. Research – Universities are the knowledge creation centers of the world. They achieve this through research. Research is what distinguishes Universities from other institutions of learning. Through research universities extend the frontiers of knowledge. Research alongside education is what shapes the unique contribution that universities make in the society. ii. Teaching and training – Universities have historically existed as institutions of knowledge creation through research and dissemination of this knowledge is made through teaching and training. Teaching mostly assumes a theoretical approach while training is practically oriented. Teaching provides new knowledge to students while training impacts students with skills. The teaching and training mission of the university is a key responsibility. The aim is to educate people to work efficiently, provide technical skills and think critically to solve problems facing the society. iii. Consultancy – To remain relevant, universities must stay close to the society, build partnership with the industry, show their value to the industry and look for ways to make their knowledge and research more accessible to the society for mutual benefit. Consultancy is one of the avenues that universities can make available their knowledge and expertise to external organizations especially to the government, public sector bodies and businesses. Universities also need to be competitive on top of performing their core functions of research, teaching, training and consultancy. Prof. Kibera noted that changes in technology, job market and rapid growth of higher has impacted on the competitiveness of local universities. A decrease in traditional student population

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XI who qualify for direct University admission, will need Universities to rethink their marketing strategies. Universities are now more than ever required to know their customers, their competitors and their operational environment for them to remain competitive and be in a position to effectively perform their mandate.

Conclusion In conclusion, a university can play a key role in sustainable community, economic and social development through research, teaching and training and collaboration with the industry. The environment within which universities operate and the evolving needs of education forces universities to rethink of their operational models and competitiveness. We need to thank Gretsa University for a job well done in organizing the conference and urge her to organize more conferences, seminars and workshops in future. Plenary Session Chaired by Prof. Peter Shalo of Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology

Questions 1. How can Gretsa University compete with University of Nairobi? And what are some of the strengths that attract students to University of Nairobi.

2. Between academicians, practitioners and consultants who is to blame for problems facing the industry?

Answers 1. Gretsa and Nairobi as universities may not compete in terms of resources on equal footing. Competition is normally ranked or grouped. For instance, banks are grouped in terms of small, medium and large. Therefore, Gretsa University ought to be compared with those at its grouping. Since the University of Nairobi was the first university to be established in Kenya, it received a lot of goodwill and support from the government, donors, and well-wishers. As a result, University of Nairobi has emmense resources such as land, facilities and senior professors. The location, market share and corporate image of University of Nairobi UoN make it possible for it to attract many customers. It is noteworthy however that in United States of America, the leading global universities such as Harvard and Stanford are actually private universities and there are all possibilities in Kenya for private universities to attain such a feat with time and they should therefore not be judged unfairly.

2. There is nobody to solely blame for the challenges facing the industrial landscape in Kenya today. The academia-industry linkages have not been strong because the big multinational companies that mostly operate in Kenya can afford consultancy services in most cases offered by global consultancy service firms originating from their home countries.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XII However, Prof. Kibera was of the view that the conference could be used as a good beginning for Gretsa University to link up with the industry particularly with the firms represented at the conference. The diffulty usually is starting the first linkage but when that hurdle is crossed, the number of linkages increase progressively.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XIII Key Note Speech 2

By Tonney Muiruri Mutungu Managing Director, TMM Hospitality Limited

Topic: Innovations in Hospitality for Organizational Competitiveness

Tom Muiruri, Managing Director, TTM Hospitality Limited and a specialist in hospitality marketing operations, delivered his key note speech on a day when key players in the industry were meeting in London for International Travel Trade Show. Muiruri noted that Kenya is a key player in the world of tourism with immense wealth of tourist destinations and experience such as wildlife, sandy beaches and fascinating cultures. Tourism is one of the greatest contributors to the Kenyan economy through employment and taxes. Tourism exists to satisfy the need for pleasure and luxury. Hotels, restaurants, coffee shops and other eateries continue to thrive in Kenya, evidence of the opportunities in the industry. A good example is the Westlands area of Nairobi City Country which has a multitude of big hotels among them Jacarada, Villa Rosa Kempskey, Sankara, La Maison Royale, Southern Sun Mayfair located within a radius of just one kilometer from each other. Despite the opportunities available in the industry, Muiruri noted that the industry is highly competitive. The competition is what is driving innovations through effective products, services, processes and technologies. Innovations have become essential for hotel viability and competitiveness of the industry as a whole. The innovations trends in the hospitality industry are manifested through the seven sensual notes: (i) Sight – Facilities architecture and interior design (ii) Hearing – Music, Radio, TV (iii) Smell – Scents, Aroma (iv) Taste – Food, Drinks (v) Touch – Softness, Warmth, Texture (vi) Institution – Peace, Security (vii) Impression – Emotions, Feelings, Experience, Altitude

Mr. Muiruri outlined the results of a survey he recently carried out in Machakos town of Machakos County in Kenya on why guests leave specific hotels as follows:

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XIV Reasons for leaving specific hotel

Personel Attitude Poor Service Delivary High Prices New Habits Stay Die

As demonstrated in the chart: (i) 68% of guests leave because of dissatisfaction brought about by the personal negative attitude of staff (ii) 14% of guests leave because they are not happy with the service (iii) 9% of guests leave because prices are too high (iv) 5% of guests leave because new habits such as just wanting to test out new hotel (v) 3% stay (vi) 1% die

The results of this survey indicate the need for innovations that aim at personalized services because customers are tired of standard hotel services, have a variety of options to choose from and they demand additional out-of-the-box services. Innovations in the hospitality industry require creation of services or intangible assets such as cultural tourism, educational tourism, eco-tourism etc. It also requires expanding the range of products and services as well as diversification in marketing by conducting market research and developing new marketing strategies such as sensory marketing.

Conclusion Muiruri concluded his speech by confirming that innovation is the most important component of sustainable development in the hospitality industry in Kenya. He thanked the University Management for starting collaboration between the Industry players and academicians as exhibited in the conference.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XV Plenary Session Chaired by Prof. Peter Shalo of Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology

Questions 1. How are hotels rated? 2. How does political instability affect hotel industry?

Answers 1. There are hospitality standards used to rate hotels in terms of stars from 1 to 5 as the highest.

2. Political instability affects businesses negatively, hotel industry being inclusive. During such times business is very low and international vistors and investors keep off until stability is attained in the economy.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XVI Key Note Speech 3

By Jeff Kariku Group Managing Director, Coseke Group of Companies

Topic: Digitalization and Electronic Information

Jeff Kariku who is the Group Managing Director at Coseke Group of Companies, a document management solutions firm started his speech by noting that information is the lifeblood of every organization and organizations are increasingly becoming dependent on information. Information is needed for planning, decision making as well as providing competitive advantage. However, this information is not readily available to key stakeholders because it is likely to be in a piece of paper securely staked in a filing cabinet. Moreover, documents in organizations are often fragmented in different offices making accessibility difficult. Over the last decade, innovations in information technology have provided opportunity to capture, store and reuse knowledge through a process known as digitization. Other IT based innovations such as search engines, shared databases and web-based portals have made it easier to store, retrieve and share information within organizations, governments and public sector bodies. A practical example of application of innovations in management of documents in Kenya is the digitization of Lands Ministry through which citizens will be able to transact land services online, such as land lease payment, land transfer fee, land searches, application for sub-division and many more services once the excise is complete. Away from IT innovations in the management of documents, Jeff noted that there is a lot of potential for innovations in documents value addition and unlocking the value of information through capitalization of digitization. He gave the example of a scenario where when the Lands Ministry having digitizes all land title deeds, farmers will be able to borrow loans online like is the case with M-Shwari (a collobation between Commercial Bank of Africa and Safaricom) and use the land title deed as security which is later locked on-line until the farmer fully re-pays the loan. This would save the farmer time and cost of travelling with his/her title deed to a bank to apply for a loan. Conclusion Mr. Kariku concluded by noting that organizations that master the art of effective information organization eventually gain competitive advantage over their peers. He also challenged young people to exploit opportunities in coming up with innovations and great ideas that will transform access and use of information by government and organizations.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XVII Plenary Session Chaired by Prof. Peter Shalo of Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology

Questions 1. How can technology be used to reduce wastage in organizations? 2. Is there goodwill in the Government of Kenya to digitalize its data? 3. How does one manage as a technology practitioner in a very competitive industry that has also a lot of unethical practices? 4. What is the difference between digitalization and automation? 5. Where does Coseke see itself in 5 years time? Will you be relevant?

Answers 1. With the growth in smartphones and mobile applications, organizations are beginning to take advantage of mobile applications to conduct business such as loan applications and job applications instead of traditional paper formats. Many organizations have also embraced email services as a means of communication instead of memos and letters. However, the idea of paperless office is out of reach for many organizations. This is an opportunity for the young people such as university students to innovate IT based solutions for organizations. 2. There is goodwill in the government. Coseke has been working with government ministries. The only challenge is that government does many projects simultaneously and none gets completely finished. Therefore, the Government of Kenya (GoK) needs to adopt the Japanese concept known as Kaizen which means continuous improvement. GoK‘s public relations is not good, it requires improvement. 3. Life is a risk. In technology the fact is that there are challenges and hence protection is required. There is need for professionalism in the technology industry and more so the practitioners who manage innovations need to be highly ethical. 4. There is a thin line between automation and digitalization. Automation is converting manual to automatic. Automation is wider than digitalization. 5. There is still a lot of work to do and Coseke will continue to be innovative. Many organizations such as banks and hospitals are endevouring to become paperless and this presents a future and relevance for Coseke.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XVII I Key Note Speech 4 By Don Victor Simon Gichuki Managing Director, Records & Information Management East Africa Limited

Topic: Entrepreneurship and Innovation. Mr. Gichuki who serves as the Managing Director at the Records and Information Management East Africa (RIMEA) Limited started by noting that organizations need to innovate in order to remain competitive in today‘s highly competitive environment. The challenges facing Kenyan organizations among them increasing competition has forced many organizations to harness innovations through acquisition of knowledge and creativity that requires them to reflect on reality and come up with efficient services and innovative products. Mr. Gichuki gave the case of Safaricom which started its operations as a department of Kenya Post and Telecommunication Corporation a monopoly operator at the time. Through its innovations such as M-Pesa and development of range of products and services, Sfaricom has grown to be one of the largest companies in Kenya with highest profitability in East and Central Africa. Innovations however do not come easily, they require a culture of creativity and investment in research. For example, Thomas Edison, the inventor of light bulb made over 1,000 unsuccessful attempts before finally succeeding in coming up with a light bulb. There is no shortage of innovative ideas that can transform our lives, only challenges lie ahead which we can overcome if only we are persistent. Don Victor noted that young people have embraced the spirit of entrepreneurship. His advice to the young entrepreneurs is that innovation is what sets an entrepreneur apart from the rest. Entrepreneurship cannot survive without innovations otherwise it is just another business. Every entrepreneur wants to stay ahead of his/her competitors whether at a local or global scale. Innovation is however not useful if it does not solve a real problem that people are facing in their day to day activities. The innovation must also be sustainable. Conclusion Mr. Gichuki concluded his speech by noting that innovation is the engine for change and a catalyst for competitive advantage. However, innovation must address real problems facing the society and must be sustainable. Entrepreneurs must also be passionate about their work and once one gets a niche in the market, run with it. Plenary Session Chaired by Prof. Daniel Mukunya of University of Nairobi Questions 1. Does starting a business have challenges? Especially funding? 2. What are the actual activities of RIMEA?

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XIX 3. How can the challenge of excess human capital be addressed by your operational industry? Answers 1. When starting a business, money isn‘t the critical resource. What is of essense is a business idea and passion. 2. Rimea deals with records, information management and training 3. The market is huge and the opportunity of outsourcing is huge. Once you get an idea from someone treat them as partners for retention.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XX Key Note Speech 5

By Dr. Moses Thiga Director of Research, Kabarak University

Topic: The Role of Higher Education in Knowledge Translation for Community Development

Dr. Thiga chose to address the role of higher education in knowledge translation to the community. Knowledge translation is an interactive process of knowledge exchange between the University researchers and knowledge users in the society. The goal of knowledge translation is to enhance the impact of academic research in the ‗real world‘ which resonates with the role of Universities in the society. Dr. Thiga noted that a lot of resources and time are committed to doing research in Universities which later piles up in libraries without the translation of the knowledge created to the society benefit. Universities being the main producers of knowledge and talent have a huge potential to impact the society by contributing new approaches to addressing problems facing the society, but they cannot benefit the society if academicians limit themselves to traditional scholarly communication through journals and books. Universities are expected to repackage this information into research-based and evidence-based recommendations that can be readily consumed by the society and initiate interventions that will eventually improve the livelihood of the society. Conclusion Dr. Thiga in conclusion noted that communities value collaboration with organizations in their proximity, for example health centers, local authorities, local churches etc. Universities have an opportunity to prove their real worth by collaborating with the local communities and the society in general in doing research and later disseminating the research findings and recommendations to the community in a format that is easily understood to help initiate interventions that will improve the livelihood of the society. Plenary Session Chaired by Prof. Daniel Mukunya of University of Nairobi

Questions 1. How can students remain relevant in terms of selecting relevant research topics and literature review? 2. How does the government implement researchers‘ findings? 3. How do you assess the role of researchers in engaging with the government?

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XXI Answers 1. To remain relevant in research you must solve real problems. When selecting the topic, identify the problem first before crafting the topic. 2. The relevant government ministries or departments may not read complete research projects or reports forwarded to them, but if one wants to engage them then they must make them stakeholders from the start of the project including data collection so as to develop the solutions together. 3. It is possible for researchers to engage with the government by dealing with the relevant departments.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XXII Keynote Speech 6

By Dr. Ray Mutinda

Topic: Innovations in Hospitality Industry for Organizational Competitiveness

Dr. Mutinda chose to address innovations in the expansive Hospitality industry. In the introduction, he noted that the hospitality industry is increasingly confronted with a number of externalities that present eminent challenges to the sector‘s competitiveness including

• the intensification of competitiveness at a global level, • the rapid advance of technology and • higher expectations form clients, among others

His topic focused on exploring the innovations in Hospitality Industry relevant for the sector‘s sustained competitiveness.

Dr. Mutinda focused on trends and issues shaping the hospitality and tourism industry‘s competitiveness, towards sustained competitiveness in the today‘s hospitality sector: an overview of innovations typology, and overcoming the attendant drawbacks to innovation in the hospitality sector.

Dr. Mutinda noted that the future of the hospitality and tourism industry is bright. In addition, he noted that sustainability debate, operational issues (labor issues and need for cost containment – the idea of ‗doing more with less‘), marketing issues (increased guest sophistication, increased competition), technological issues (keeping up with the pace), globalization, visitor safety and security (global terrorism threat and natural disasters such as tsunamis and hurricanes) are major issues that are shaping the current hospitaly and tourism industry competitiveness.

The world has gone ‗Green‘. Indeed, sustainable tourism is firmly positioned in the 2030 Agenda (the UN SDGs) including featuring prominently in the UN SDGs (Vision 2030) - Goals 8, 12 and 14 on inclusive and sustainable economic growth, sustainable consumption and production (SCP) and the sustainable use of oceans and marine resources, respectively.

Even though technology is changing at a higher pace that proves difficult to match, Dr. Mutinda noted that ICT has transformed hospitality and tourism industry treamendously. He observed that the industry has been able to able to establish best operational practices and paradigms, adopt multi-channel strategies, develop suitable business models, manage their resources better to name but a few.

He provided an overview of innovations typology in the hospitality industry. On this, he discussed on product/service innovation, process innovation, organization

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XXII I innovation, marketing innovation, and business model innovation. To be able to overcome challenges and drawbacks in the hospitality industry and open doors of success, Dr. Mutinda argued that there is call for:

1. Overcoming the inherently conservative nature of the tourism industry, which can inhibit risk taking and the development of new mindsets, 2. The need for industry operators to understand that innovation can result in bottom-line benefits and can create significant product differentiation, 3. Gaining broad acceptance that innovation requires a systematic approach to continual improvement and involves new ways of examining issues, 4. Diminishing a common belief that innovation equates to new technology and invention, while communicating that it can also include business practice and processes, 5. Dispelling perceptions that innovation is just about ‗breakthrough‘ concepts, and conveying that it more often involves incremental improvement and ‗value- adding‘ change. 6. Managers must consider that consumers do not adopt or use a new service only for the purpose of the benefits it offers, but they also use it due to the social aspects such as what adopting the innovation would say about them. This leads to different segments of adopters of a new service based on customer motivation and types of benefits they seek in an innovation. 7. It is important to acknowledge that innovations also come with barriers including the ownership structure of the hospitality industry and franchise models.

Conclusion

Dr. Mutinda noted in conclusion that to cope up with abovementioned issues, there is need for a paradigm shift in hospitality industry design, operarions and management.

Plenary Session Chaired by Prof. John Kuria Thuo of Gretsa University

Questions

How can the hospitality and tourism industry go ‗Green‘?

Answers

To go green, the global hospitality industry needs to adhere to the stipulations of Agenda 21, MDGs, and SDGs. The basis of sustainable hospitality operation is thus a triple bottom line of ―profits, people, and planet.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XXI V

RESEARCH PAPERS PRESENTED

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 XXV Sub-Theme 1: Innovations in Computing for Organizational Competitiveness CLUSTER & 1 Sub-Theme 6: Innovations in Knowledge Management for Organizational Competitiveness

Moderators: 1. Geoffrey Mariga, Murang‘a University of Technology 2. Dr. Daniel Wambiri, Kenyatta University

Rapporteurs: 1. Faith Mueni, Gretsa University 2. Frankline Mugambi, Gretsa University

Welcome and Opening Remarks Dr. Wambiri opened the session by calling the meeting to order and noting that information and technological innovations provide unprecedented opportunities for individuals, organizations and the community in general. He gave the example of M- pesa innovation which has transformed the life of the innovator, companies and the Kenyan society at large and continues to influence the rest of the world on mobile money transfers. Innovations arise out of asking questions and developing solutions for day to day problems that we face in our society.

Everyone has invented something at some stage in their life and this is proof that we have the potential in us to invent greater ideas. However, we need diversity of knowledge, skills and expertise. This is the opportunity this conference gives all of us, i.e. an opportunity to share our knowledge and skills with others as well as gain new knowledge from other presenters.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MULtidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 1 Information Literacy as the Foundation for Developing Evidence Based Practice among Nurses at the Kenyatta National Hospital, Kenya By Mugambi F. M1 and Njoroge R. W2.

1: Gretsa University – Email: [email protected] 2: Kenyatta University – Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The study sought to address the extent to which nurses in Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH) in Kenya possess adequate information literacy skills to support evidence-based practice. The medical field is anchored on solid research-based evidence and competency in information literacy provides nurses with the skills to effectively consume research-based information. The study adopted descriptive survey design. The target population were the1723 nurses working at the hospital of which a sample size of 347 respondents was selected. The study established that nurses at KNH were in a position to identify their information needs, were aware of popular sources of information and the majority (60%) successfully evaluated information before use. The study therefore concluded that nurses at KNH understood the concept of evidence- based practice. The insights from the study will increase awareness among nurse administrators and educators of the need for information literacy education to facilitate evidence-based practice.

Key words: Information Literacy, Evidence-Based Practice, Health Information

1. Introduction

Information literacy is an important skill in the acquisition of knowledge. It involves skills to recognize when information is needed and the ability to efficiently locate information sources, accurately evaluate the information source, effectively use the acquired information, and clearly communicate the newly acquired knowledge and old knowledge in various formats.

Increased demand for healthcare services means nurses need a wide variety of information, in order to meet their clinical information needs. Traditionally nurses have relied on established clinical procedures, experience and opinions of colleagues and doctors when attending to patients Gadd, (2007). Currently nurses are expected to embrace Evidence Based Practice (EBP). EBP is the integration of clinical expertise, patient values and best available research into the decision-making process for patient care and clinical refers (Sackett, 2002).

Embracing EBP requires nurses to access, evaluate and integrate scientific research when making clinical decisions. These qualities are the same as those of information

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 2 literate individual who is required to recognize information need, locate, evaluate and effectively use the newly acquired information to solve a problem. Pravikoff, (2006) is of the opinion that information literacy was no longer an option for medical and health practitioners but ―a professional‖ obligation. The Royal College of Nursing (2016) encourages its members to see information literacy as a life skill rather than academic qualification.

This study reports to what extent nurses in Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH) in Kenya possess adequate information literacy skills. The findings of the study will contribute to better understanding of nurse‘s current level of information literacy skills. Recommendations are made on ways to improve information literacy skills of nurses at KNH. The objective of the study was to assess information literacy skills of nurses at Kenyatta National Hospital, Kenya in support of Evidence Based Practice.

2. Research Methodology

The research adopted descriptive survey design. The research was carried out in Kenyatta National Hospital. KNH is the largest national referral and teaching hospital in Kenya. The hospital is located in Upper-Hill within Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya off Mbagathi road, approximately three kilometers from Central Business District (CBD).

The target population constituted 1723 nurses working at KNH. Stratified and purposive sampling techniques were chosen for this research. Through stratified sampling the entire population was divided into departments to ensure all nursing departments at KNH were represented in the research and proportionate number of respondents assigned to each department.

Data was analyzed by use of Likerts scale while computer based Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to generate tables and charts necessarily for presentation. Other presentations were made in form of figures, text, graphs and percentages.

3. Findings and Discussions

3.1 Response rate

The target population constituted 1723 registered nurses working at KNH. A sample size of 347 nurses was selected based on Fisher‘s Formula for calculating sample size for a population less than 10, 0000 (Fisher, 1935) 347 questionnaires were administered, a total of 189 questionnaires were properly filled and returned which implies 54% response rate. Properly filled response rate of 50% can be used to establish research objectives (Mugenda & Mugenda 2003).

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 3 3.2 Awareness of Information Sources for Medical and Healthcare Practitioners

This section sought to determine whether nurses have knowledge on information sources for medical and healthcare practitioners. Table 1 presents the response, all the respondents 189(100%) were aware of reference books, textbooks, colleagues & doctors as sources of information.107(56%) were aware of medical databases such as POPLINE and MEDLINE as sources of information, 32(17%) were aware of Research publications as sources of information.

Books still remain popular sources of scholarly information according to the research findings. Colleagues and doctors ware also recognized has source of information by all nurses at KNH probably because they are easily accessible. The findings reflect those of other researchers such as Cogdill, (2003).), London, (2015) and Osborne, (2011) which concluded that nurses are aware of the popular sources of information such as books, colleagues, medical databases and professional blogs.

Low awareness of research publications as sources of information 32(17%), can probably be attributed to lack of publicity of research work by Research Organizations and Universities in Kenya or low research work in Kenya. More research however needs to be carried out on the subject to establish the reasons behind.

Table 1. Nurses’ awareness of potential information sources for medical and healthcare practitioners. Source of Information Yes No Freq. % Freq. % (n=189) (n=189) Reference books e.g. medical dictionaries and medical 189 100 0 0 encyclopedia Textbooks 189 100 0 0 Colleagues & doctors 189 100 0 0 Medical databases e.g POPLINE, MEDLINE 107 56 82 46 Nursing Council of Kenya 96 50 95 50 Research publications e.g from NGO‘s, Research Institutions and 32 17 157 83 Universities Source: Research data

3.3 Information Literacy Skills (Evaluation and Use)

In order to access the aspects of information literacy skills, the study asked the respondents to write a brief description of the most recent information need for which they have sought information; this was meant to help them relate their search to a specific information need and their success at meeting the information need.

The respondents reported searching for information on a wide range of subjects ranging from patient education, family planning, clinical guidelines, drug abuse, maternal healthcare, child healthcare, treatment options and assistive technologies. On how successful they were in evaluating and using the newly acquired information, of the 184 respondents as shown in figure 1, the majority 114(60%) felt that they had been very successful, 59(31%) felt they were average (―just okay‖) and 11(6%) reported failure

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 4 at evaluating and effectively using the newly acquired information. 5 respondents (3%) did not attempt the question.

How successful did you feel in evaluating and applying the information you found? Very successful:60% 6% 3% Just okay:32% 60 Not 31% % successful:6% Failed to answer the question:3%

Figure: 1 Information literacy skills (evaluation & use) Source: Research data Further to information evaluation and use, the study sought to access nurses‘ competences on different aspects of information literacy. The respondents were asked to rate the information literacy aspects that they felt are essential in facilitating successful retrieval and use of professional information using Likert scale 1-5, where 1- indicated strongly disagree; 2- disagree; 3- uncertain; 4- agree; 5- strongly agree.

Table 2 shows that, 90% of nurses at KNH evaluate information before use, only 6% reported perceived lack of skills to evaluate newly acquired information before use. This is encouraging considering that evaluation of information before use is key to evidence-based practice especially in this error of internet as pointed out in standard number three of Information Literacy Standards for Nursing (2014) which points out that information literate nurse should be in a position to critically evaluate information procured/retrieved before using it.

The need to evaluate information before use can be can be supported by research findings of Crawford & Irving (2012) in its research on Evidence Based Practice management and patient education reported that 20% of the 60 medical websites sampled had misleading information on treatment of diarrhea in children.

Table 2 shows that all nurses at KNH are in a position to know the nature and extent of information needed when faced with an information need. Nurses ware also able to establish the accuracy, up-to-dateness and validity of information obtained with a mean score of 4.33 which is way above 3.00 which is the average, except for a few nurses (11%) who were uncertain of whether they could comfortably establish the accuracy, up-to-dateness and validity of information obtained.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 5 Nurses at KNH are confident that the information they use is accurate with a mean score of 4.25 and they usually apply clinical interventions based on the most available evidence, 80% of nurses understands the importance of using professionally accepted information sources when searching for information, they also understand when to share confidential information with third parties. They can also identify for whom the information is intended.

The study established that 50% of nurses can confidently sport inaccuracy and errors in information retrieved, while 49% acknowledge the author while communicating the newly acquired information.

Table 2: Aspects of Information literacy skills Statement Rating Strongly Strongly Mean agree Agree Uncertain disagree disagree score Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % I understand what 116 61 67 35 3 2 3 2 0 0 4.54 evidence-based practice is. I am in a position to 105 55 59 31 18 10 7 4 0 0 4.37 know the nature and extent of information I need. I am in a position to 81 42 92 49 14 7 2 1 0 0 4.33 establish the accuracy, up-to-dateness and validity of information I obtain before using it. I am confident the 88 47 74 39 19 10 7 4 1 0.5 4.25 information I use is accurate. I usually apply clinical 74 39 81 43 25 13 7 4 2 1 4.15 interventions based on the most available evidence-based research recommendations. I understand it is 85 45 68 36 12 6 22 11 2 1 4.10 important to use acceptable information sources in nursing profession. I know when confidential 68 36 79 41 34 18 7 3 1 0.5 4.07 information should not be shared. I can tell when the 66 35 70 37 14 7 25 13 14 7 3.77 information is biased. I can figure out for 50 26 56 30 31 16 36 19 16 8 3.47 whom the information is intended. I can confidently spot 43 23 51 30 35 19 34 18 26 14 2.90 inaccuracy and errors in information I have retrieved

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 6 When communicating 27 14 40 21 35 19 38 29 49 26 2.78 newly acquired knowledge I usually credit the author/source of the information. If you paraphrase (use 23 12 44 23 30 16 42 22 50 26 2.71 your own words) the main idea of an article, you need to acknowledge the author. Source: Research data

4. Conclusions

The aim of the study was to establish the extent to which the nurses at KNH possess adequate information literacy skills to support evidence-based practice. The study established that nurses at KNH understood the concept of evidence-based practice, where they are expected to base their practice on concrete research-based information and possessed information literacy skills on evaluation of information and information sources. On the issue of online medical databases and intellectual property, the nurses reported low information literacy skills. From the scenarios, the study concluded that nurses at KNH possess inadequate information literacy skills to navigate through the information landscape.

References

[1] Gadd, C. (2007) Hospital nurses use of knowledge based information resources. Journal of Nursing outlook.55(15) 16-19. [2] Sackett, D. (2002) Evidence-based Medicine: How to Practise and Teach EBM, 2nd edn. London: Churchill Livingstone. [3] Pravikoff D.S, Tanner A.B, Pierce S.T. (2006). Readiness of U.S. nurses for evidence-based practice. Am J Nurs.105(9):40–51. [4] Royal College of Nursing (2014). Information literacy standards for nursing. American library Association. [5] Fisher R. (1935). The logic of inductive inference (with discussion). Journal of Royal Statistical Society.;98:39–82. [6] Mugenda, O. M. & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative Approaches. Nairobi: African Centre for Technology Studies. [7] Cogdill, K. (2003). Information needs and information seeking in primary care: a study of nurse practitioners. J Med Library Association. [8] London, W. (2015). Enterprise output: An investigation into Information Literacy in nursing practice - how is it experienced , what are its parameters , and how can it be developed ? Thesis. [9] Osborne, A. (2011) The Value of Information Literacy: Conceptions of BSc Nursing Students at a UK University. Doctoral thesis, University of Huddersfield. [10] Crawford, J., & Irving, C. (2012). Information literacy in employability training: The experience of Inverclyde Libraries. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 44(2), 79–89. http://doi.org/10.1177/0961000611436096.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 7 Investigation of Mobile Service Adoption in Academic Libraries By Masinde M. J1 and Wambiri D. M2

1: Gretsa University- Email: [email protected] 2: Kenyatta University –Email: [email protected] Abstract

Mobile Internet applications and service innovations are changing people's way of life across the globe. At the same time, they are also changing the way that people communicate and access information. People who visited libraries to find specific information in the past are now able to find the same information online through mobile phones. However, there has always been a technological gap between developed and developing countries, a scenario that has been attributed to lack of financial muscle and goodwill. With mobile computing as the current trend across different spectrums, this study sort to ascertain the mobile resource espousal in university libraries across the globe with a key concentration on Universities in developed and underdeveloped countries. The Countries were selected based on the International Monetary fund (IMF) report 2016, identifying The United States and the United Kingdom among developed Countries and Zimbabwe, Uganda and Kenya among underdeveloped countries. High research institutions of higher learning were selected based on the QS World University Rankings 2016/17; identifying Cambridge University in the United Kingdom and Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of technology in the United States among developed Countries. University of Zimbabwe, Makerere and the University of Nairobi were identified among developing nations. The survey involved analysis of the University librarys‘ websites and that of the Universities for any links leading to the mobile library website or other mobile library applications. Where no such link was established, a search was conducted for the term ―mobile‖ in every accessible site search icon on the University‘s homepage. The findings show that University libraries in developed countries have a wide array of mobile resources accessible anywhere and at anytime demonstrating the contemporary status of mobile resource adoption. On the contrary, mobile resources among University libraries in developing nations are generally lacking and shoddy for the case of University of Zimbabwe‘s library. The study recommends collaborations and networking among University libraries globally, good will and financial support from mother institutions in developing countries

Keywords: Mobile resources, espousal, developed countries, University libraries

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 8 1. Introduction

The core mandate of Academic libraries is to meet clientele‘s user needs. Academic libraries are therefore adopting and implementing new technologies with the key drive of ensuring user needs satisfaction. Since their conception, and principally the instigation of the Internet, academic libraries have responded to changes in technology and clientele. One such major espousal is the shift from desktop computing to a mobile setting; which has become fundamental to make certain that academic libraries keep up with modern-day society. The key has been to permit access to the library anywhere and at anytime as per clientele‘s expediency.

There has, however been variations in technological espousal athwart the globe with academic libraries in industrialized countries having fully adopted to dated technology as compared to their counterparts in developing states (Laura Bolton Palumbo 2014). In harmony with (Gillwald et al. 2012), Internet access has not been ordinary in emerging states with merely about 27% being able to use the services. There have been issues such as lack of computers and electricity with very few domiciles connected to the grid. Conversely, smartphone ownership in developing nations has risen tremendously, with over 700 million users across the African continent alone (Sambira, 2013). Lack of web access in developing nations has aided the swift espousal and novel use of smartphones in such areas as heath, finance, agriculture and education (digital learning, mobile library services). This paper therefore delves into the present status of mobile library resource espousal in a number of high research institutions of higher learning across the globe.

2. Literature Review

Studies have managed to keep track of the mobile library resource adoption in Academic libraries. For instance, (Johnson et al 2010) survey on the new media consortium mentions the ubiquitous and indispensible nature of mobile devices as having pressed Academic libraries to create mobile websites and applications for their resources. The study adds that Academic libraries cannot however match the efforts in other spectrums more so the commercial world. It quotes the commercial world as having outpaced the libraries in awareness and implementation of the technology. Academic libraries in developed nations happen to have made tremendous strides in adoption of mobile services as compared to those in developing countries. In China for instance, (Yang & Gui 2014) aver that at least 90% of Academic libraries under Project 985, (A Chinese government initiative with the aim of transforming Chinese Universities into world class Universities) offer some form of mobile resources. In Canada, the observations are no different as every academic library has or plans to implement the mobile library concept (Thomas 2010) and (Aldrich 2010). For example, a study by (Robin Canuel & Chad Crichton 2011) on ‗Canadian academic libraries and the mobile web‘ established that as of 2010, 14% of Academic libraries under the Association of Universities

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 9 and Colleges of Canada (AUCC) had some form of mobile resources. Four months later, four new mobile libraries had emerged, signifying the steadiness in growth. The percentage growth had shifted to over 44%. The remarkable augmentations are suggestive of a glittering future for the mobile library concept. In the United States, the observations are analogous. For instance, (West et al 2006) asserts that Academic libraries in the United States were offering mobile resources as early as 2006. An example is the Ball state University library that has been offering the resources since 2006. (Catharine Bomhold 2014) also established that 70% of Academic libraries in the United States were offering mobile resources in 2014 up from 21.6% in 2010 connoting significant augmentation in a span of just 3 years.

Even as studies affirm of Academic libraries in industrialized nations‘ growing interest in the mobile library concept, the implementation has not been homogeneous to those in developing Countries. For instance, (Laura Bolton Palumbo 2014) alleges that the tremendous developments of the mobile library concept in industrialized countries are not being reflected in developing countries. She adds that ―technology in the form of computers and internet access, and even electricity, is scarce or ―absent‖ in developing countries. The Academic libraries are completely in the dark and still use the card system to serve users. Only very, few have adopted the integrated management systems. In the opinion of (Laura Bolton Palumbo 2014), the mobile library concept remains an imagination far from reality in developing countries.

3. Research Methodology

The survey involved analysis of the University library‘s website and that of the University for any links leading to the mobile library website or other mobile library application. Where no such link was established, a search was conducted for the term ―mobile‖ in every accessible site search icon on the University‘s homepage. The findings were then explored for the presence of the mobile resources. Searches were also conducted on iTunes store and the Android market to establish whether there were any other services that would not have been advertised on the University‘s mobile web

In this study, we defined a mobile website as any website that can be accessed through the browser of a mobile device and is tailored to the mobile context. All the library websites that were accessible through the mobile devices were therefore considered mobile library websites. A Mobile application can be tricky to delineate, as it would mean any fully featured interactive mobile experience or a simple text- based online catalogue interface. The study defined a mobile application as downloadable content that can be used on a mobile device

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 10 The Universities were divided into two. Those in developed countries and those in under developed countries. It was imperative to divide the Universities: i) To realize the main objective of the study which was to explore the mobile resource espousal in University libraries across the globe

ii) Mobile library user needs vary; clientele from industrialized countries are presumed to have different user needs as compared to their counterparts in developing nations (Laura Bolton Palumbo 2014). The categorization is therefore necessary to enable a superior understanding on how to satisfy the mobile library resource needs of clientele.

Industrialized nations were selected as per the latest International Monetary fund (IMF) report 2016 (http://knoema.com/nwnfkne/world-gdp-ranking-2015-data-and-charts). The top economies as of 2016 are the United States, China, Japan Germany and the United Kingdom. The international monetary fund (IMF) keeps track of the world‘s economic stands. It is an internationally recognized and ISO certified body that fosters global financial stability and sustainable economic growth. The credibility of its data was therefore under no doubt. China, Germany and Japan were however not selected because they are not English-speaking nations. The report was then compared with the QS World University Rankings 2016/17 report (http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2016) to select high ranking research Universities among the world‘s acme economies. The QS world University ranking is an annual confederacy table of the top higher learning institutions globally. It is compiled by the QS intelligence unit in close consultation with an international advisory body of leading academicians. Its credibility was therefore also assured. The first top three Universities as per the ranking were selected. These are Massachusetts Institute of technology (MIT) (United States), Harvard University (United States) and the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom.

Developing countries were also selected based on data from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). High research institutions of higher learning in developing nations were also selected based on the QS World University ranking. Surprisingly, all developing nations were from Africa mainly Zimbabwe, Kenya and Uganda. Some Countries such as Central republic of Congo, Liberia, Burundi and Niger were shoddier than countries such as Kenya and Uganda but were not selected because they were not English- speaking nations. There was also no significant difference in gross domestic product (GDP) of these Countries and the Countries selected; hence, there would be no significant effect on the study.

As per the QS world University ranking system, 2016, the University of Zimbabwe was selected in Zimbabwe, University of Nairobi in Kenya and Makerere University in Uganda.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 11 4. Findings and Discussions 4.1 Mobile library resource adoption in developed countries

All the three Academic libraries (Massachusetts Institute of technology library, University of Cambridge library and Harvard University library) had a mobile library website. However, they did not have a mobile application of their own. Two, namely, Massachusetts Institute of technology (MIT), and University of Cambridge libraries had an icon on the mother Universities‘ mobile applications. Harvard University library was still working on having an icon on the Mother University‘s mobile application.

A total of 3 mobile library websites and 2 mobile applications were therefore analyzed for the presence of information resources. 11 classes of mobile services were ascertained as being common among the three Academic libraries based on evaluation of previous research and examination of the mobile web sites. The services are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Common mobile library services among the three Academic libraries Mobile library services among the three Academic libraries Library hours Maps and directions Catalog search Account services/ managing personal accounts Renewal of books Book requests Video recording tutorials Electronic resources/journals Booking reservations, books/single group discussions Ask a librarian Contact information

Massachusetts Institute of Technology‘s (MIT) library was accessible through http://m.mit.edu/libraries. It did not have an application but had a library icon on the university‘s mobile application as mentioned above. Its services include library hours & locations for each library, Ask questions and meeting requests with the librarian, library news/ MIT Libraries‘ blog, library website search, database resources, staff directory, shortcuts to frequently used pages, check account services, book purchase suggestions, contact information, catalog search, social media icons for connection on twitter, Facebook etc, Renewal and book request, video recordings/tutorials, Single/group discussions and booking course reserves.

Harvard University library‘s mobile website was accessible through http://lib.harvad.edu.mobile. Its services include library hours, guide maps, contact information, electronic resources search the catalog, ask a librarian, interlibrary loan, library news and events, management of user accounts, Research support, video tutorials, group study etc. The library did not have a customized mobile application.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 12 The University however has a mobile application on which the library is working to add an Icon. The University of Cambridge‘s mobile library website was accessible through http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/mob. It also has a QR code on the website that can be scanned by the mobile device. Its services are; Search library collections, manage the library account, find items on maps and floor plans, link out to full text versions, see library locations and opening hours, View and renew loans. Place, manage and cancel requests, Build and email booklists, view your library profile, it also has social media icons where users can follow it on social platforms such as twitter and facebook, just like Harvard University and Massachusetts institute of technology (MIT) libraries, the university of Cambridge library does not have a mobile application. It however has a library icon on the mother University‘s mobile application.

4.2 Mobile library resource adoption in developing countries

A similar investigation was conducted on Academic libraries in developing countries namely University of Zimbabwe (Zimbabwe), Makerere University (Uganda) and University of Nairobi (Kenya). As mentioned above the analysis began with a search to ascertain the presence of mobile library services on the University library website and the University website. After identification, the mobile library website and mobile library application were analytically catalogued and resources identified, as was the case with Academic libraries in developed countries.

The University of Zimbabwe‘s website and that of the library were analyzed for presence of mobile library services. The library‘s mobile website was accessed through http://library.uz.ac.zw. Its services include Ask a librarian, News and announcements; Group study room reservation, new book notification, calendar and Google search. The findings are also in harmony with the international network for the availability of scientific publications (INASP) on electronic-resource awareness report 2016 that had established similar services. The main mobile services noted in the report were access of electronic resources. There was however no link to the mobile library application.

Makerere University‘s website and that of the library were also analyzed for presence of mobile library services. The investigation also involved analysis of the two websites for any links leading to the mobile library website or the mobile library application. No link to either a mobile library application or the mobile library website was identified. Literature review did not also support presence of a mobile website or a mobile application at the University library.

The University of Nairobi‘s website and that of the library were also analyzed for presence of mobile library services. There were also no links leading to either a mobile library application or a mobile library website. Literature review did not also support presence of a mobile library website or a mobile library application at the University library.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 13 Perhaps the most interesting bit of this study is the fact that no Academic library had a mobile application of its own despite being prime research centers of higher learning. One explanation for this would be the fact that mobile applications are not compatible with all mobile devices and therefore a mobile library website would have come in handy. In addition, the mother institutions of Academic libraries in industrialized countries had mobile applications and therefore no need of tailored library applications. Mobile applications are usually more resource initiative than mobile websites. Many Academic libraries have created a mobile website before creating a mobile application because applications require a much higher level of experience and proficiency to plot and create. They also allow access to content through additional access points on app stores. Their content is packaged and designed in a manner suitable for the mobile environment.

Another key observation on academic libraries in industrialized countries was that they were comparable; every one of them offering clientele with nearly all optimized mobile graphical interfaces that ape the user milieu. Mobile library services in these Academic libraries were generally advanced and easy to access. The services were also accessible on both android and apple product mobile devices. Users would therefore freely interact with the library services at their own convenience anywhere and at anytime. Evidently, the Academic libraries demonstrate the contemporary status of mobile resource adoption in developed countries as was predicted by (Thomas, 2011) Two (Massachusetts Institute of technology library and University of Cambridge‘s library) had icons on their mother Universities‘ mobile applications while Harvard University library was on course to have one on its mother University‘s mobile application. The fact that apart from mobile websites Academic libraries had icons on their mother Universities mobile applications while one was in process of creating one shows how advanced the technology is in developed countries. In a patent contrast to Academic libraries in industrialized countries, Mobile library services are a tale of the future to Academic libraries in developing nations as observed in the survey. For instance, only the University of Zimbabwe had some form of mobile library service among the 3 high research institutions of higher learning. Moreover, the services were not close to what would be expected of such a high research prime institution. For instance, the University of Zimbabwe‘s mobile library website took too long to load and only had shoddy services. A user would not be able to access his account, search the catalog or get library directions; some of the key services in the mobile library resource. Both the University of Nairobi‘s library and that of Makerere University did not have plans of adopting the services in the near future. These challenges would be attributed to financial constraints, lack of awareness and good will from both the libraries and mother institutions. Despite the accessibility of mobile gadgets in many developing countries, the devices have mainly been used for communication, as technology in education has been reported as minimal (Kesselman et al., 2012). Technological availability, use and

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 14 acceptance in developing countries has also been limited as observed in the study. Previous research also supports the findings and avers that mobile devices in developing countries are mainly used for text messaging as opposed to developed countries that use them as information retrieval tools (Kesselman et al., 2012). Librarians in these countries are also unaware of the current trends in the library world such as the mobile technology. Many still utilize the card catalog and the integrated library management systems through a few available desktop computers. The observations between the two categories of Academic libraries i.e. those from developed and underdeveloped countries illustrate how big the technological gap is between Academic libraries in industrialized and developing countries. (Kesselman et al., 2012) shares the same views and notes that Academic libraries in many developing countries have not incorporated technology in their services.

It is however predicted that Smartphone uptake in developing countries could impact technological adoption positively with the possibility of mobile libraries in the near future (Kesselman et al., 2012).

5. Conclusions

Technology is habitually implemented with the sole purpose of augmenting efficiency and effectiveness in service delivery. The study is an apparent manifestation of the technological gap that exists between the two categories of Academic libraries with those in developed countries having polished mobile services as compared to their counterparts in developing countries whose services are shoddy or lacking. There is therefore the need for collaborations and networking among University libraries globally, good will and financial support from mother institutions in developing nations. There is also no doubt that mobile technology has come of age and surpassed traditional desktops as the main source of internet access (Ivana Pažur, 2014). Librarians in developing countries should therefore keep up with the current trends in the library world or risk being left behind.

References [1] (IMF) report 2016 (http://knoema.com/nwnfkne/world-gdp-ranking-2015-data-and- charts) [2] Alan W. Aldrich (2010). Universities and Libraries Move to the Mobile Web. EDUCAUSE Quarterly, 33(27). [3] Catharine Bomhold (2014). Mobile services at academic libraries: meeting the users‘ needs. # Library Hi Tech, 32(2),336 – 345 [4] Gillwald, A., Milek, A & Stork, C. (2010), ―Gender assessment of ICT access and usage in Africa.‖ Research ICT Africa. [5] Ivana Pažur (2014). #Attitude of the Rudjer Boškovic Institute‘s scientists to the small screen mobile devices library services: A user survey. # Library Hi Tech, 32(4), 628- 644. [6] Johnson L., Levine A., Smith R. & Stone S. (2010). The2010 Horizon Report. # The New Media Consortium, Austin, Texas. [7] Kesselman, M., Wu, C., Palumbo, L., Simon, J., Juliani, R. & Ruwe, R. (2012), ―Community Knowledge centers for Liberia: Meeting Africa‘s milleniam goals

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 15 through a unique collaboration of communities, Universities, libraries, and Schools for Liberia‘s economy and social development‖, paper presented at international federation of libraries association conference, August, Helsinki, Finland. [8] Laura Bolton Palumbo (2014). Mobile phones in Africa: Opportunities and challenges for academic librarians. New Library World, 115(34), 179-192. [9] QS World University Rankings 2016/17 report (http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university- rankings/2016)

[10] Robin Canuel & Chad Crichton (2011). Canadianacademic libraries and the mobile web New Library World, 112(3), 107-120. [11] Sambira, J. (2013) Cell phones reshape youth cultures. Africa Renewal: 19 [12] Thomas A. Peters (2011). Left to Their Own Devices: The Future of Reference Services on Personal, Portable Information, Communication, and Entertainment Devices. Reference Librarian, 52, 88- 97, doi:10.1080/02763877.2011.520110. [13] West, MA., Hafner, A. W. & Faust, B.D. (2016), ―Expnding access to library collections and services using small-screen devices‖, information technology and librares, Vol. 25 No. 2, pp. 103-7 [14] Yang & Gui (2014). Factors influencing academic library users‘ intention to use mobile systems: Acomparison of current users and potential adopters. Chinese Journal of Library and information sciences (Quarterly), 7(3).

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 16 Determinants of Effectiveness of Automated Programming Code Assessment Systems: Case of a Learning Institution in Kenya By Mukunga C. W Gretsa University – Email: [email protected] Abstract An Automated Programming Code Assessment System is a computer aided application to check, evaluate, or even grade programming exercises. The main reason for this study was to identify determinants of effectiveness of Automated Programming Code Assessment Systems. A conceptual model was developed and implemented to investigate Assessment Approach, Quality of Assessment and Feedback as determining factors of effectiveness of Automated Programming Code Assessment Systems. Case study research design was used for this study. Systematic random sampling technique was used to collect data from the respondents. The findings substantiate the importance of assessment approach, quality of assessments and feedback as determinants of automated programming code assessment systems effectiveness. The findings should serve as a foundation for future efforts aimed at improving Automated Programming Code Assessment Systems.

Keywords: Automated Programming Code Assessment System, Assessment Approach Programming, Systems

1.0 Introduction

Automated programming code assessment system is a computer aided application to check, evaluate and even grade the programming exercises. The main reason for the development of all the automated programming assessment systems is to facilitate the programming instructor in checking and evaluating their student‘s performance in a programming course. Earlier research has shown a range of motivations for implementing Computer assisted assessment in a course, and often a combination of factors results in Computer assisted assessment being used Bull et.al (2001). Some of the key reasons for developing automated programming assessment systems include increasing the frequency of assessment, motivating students to learn and encouraging skills practice, broadening the range of knowledge assessed, extending the range of assessment methods, increasing objectivity and consistency and reduce marking loads and to aid administrative efficiency Ozden et al (2005).

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 17 2. Statement of the Problem The number of students enrolling in programming courses in various learning institutions has increased substantially over the past few years, leading to large class sizes and increased student-staff ratios. A specific problem arising from this is the substantial resources required to manage the assessment of practical exercises, so that students receive accurate and timely feedback which can benefit their progress. Although a lot of effort has been put into the study of varying forms of online assessment, very little has been done on environments that support automated assessment of the ability to write and debug programs. The most common mode of assessment is through assignment work where demonstrators and tutors give students the opportunity to improve their programming skills and knowledge in a supportive environment. In courses where one of the primary goals is to produce competent programmers, then it is reasonable to expect examinations to contain programming tasks that can be solved in an environment that is similar to the normal program development environment. Previous studies indicate that most automated code assessment systems have an assessment criterion that is poorly defined, poorly designed test cases which have a huge effect on the quality of assessments. 3. Objective of the Study The objective of this study was to find out the determinants influencing the effectiveness of automatic programming code assessment systems. This research was guided by three research questions: (i) How does the assessment approach influence the effectiveness of automatic programming code assessment systems? (ii) How does feedback from an automatic programming code assessment system influence the system‘s effectiveness? (iii) How does quality of assessment contribute to an automatic programming code assessment system‘s effectiveness? 4. Review of Literature Feldman and Zelenski (1996) state that first-rate homework assignments are integral to the success of courses. Hundley and Britt (2009) remark that an important part of a successful course is good assignments. When assignments are assessed manually, it is usually possible to compensate for poor assignment design by giving credit for creativity of solutions while assessing. This is, however, not always the case when automatic assessment is applied. According to Ala-Mutka (2005), the use of automatic tools increases the need for careful pedagogical design of the assignment and assessment settings. Thus, the importance of quality assignments is very important. Computer programming instruction in an online environment must provide coding tasks and assessable practical programming assignments with prompt feedback (Vihavainen

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 18 et.al (2012). Ala-Mutka (2005) remarked that the test case design highly influences the coverage of the assessment. To avoid the false identification of programmes, Montoya-Dato et al. (2009) suggest that the set of test cases needs to be ‗well thought out‘. It is also particularly important to select test cases covering all paths throughout the programme. The test data are the Achilles‘ heels of any system that applies automatic graded system as Pieterse (2013) states. Carless et al. (2011) describe feedback as a key ingredient of the development of quality student learning. Ahoniemi and Reinikainen (2006) remark that novice students require profound and personalised feedback on their programming assignments to support them to improve their weaknesses. Feedback on assignments allows students to revise their submissions Malmi et al. (2002). When students know what exactly went wrong with their submissions and where their programs failed, they can use the information to learn from their mistakes. 5. Research Methodology The research adopted descriptive survey design. The target population for this research was comprised of instructors teaching programming courses and students taking programming courses at Technobrain Computer learning and testing center. Systematic random sampling technique was used on the student target population where students were selected randomly. SPSS tool was used to analyze the data and column charts were used for data presentation.

6. Findings and Discussion 6.1 Response rate

Out of the total population of 290 students studying programming courses and 10 instructors, a sample size of 30% of the total population consisting of 90 respondents was selected. The sample size selected comprised of 30 respondents.

6.2 Questionnaire Results

Data collected from the questionnaire‘s focus was on the students‘ perception on whether the automated programming code assessment system was effective based on the assessment approach, quality of assessment and feedback obtained from the system. 6.3 Responses on assessment approach Table 1 shows frequencies obtained from data collected on whether assessment approach is a determinant factor of the system‘s effectiveness.34.5% of the respondents agreed and 37.9 % strongly agreed on the assessment approach factor.

Table 1: Responses on assessment approach Assessment Approach Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent 1 4 12.5 13.8 13.8 Valid 2 3 9.4 10.3 24.1

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 19 3 1 3.1 3.4 27.6 4 10 31.3 34.5 62.1 5 11 34.4 37.9 100.0 Total 29 90.6 100.0 Missing System 3 9.4 Total 32 100.0

Figure 1 shows the responses from students on approach of assessment and whether it is a determinant factor in the system‘s effectiveness.34.5% of the respondents agreed and 37.9 % strongly agreed that quality of assessments contributes to the systems effectiveness.

Figure 1: Chart representation of Responses on assessment approach Table 2 shows frequencies obtained from data collected on whether quality of assessment is a determinant factor of the system‘s effectiveness.28.6% of the respondents agreed and 46.4% strongly agreed on the assessment approach factor.

Table 2: Responses on assessment Quality Quality of assessment Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent 1 2 6.3 7.1 7.1 2 2 6.3 7.1 14.3 3 3 9.4 10.7 25.0 Valid 4 8 25.0 28.6 53.6 5 13 40.6 46.4 100.0 Total 28 87.5 100.0 Missing System 4 12.5 Total 32 100.0

Figure 2 shows the responses from students on quality of assessment and whether it is a determinant factor in the system‘s effectiveness. 28.6% of the respondents agreed and

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 20 46.4 % strongly agreed that quality of assessments contributes to the systems effectiveness.

Figure 2: Responses on assessment Quality

Table 3 shows frequencies obtained from data collected on whether assessment feedback obtained from the system is a determinant factor of the system‘s effectiveness.37.9% of the respondents agreed and 48.3% strongly agreed on the assessment approach factor.

Table 3: Responses on assessment system feedback Assessment feedback Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent 1 1 3.1 3.4 3.4 2 1 3.1 3.4 6.9 3 2 6.3 6.9 13.8 Valid 4 11 34.4 37.9 51.7 5 14 43.8 48.3 100.0 Total 29 90.6 100.0 Missing System 3 9.4 Total 32 100.0

Figure 3 shows the responses from respondents on the assessment feedback and whether it is a determinant factor in the system‘s effectiveness.37.9% of the respondents agreed and 48.3 % strongly agreed that quality of assessments contributes to the systems effectiveness.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 21

Figure 3: Responses on Assessment system feedback

7. Conclusions

From the Research conducted on the assessment approach, feedback obtained from an automated programming code assessment system and quality assessment, the findings are evidence that for any automated programming code assessment system to be effective, the three variables must be present.

Further research can be carried out on how Program style affects effectiveness of Automatic Programming Code Assessment Systems. Program style entails code style, correctness of code and efficiency of code.

References [1] Bull, J., & McKenna, C. (2003). A blueprint for computer-assisted assessment. Routledge. [2] Özden, M. Y. (2005). Students‘ perceptions of online assessment: A case study. International Journal of E-Learning & Distance Education, 19(2), 77-92. [3] Feldman, T. J., & Zelenski, J. D. (1996, March). The quest for excellence in designing CS1/CS2 assignments. In ACM SIGCSE Bulletin (Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 319- 323). ACM. [4] Hundley, J., & Britt, W. (2009, April). Engaging students in software development course projects. In the Fifth Richard Tapia Celebration of Diversity in Computing Conference: Intellect, Initiatives, Insight, and Innovations (pp. 87-92). ACM. [5] Vihavainen, A., Luukkainen, M., & Kurhila, J. (2012, October). Multi-faceted support for MOOC in programming. In Proceedings of the 13th annual conference on Information technology education (pp. 171-176). ACM. [6] Montoya-Dato, F. J., Fernández-Alemán, J. L., & García-Mateos, G. (2009, June). An experience on Ada programming using on-line judging. In International

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 22 Conference on Reliable Software Technologies (pp. 75-89). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. [7] Pieterse, V. (2013, April). Automated assessment of programming assignments. In Proceedings of the 3rd Computer Science Education Research Conference on Computer Science Education Research (pp. 45-56). Open Universiteit, Heerlen. [8] Carless, D., Salter, D., Yang, M., & Lam, J. (2011). Developing sustainable feedback practices. Studies in higher Education, 36(4), 395-407. [9] Ahoniemi, T., & Reinikainen, T. (2006, February). ALOHA-a grading tool for semi- automatic assessment of mass programming courses. In Proceedings of the 6th Baltic Sea conference on Computing education research: Koli Calling 2006 (pp. 139-140). ACM. [10] Malmi, L., Korhonen, A., & Saikkonen, R. (2002). Experiences in automatic assessment on mass courses and issues for designing virtual courses. ACM SIGCSE Bulletin, 34(3), 55-59.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 23 Implementing Learnability in Online Hostel Management System at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya By Vincent M. Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology - Email: [email protected] Abstract Learnability, also known as ease of learning, can be defined as a measure of the effort required for a typical user to be able to perform a set of tasks using an interactive system with a predefined level of proficiency. The main objective of this research was to develop and implement Learnability in an Online Hostel Management System. The researcher reviewed existing literature on how the aspect of Learnability has been improved by the use of online hostel management system and the technologies implemented to support Learnability.The researcher developed the system using the Object-Oriented analysis and Design Methodology (OOAD) due to its Object-Oriented approach to designing models on how to solve problems. Data collection was done using the following tools; Questionnaires, Interviews, and Observation to determine functional and non-functional requirements of the system. The following resources were used during the process of system development; Microsoft word 2013, Microsoft Windows 8, MySQL, notepad ++, Adobe Dreamweaver CS6 and ArgoUML for drawing UML diagrams Online-based Hostel Management system was developed to help clients‘ book rooms online. The system was evaluated and the results confirmed that it is useful for users and it is capable to help them book rooms online easily, fast and successful regardless of location and time. It is hoped that the findings of this study will encourage other Universities to incorporate Online-based Hostel Management System in order to improve and enhance the hostel booking services. Key words: Learnability, Online Hostel Management System

1. Introduction

The use of the term learnability as an aspect of software usability goes back as far as 1976. Some of the earliest usability research in the 1980‘s assessed user‘s learning within word processing tools. In the mid 90‘s, the word ―learnability‖ became a popular term to describe this aspect of usability. This section survey how learning in software has been defined, measured, and evaluated. According to Nielsen (2010), Learnability, also known as ―ease of learning‖, can be defined as a measure of the effort required for a typical user to be able to perform a set of tasks using an interactive system with a predefined level of proficiency. According to Lazar (2009), when a user first experiences an application, it takes some time to figure out the interface, controls and how to perform tasks. As the user continues to perform similar tasks, he or she learns how to operate the application more effectively and saving time. Learnability may be considered as an aspect of usability, and is of major concern in the design of complex software applications. But how do one measure learnability? The idea is to let a number of users perform similar tasks on the same

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 24 application, measuring the time it takes to perform tasks. The time to perform similar tasks will be quicker the more similar tasks one performs up to a certain level where the user doesn‘t learn more. 1. Learnability Evaluation Methodologies To use any of the metrics, an evaluation needs to be performed to capture their values. In the usability engineering research literature, there are numerous methodologies for assessing software usability. However, it is not clear which of these methodologies are most appropriate for specifically focusing on software learnability. A main distinction for the type of usability evaluations which can be performed is whether they are to be formative or summative. A formative evaluation is used to learn about the usability problems associated with the system, in an effort to improve the interface. A summative evaluation is used to assess the overall usability of a system, in an effort to either compare to another competing system, or to determine if it meets requirements which have been set out. This distinction can also be made for learnability evaluations. Formative evaluations should expose learnability issues, while summative evaluations should provide an overall assessment of the system‘s learnability.

2. Learnability Principles

2.1 Predictability

The user ought to be able to judge what system response is going to be as a response to the next user action, and which state it will lead to. An informal specification of this principle, as a ―theorem of usability ―might be that it ought to be impossible to get from any to state to a state that is invisible, or to apply (inadvertedly) a rule which has not made itself known to the user. The problem is that the requirement takes to its logical consequence, instructs that all states in the path of action that may be performed without user interruption (or some other definition of ―closure‖), from the current state, need to be visible. This is usually neither possible nor desirable and it is an empirical question if it really does encourage learnability much. It certainly may leave the impression of a messy interface. Some of the published actions in the next sequence of possible steps, may now be ―out of context‖ for the user, and therefore difficult to comprehend. 2.2 Synthesizability The user should be able to understand which user actions have led to the current state, and what the system did to get there. We need to find out if there are somehow invisible states that lead to the current state. Thus, this is the criteria representing the inverse of predictability. The problem is similar to the one above, and the trivial solutions equally unproductive. Unless the user can learn to remember any possible path leading up to an identifiable state, the publishing of possible paths (at least a small handful of steps back) seems to be necessary.

2.3 Consistency

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 25 The system should offer the same or similar functionality from comparable situations, and in a familiar fashion. The same or similar actions should yield the same response. This means that same or similar components should look alike and respond similarly on user input. In summary, it is the extent to which similar appearances offer the same functionality. The principle of consistence is, to be fair, not uncontested. 2.4 Generalizability

Generalizability is sometimes described as ―a form of consistency,‖ except that it applies more broadly to situations, rather than just operations. It is a state where existing knowledge can be successfully applied; as such it digs even deeper into the question of what is ―the existing knowledge‖. In summary, it is the extent to which related functionality can be grouped, or a sequence of actions can be seen as coming to some form of ―closure.‖ Thus, it is aligned with Grudin (2009), first type of consistency, which he calls ―Internal consistency of an interface design. In terms of operationalizing this principle, it is, to start with, difficult to know exactly what to match, and certainly there is no useful ontological or etymological answers at the surface anywhere. Relying on the abstraction mechanisms well-described in object-oriented programming, generalizability is defined as the property of categorizing sensibly, so that similar action-effect pairs can be grouped together under more abstract headings, which seen from outside the group behave in a coherent manner. 2.5 Familiarity

This is an externally oriented criteria, which capture the extent to which the user experiences a real-world parallel to the system. These criterion attempts to measure the correlation of users‘ knowledge with the skills needed for effective interaction. In summary it is the extent to which functionality offered by the system is similar to ―a priori‖ or at least widely held, experiences.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 26 3. Conceptual Model

Hostel System

Internet Internet Internet

WorkStation Workstation Workstation

Clients

Figure 1: Conceptual Model for Hostel System

The conceptual model above is for the hostel System who need to be allocated rooms during student enrollment period. To really make use of the model, the users must be existing and the users of the model are the students and the staffs. Clients need to access the workstation which contains the gadgets that will enable them to access the hostel Application. Different workstations have different devices which include mobile, laptop and Desktops. Any of this device can access the application that is hosted on the cloud so long as the device has an internet connection. The hostel application has been created using different programming languages such as PHP, CSS, HTML, SQL etc.

4. Research Methodology In this study, a descriptive survey design was adopted. A descriptive survey research study was preferred since it has the dimension of investigating possible relationships between two or more variables. The descriptive survey design is ideal since it is concerned with making the accurate assessment of the inference, distribution, and relationship of the phenomenon. Descriptive research is a process of collecting data in order to answer questions concerning the current status of the subject in the study. An experiment was also conducted for purpose of evaluating the learnability of the online hostel management system. Before the experiment was conducted, the researcher developed an interactive online hostel management system which was then hosted on a local host called xamp server. The broad aim of this study is to evaluate the learnability of the Online hostel management system from a user perspective using the measures that have been suggested by Zaharias, which integrate the attribute of motivation to learn with the existing criteria of web usability and design instructiveness. Therefore, a

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 27 web-based survey consisting of 4 sections was created. The aim of the first section was to collect demographic information about the respondents, such as gender, computer skills, and location. The next two sections covered the learnability of the online hostel management system, including content, learning and support, visual design, navigation, accessibility, interactivity, predictability, synthesizability, and motivation; the questions in these sections were phrased as positive statements, and the respondents were required to indicate the extent to which they agreed with each statement using a five-point Likert scale from one (strongly agree) to five (strongly disagree). The last section in the survey included two open-ended questions asking respondents what they liked and disliked about the system. 5. Findings and Discussion This section presents the results and analysis of the collected responses to the questionnaire. The response rate to the questionnaire was high in terms of the researcher‘s expectations, with 35 respondents out of 50 who filled the questionnaire. According to the collected data, 20 respondents (57 %) were male, while 15 (43 %) were female. Most respondents had used computers for more than three years (84 %), while 9 % had used computers for one to three years and 7 % had used computers for less than a year. From this, it can be assumed that respondents had a relatively high level of ICT literacy and computer ability. 5.1 Overall Assessment for the Online Hostel Management System

Figure 2 shows the respondents‘ overall response to the system. When asked about the learnability of the system, over half of the respondents (58 %) responded positively. In contrast, only 21 % of the sample responded negatively. This result shows the strength of the system, given the extent of overall user satisfaction. For additional clarification, Figure 3 and 4 shows the respondents‘ ratings for each Learnability principle. It appears that most of the students tended to agree with each statement regarding the Learnability principles. Interestingly, most respondents provided positive ratings for the four principles (i.e., predictability, Synthesizability, Consistency, Generalizability, and Familiarity), thus indicating the strong learnability of the system in terms of these principles.

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9%

23% 14%

20%

34%

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

Figure 2: Overall Response to the entire system

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree Figure 3: Overall response on predictability

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 29 14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

Figure 4: Overall response on familiarity

7. Conclusions This paper has presented an evaluation for the learnability of the online hostel management system case study JKUAT Kenya. The findings were based on a questionnaire that was designed to evaluate learnability principles, in order to discover the strengths and weaknesses related to the learnability in an online hostel management system, as well as to investigate the importance of any online hostel management system to motivate its users to use. The researcher presented detailed findings based on data collected from 35 respondents who responded to the survey. From a statistical standpoint, the data gathered found that the online hostel management system is viewed as a learnable system from a user perspective. In this study, the research process concentrated on eliciting phenomenological data to assess what is problematic and what is good about the system from the reflexive view of its users. From the findings obtained, the system can be seen to be learnable and desirable example of the hostel management application from a student user perspective. However, some problems in the system were also identified, and these need to be considered and addressed to improve the learnability of the system. References [1] Bevan,N. (2006), Usability engineering, London: Massachusetts Press ,pp50-59. [2] Butler,B. (2006), Learnability Principles, New York: MIT Press,pp34-40. [3] Coadand, P (2010), Learnability, London: Cambridge University Press, pp20-35. [4] Davis,O. (2008), interactions, Cairo: Prentice-Hall Press,p40.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 30 [5] Dix, I . (2006), Assessing the usability of a user interface standard, Boston: Massachusetts Press, pp119-165. [6] Dumas,M. (2007), user-centered design practice, Austin: Yourdon Press ,p77. [7] Franzke,B. (2005), Human factors in computing systems, London: Cambridge University Press,p25. [8] Grudin, O .(2009), Computer-Aided Design of User Interfaces, Chicago: Harvard University Press,pp100-120. [9] Holzinger, I .(2007), user design practice, Austin: Yourdon Press ,pp70-95. [10] Jacobson, I .(2010), Object- Oriented Analysis, London: Yourdon Press ,pp50-65. [11] Kato,N.(2010), usability standards,Dampier: Australian National University Press ,pp111-170. [12] Laudon,F.(2010), Designing for usability, Columbus: Newbarry Park Press,p20. [13] Lazar,M.(2009), Human factors in computing systems, Abuja: Graw University Press,p10. [14] Mack,U.(2007), Computer-Aided Design of User Interfaces, Chicago: Harvard University Press,pp110-120. [15] Macleod,A.(2004), Usability engineering, Brighton: Brook University Press ,p50. [16] Michelsen, I .(2010), Human interactions, New York: Stony University Press,pp40-65. [17] Nielsen, P .(2010), computing systems, Darwin: Roskilde University Press,pp10-25. [18] Olson, I .(2011), Designing interactive systems, Lagos: McGrew Press ,pp55-65. [19] Riemann,M.(2010), user interface design principles, Austin: Yourdon Press ,pp70-80. [20] Robinson,O.(2011), Learnability standards, Paris: Mint University Press,p70. [21] Santos, I .(2008), Learnability engineering, London: Massachusetts Press ,pp50-65. [22] Shneiderman, P .(2010), Designing for Learnability, Luanda: Start Press,pp20-35. [23] Zaharias, P., Poylymenakou, A.: Developing a Usability Evaluation Method for e-Learning Applications: Beyond Functional Usability. Int. J. Hum. - Comput. Interac. 25, 75–98 (2009).

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 31 The Impact of Using Mobile Technology in Reducing Emergency Response Time for Emergency Response Services By Too Faith Gretsa University – Email: [email protected] Abstract Medical emergencies, crime emergencies, fires, e.t.c are some of the life and death situations whose response time have to be addressed. During emergencies, some victims involved undergo panic and they do not know the best way to respond during these situations. A speedy response would be even better if one had the contact of the nearest police station depending on ones‘ current location. For every county, there is an ambulance situated or stationed in either a hospital or a clinic. For example, In Kenya, Nairobi has the highest number of ambulances, fire brigades and police stations. However, very few people have the contacts for these ambulances. How do the injured and in pain get to have the instant medical attention that is bound to save their lives? Response time is a major factor that has a key effect on a victim‘s life. This study attempts to decipher the issue of emergency response time by use of Mobile technology. The research was carried out in the fraternity who recently experienced an emergency. The response showed that Mobile technology would be greatly helpful in reducing the response time as the nearest response service to the victim would be contacted Key words: Emergency Response System, Geographical Position System, Response Time

1. Introduction

Emergencies occur more frequently than not in our day to day lives. In health service terms, a major incident can be defined as any incident where the location, number, severity, or type of live casualties requires extraordinary resources, (Kertich, 2013). Since the year 2000, there have been 2,518 major incidents in 56 countries in Africa; 113 have been in Kenya (Wachira & Smith, 2013). In Kenya, the average occurrence of emergencies, whether medical, fire or criminal related happen at a very alarming rate. The common emergencies in Kenya are structural collapse, fires, drought, floods, landslides, hazardous materials, terrorism, road traffic accidents, diseases and epidemics and many other disasters, (Kertich, 2013). Not only do these disasters disrupt people‘s livelihoods, they also destroy infrastructure, interrupt economic activities and retard Kenya‘s development. According to the World Bank, majority of the Kenyan population, i.e., 68% live in informal settlements. People who live in rural areas or in informal settlement, have comparatively limited access to state law enforcement and justice and instant medical emergency response when compared to other segments of the population. (Frilander, Lundine, Kutalek, Likaka, 2014).

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 32 Mobile phones ownership is increasing everyday with millions of Kenyans being subscribed to a mobile network. In Mathare, a slum in Nairobi, more than half of the population own mobile phones despite the lack of basic services in the region. This just goes to show how mobile technology in Kenya has become a necessity and is ranked up together with other basic needs. We will provide a solution that will enable victims to get the location and the contact details of the nearest emergency response service, be it an ambulance, a fire brigade or the nearest police station. This will help reduce the response time drastically and will potentially save lives. 2. Objective of the Study

To assess the impact of the implementation of an emergency response service locator system that enables easy and quick access to emergency response assistance. Using Mobile technology.

3. Research Methodology

The research adopted descriptive survey design. This study was carried out in Strathmore University where there was an emergency drill and most students had a first-hand experience of an emergency. Strathmore University is the ideal institution for the study because of the diverse population of individuals who have a high affinity of using smart phones and the apps therein. The target population constituted 265 students and staff combined. Stratified and purposive sampling techniques were chosen for this research. the study will use non- probability sampling where samples were selected based on the subjective judgement rather than random selection, (Trochim, 2016). The sample was selected on the basis of their availability to answer the questionnaires or by the purposive personal judgment. The main goal of purposive sampling is to focus on particular characteristics of the selected population that are of interest, which will enable adequate answering of the research questions. The data collected was analysed using Google Analytics as the questionnaires were administered using Google forms thus making the process easier unlike doing it manually then entering the data to an analysis tool later. This tool allows for quantitative analysis to be done on the data collected.

4. Findings and Discussions

4.1 Response rate

The research had 76.9% of the target population responding. This is within the ecceptable range as observed by Bright (2009) who notes that most response rates would rarely be 100%, especially for mail sent survey which may be as low as 21% compared to face to face survey which could have a better turnover of approximately 89%.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 33 4.1.1 Point of contact during emergencies

As per the information given by the respondents 71.4% of individuals rely on family or friends of the victims contacting the emergency response team that they may be having contact to or referred to by people they know as depicted in figure4.1. 4.3% of the respondents contact emergency response services, while 14.3% said they did not contact anyone, this could be attributed to severe injuries. This chain of communication by itself causes a lot of delays before victims are rescued and most of the times such individuals end up contacting teams that are a distance from the location of the incident as shown in Figure4.2 because of the fact that they depend on the contacts that they have at hand and regardless of the distance they will always use them as that is the only option they have at that time.

Figure 4.1 Point of contact during emergencies

These results agree with Boyle et al., (2004) that individuals in emergency situations use whatever means available to find information that would help them out of their situations. People seek information for themselves, or locate their family and friends and Wray et al., (2008) further adds that such Information provided for this purpose should be disseminated quickly and be simple enough so that people with high anxiety would be able to comprehend and comply appropriately.

4.1.2 Means of transport in emergencies

Most victims in emergencies get to hospitals by private means, for instance by car, motorcycles, or taxis, among others. Few arrive to emergency centers by ambulances given their scarcity and the lack of a well-connected, reliable central dispatch system that enables easy contact in an emergency (Benjamin & Ian, 2011). Table 4.1 shows the Rate of use of some major form of transportation during emergencies.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 34 Table 4.1 Means of Transportation in emergencies

Means of transport Rate used

Private cars 31%

Motorcycles 17%

Ambulances 15%

Taxis 14%

Walking or being carried 8%

Minibuses 6%

Police vehicles 4%

Tuk-tuks 2%

Aircraft (planes and helicopters) 1%

School buses 1%

The 15% use of Ambulances is interesting, as they are neither one of the more frequently used methods of transportation in emergencies, nor are they entirely absent from communities. Previous studies reported this at 3% (Osoro ME, Ng Z, Oundo J, Omolo J, et al, 2011). It is our hope that ambulance usage will be increased by implementing applications such as this being proposed as a measure to strengthen the formal pre-hospital system in order to enhance accessibility of ambulances. Ease of transportation being the second most common factor that participants in a research conducted by the African Federation for Emergency Medicine (2014) felt improved their access to emergency care by 27%. They reported that if transportation was available when they needed it, or they had the right contact for communication, it would be much easier to access care.

4.1.1 Proximity of emergency response teams contacted in emergencies The study went ahead to enquire the proximity of the emergency response teams for the respondents who contacted an emergency response service provider. 75% of the respondents said that the team was not the nearest to their location. While only 25% of the respondents had the privilege to contact the nearest response team to their location.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 35

4.1.2 Need for Nearest Emergency Service Locator 88.9% of the respondents showed that indeed there was need for a platform that provides the nearest response teams' contacts so as to enable the victims to get the nearest professional assistance as soon as possible, results of the research showed that there are very few platforms offering a closely similar platform though at organisational level which is not enough because of the larger population needed to be served ,therefore a mobile technology based solution that incorporates most of the ERS in the country is necessary

The following are Contacts of important emergency responders in Kenya that are provided for use to the public (MSSP & NDOC, 2009).

Table 4.2 Contacts of important emergency responders.

Name of Department Contact Telephone Numbers

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 36 NDOC 2212386/ 2210053

Police 112/999 310462

Fire Brigade 2222181 999/112

Military (DRU) 2723412

Kenya Wildlife Service 600800

Kenya Power 3754000 /3211000

However, most Kenyans are not aware of them and hence do not benefit from them during emergencies. In a study by Wachira & Wayne (2013) they conclude that development of emergency response service locators in Kenya based on the major incidents together with the development of integrated Command and Control structures, will greatly enhance the country‘s preparedness and response to major incidents. 5. Conclusions

The study sought to find out that the impact of the implementation of an emergency response service locator system that enables easy and quick access to emergency response assistance using Mobile technology. 88.9% of the sample population thinks that having a mobile application that provides the nearest response teams' contacts would be of great help as The Kenya Emergency Response Toll Free Number is not equipped to deal with medical emergencies because they do not have a ready fleet of well-equipped and trained E.M.S (Emergency Medical Services). From the response, the research identified a great need for a system that informs victims or their friends and relative of the nearest emergency response team to the scene of the emergency. References

[1] (AFEM), A. F. (2014). Community-based Perceptions of Emergency Care in Kenya. [2] Boyle,M.P., Schmierbach,M.,McLeod,C.L.,Shah,D.V.,Pan,Z. (2004). Information seeking and Emotional Reactions to the September 11 Terrorist Attacks. Journalism & Mass Communication Quaterly. [3] Benjamin,W., Ian,B.K. (2011). State of Emergency Care in the Republic of Kenya. [4] Frilander, M, Lundine, J, Kutalek, D, Likaka, L. (2014). New technologies for improving old public security challenges in Nairobi. Igarape Institute. [5] Kertich, J. (2013). National Disaster Operations Centre Kenya. [6] M.K.Trochim, W. (2006). Research Methods Knowledge Base. [7] Ministry of State for Special Programmes (MSSP) & Ministry of Provincial Administration, Internal Security -National Disaster Operation Centre (NDOC). (2009). National Disaster Response Plan

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 37 [8] Osoro,M.E.,Oundo,J.,Omolo,J., Luman,E. (2011). Factors associated with severity of road traffic injuries, Thika, Kenya. Programmes, M. (2009). National Disaster Response Plan. [9] Wachira B, Smith W. (2013). Major incidents in Kenya: the case for emergency services development and training. Prehosp Disater Med, 28(2), 1-4. [10] Wray,R.J.,Becker,S.M.,Henderson,N.,Gilk,D.,Jupka,K.,Middleton,S.,Mitche ll,E.W.(2008). Communicating with the public about emerging health threats: Lessons from the pre-event message development project. American Journal of Public Health.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 38 A Critical Review of Literature on Information Technology Infrastructure Flexibility By Iloki K.1, Muathe S.2 and Waithaka S.3

1: Kenyatta University – Email: [email protected] 2: Kenyatta University – Email: [email protected] 3: Kenyatta University – Email: [email protected] Abstract The Kenya Vision 2030 underscores provision of healthcare as key to achieving the millennium development goals which are: to provide equitable and affordable healthcare to all, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases and to develop a global partnership for development. Public hospitals have been identified to guarantee improved citizens‘ wellbeing while integration of information technology has been recognized as one of the pillars that will help Kenya achieve its millennium development goals. The aim of this study was to critically review the literature on information technology infrastructure flexibility integration and recommend a comprehensive conceptual framework on its effect on the performance of public hospitals in Kenya. The review of the literature was largely informed by the theoretical framework of Technology-Organization-Environment model, resource-based view theory, dynamic capabilities theory as well as contextual theory.

Key Words: Integration of IT, Infrastructure Flexibility, Customer Satisfaction

1. Introduction Across different regions, hospitals play a major role in the social and economic vitality of a country. According to Kaseje (2006) healthcare is a critical component in the growth and management of any economy. Improved health translates into increased productivity, educational performance, increased life expectancy, increased investment and savings, decreased expenditure in healthcare and debt. Performance of public sector organizations has and continues to be under intense and close scrutiny from the public (Aluvanze, 2015). Similarly, citizens are increasingly demanding for more effective and performance-oriented public institutions. Public institutions in developing nations are characterized by poor performance among other organizational challenges (Munduga, 2014). Addressing performance issues in public organizations remains a subject of current policy initiatives and reforms in most governments around the globe. Specifically, government reforms in both developed and developing countries aim at improving organizational performance (Waal, 2013). To resolve this, governments have increased investments in integration of information technology infrastructure. With the ongoing technological revolution brought by the Internet, organizations are migrating toward information technologies integration in order to lower their operational costs, raise productivity and quality, and respond rapidly to their customers‘ and other organizations partners‘ requirements (Jardim-Goncalves et al. 2012); The

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 39 Technology-Organization-Environment (TOE) framework conceives that information technology (IT) integration plays a pivotal role in supporting organizational processes and, thus, the extent of IT use depends on organizations‘ IT integration which in turn effectively transforms common technologies into capabilities (Soto-Acosta, & Merono- Cerdan, 2008). According to Belshaw (2005), health infrastructure, education, incomes, and opportunities around the globe have improved steadily due to integration of information technology. Public health interventions and socioeconomic development have reduced mortality and raised life expectancy. Unfortunately, these gains have by no means been universal. The health gaps within and between countries have widened, perhaps due to inequality in the absorption of new information technology as well as unequal distribution of new and re-emerging health problems (Belshaw, 2005). Tallon (2008) measured IT infrastructure flexibility variable in terms of the extent to which an organization can use IT in respond to changes in demand, reacting to new products and services in the market. In the same vein, Zhang and Ziegelmayer (2009) assert that IT infrastructure flexibility enhances the degree to which organizations adapt to users‘ needs, business processes designs and unexpected changes in IT-related requirements which could in turn improve organizational performance. The researchers emphasized that lack of flexibility could lead to higher costs, project delays and increase in customer dissatisfaction; besides decreasing organizational performance.

2. Literature Review 2.1 Theoretical Literature Review

Technological Organizational and Environment Theory (TOE) was developed by Rocco DePietro, Wiarda and Fleischer (1990) and generally describes the process by which an organization adopts and implements technological innovations. TOE identifies three constructs within an organization; technological context that describes both the internal and external technologies relevant to a given organization, the technological context comprises current practices and equipment internal to an organization (Starbuck, 1976) as well as the set of available technologies to the organization (Thompson, 1967; Khandwalla, 1970; Hage, 1980).

Organizational context that refers to the descriptive measures about an organization e.g. scope, size and managerial structure; and Environmental context which is the arena within which a business organization operates that is, the industry, competitors and the government regulations (Tornatzky and Fleisher, 1990). Technological Organizational Environment (TOE) framework since its initial presentation has been adapted severally and used widely in IT adoption studies as it provides a useful way in which one can study the adoption and assimilation of different IT innovations in organizations (Hsu et al, 2006).

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 40 Technological Organzation and Enviroment (TOE) theory being consistent with Diffusion of Innovations (DOI) theory, includes a new construct, that is, environment context whereas Diffusion of Innovations (DOI) emphasizes on the individual characteristics and both internal and external characteristics of and organizations as key drivers of innovativeness. These only matches to the Information technology and organization context of the TOE framework. Tornatzky and Fleisher (1990) states that there are elements explained within the TOE framework under each of the three constructs. For Technological, they identify relative advantage which refers to the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it aims to supersede; compatibility which refers to the degree to which an innovation is believed or perceived to as consistent with the existing values, past experiences and adopter needs and Complexity which is the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be relatively difficult to understand and make use of. For the Organizational construct they noted firstly, top Management Support which it is said to be the support of the top management to the information system adoption initiative, secondly, organizational readiness in terms of size, cost/financial and technical resources which they point out that small businesses are most likely to face some form of resource poverty than the much larger organizations and in effect greatly affects the innovation adoption. This resource poverty manifests also in the form of financial constraints and the lack of professional expertise. The following are just but a few of them: E-Business (Zhu et al. 2003) (Zhu and Kraemer, 2005) (Zhu et al., 2006) (Lin and Lin, 2008) (Oliveira and Martins, 2010); Website (Oliveira and Martins 2008); Open Systems (Chau and Tam, 1997); Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) (Kuan and Chau, 2001), E-Commerce (Martins and Oliveira, 2009); This implies that the framework is fairly good in predicting innovation adoption in organizations and hence the justification to use the same in the study of the effect of technological integration on performance of hospitals in Kenya. 2.2 Empirical Literature Review

Ness (2005) established that there is a relationship between IT infrastructure flexibility, strategic alignment and IT effectiveness. Additionally, Ness (2005) used Tallon and Kraemer‘s (2003) model to model IT flexibility using compatibility, connectivity, and modularity. IT effectiveness measurements included user satisfaction, quality of service, and helpfulness of the IT staff. Ness (2005) distributed questionnaires to 3,080 CIOs and senior IT executives‘ at large for-profit US organizations. The study provided empirical evidence, nonetheless, that IT infrastructure flexibility, strategic alignment and IT effectiveness are positively associated, and that IT flexibility has a stronger positive correlation with IT effectiveness than with strategic alignment. There have been drastic technological changes since study was carried out. The current study will focus on public hospitals in Kenya. Fink and Neumann (2007) found a relationship between IT infrastructure flexibility and organizational performance. However, the study cited lack of empirical evidence on the

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 41 effect of IT-based innovations on organization performance. However, Bhatt et al., (2010) revealed that organizations which react quickly to customer changes and competitors, and leverage their IT resources to innovate, are better exploiting opportunities to gain long term performance than those slow in responding. The current study will empirically test the effect of IT infrastructure flexibility on organizational performance and further establish the effect of IT integration on performance of public hospitals in Kenya. Karungani and Ochiri (2017) sought to establish the effect of ICT infrastructure support on the performance of the county government of Nairobi. The study employed purposive sampling techniques to examine 87 county employees. The study reported that ICT infrastructure improves communication, enhances efficiency, monitoring and control as well as service delivery. The study focused on county government. Purposive sampling may result to errors in judgment by researcher low level of reliability and high levels of bias and inability to generalize research findings. The current study will focus on hospitals and sampling will be simple random sampling and cluster sampling techniques. 3. Conclusions and Recommendations In recent years, there has been much discussion on the effect of Information technology on performance of hospitals in both developed and developing countries (Deidda, Villanueva, Codagnone & Maghiros, 2014). However, little research that focuses on the Integration of information technology infrastructure capability and performance of hospitals in Africa exists (Deidda et al. 2014). To overcome the challenges that the Kenya hospitals are facing, there is a need to improve information and communication exchange in order to fast-track knowledge diffusion and increase access to information. Integration of information technology has been shown to improve organizational performance since Information technology is known as a tool that leads to operational efficiency (Niang, 2009). Mwithiga, Njihia, and Iraki (2017) found that human IT integration, organizational IT integration and physical IT integration constructs explain 57.6% of non-financial organization performance and 44.1% of financial organization performance (ROA). The study was carried out on commercial Banks and micro finance Institutions/Banks using a cross-sectional survey design which does not help determine cause and effect. Further, the banking sector is highly regulated and its performance is mainly measured in financial terms (Castellanos & Sahoo, 2010). Other past studies have indicated integration of information technology is related to performance (Ngwenyama, Andoh- Baidoo, Bollou & Morawczynski 2006; Bankole, Osei-Bryson & Brown, 2013). However, empirical evidence on the impact of ICT on health is fragmented and often focuses on case-studies of specific technological investments (Bankole et al. 2011).

Public hospitals are non-profit making organizations so excluding non-financial measures produce partial representation of performance. Further an organizations future performance is not provided by contemporaneous financial measures. The

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 42 current study will use explanatory research design which is best-suited for establishing the effect of integration of information technology on performance of public hospitals in Kenya.

Future research is suggested to investigate the overall effect of integration of information technology on performance of hospitals. Thus, this study proposes the conceptual framework in Figure 1.

Competitive Advantage  Customer Satisfaction

H05 Mediating Variable Technology Integration

Organizational H Human Integration 01 Performance  IT management capabilities Effectiveness  IT personnel skills Efficiency Financial Organizational Integration H02 viability  Financial Resources  Management support

Infrastructure Flexibility H03

 Connectivity  Compatibility  Modularity Dependent Variable H04

Organization Characteristics  Level (size)

Moderating Variable

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of Conceptual Framework Source: Researchers (2017)

The conceptual framework depicts the relationship that exists among the independent variables (human integration, organizational integration and IT infrastructure flexibility), the mediating variable (customer satisfaction) and the moderating variable (organization characteristics) and their effect on the dependent variable (performance).

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 43 The review further suggests the following hypotheses as depicted in the conceptual framework.

1. H01: Human integration has no significant effect on performance of hospitals in Kenya.

2. H02: Organizational integration has no significant effect on performance of public hospitals in Kenya.

3. H03: Infrastructure flexibility has no significant effect on performance of public hospitals in Kenya.

4. H04: Organization characteristics do not significantly mediate the relationship between Integration of information technology and performance of public hospitals in Kenya.

5. H05: Competitive advantage does not significantly mediate the relationship between Integration of information technology and performance of public hospitals in Kenya. References [1] Deidda, M., Lupiáñez-Villanueva, F., Codagnone, C., & Maghiros, I. (2014). Using data envelopment analysis to analyse the efficiency of primary care units. Journal of medical systems (38:10), pp 1-10. [2] Fink, L., and Neumann, S. (2007). Gaining agility through IT personnel capabilities: The mediating role of IT infrastructure capabilities. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 8(8): 440-462. [3] Fund, The United Nations ChildrenS Emergency. (2016). State of the world‟s children. S.l.: Unicef. [4] Future Health Index (2016), Measuring perceptions of accessibility and integration of healthcare systems and adoption of connected healthcare. [5] Hsu, P., F, Kraemer, K., & Dunkle, D. (2006). Determinants of E-Business Use in US Organizations. International Journal of Electronic Commerce 10(4): p. 9-45. [6] Hwang, W., Chang, J., LaClair, M., & Paz, H. (2013). Effects of integrated delivery system on cost and quality. American Journal of Managed Care, 19(5), e175-84. [7] Jacobs, R., Smith, P. C., & Street, A. (2006). Measuring Efficiency in Health Care. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511617492 [8] Jardim-Goncalves, R., Popplewell, K., & Grilo, A. (2012). Sustainable interoperability: the future of Internet based industrial enterprises, Computers in Industry 63(8):731–738. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compind.2012.08.016.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 44 [9] Karungani., W & Ochiri., G (2017). Effect of ICT infrastructure support on Organizational performance: A Case of Nairobi County, Kenya. International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management. United Kingdom Vol. V, Issue 6, June 2017. Licensed under Creative Common Page 604 http://ijecm.co.uk/ ISSN 2348 0386. [10] Kaseje, D. (2006). Challenges, opportunities and an emerging model for improvement, Presented at The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. [11] Kaur, V., & Mehta, V. (2017). Dynamic Capabilities for Competitive Advantage: A Comparative Study of IT Multinationals in India. Paradigm, 0971890717701781. [12] Kerlinger, F. N., & Lee, H. B. (2000). Foundations of Behavioral Research (4th ed). [13] Kim, G., Shin, B., Kim, K. K., & Lee, H. G. (2011). IT capabilities, process- oriented dynamic capabilities, and organization financial performance. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 12(7), 487-517. [14] Kim, H. J. (2017). Information technology and organization performance: the role of supply chain integration. Operations Management Research, 10(1-2), 1- 9. [15] Kwak., K & Kim. K, (2016). Effect of service integration strategy on industrial organization performance. Journal of Service Management, Vol. 27 Issue: 3, pp.391-430, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOSM-03-2014-0088. [16] Laitinen, E. (2002). A dynamic performance measurement system: evidence from small Finnish Information technology companies. Scandinavian Journal of Management, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 65-99. [17] Liang, C., & Yao, M. (2005). The Value-Relevance of Financial and Nonfinancial Information: Evidence from Taiwan‟s Information Electronics Industry. Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, 24(2), 135-157. doi:10.1007/s11156-005- 6334-1 [18] Magutu, P. O. (2013). Supply chain strategies, technology, and performance of large-scale manufacturing organizations in Kenya. Unpublished PhD Thesis). University of Nairobi, Nairobi. [19] Marker, P. McNamara, K, & Wallace L. (2002). The significance of information and communication technologies for reducing poverty. London, UK: DFID. [20] Marta, R. G. (2008). Evaluating the Organizational Performance and Social Impact of the Third Sector Organizations: A New Functional Realm for Non-profit Marketing. Paper presented at the 8th International Conference for the International society for Third Sector Research. JSTOR.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 45 [21] Merono-Cerdan, A. L., & Soto-Acosta, P. (2008). External web content and its influence on organizational performance. European Journal of Information Systems, 16(1), 66-80. [22] Michael K. (2012). Managed Equipment Services as a Conceptual Business Opportunity Model for GCC with focus on UAE Between ICT, Health, Education and Development? An Empirical Analysis of five West African Countries from 1997-2003, The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries (23:5), pp 1-11. [23] Munduga, P. (2014). An analysis of the poor performance of state-owned enterprises in Africa. Http://www.academia.edu/8226631. [24] Mwithiga, T., Njihia, J., & Iraki, X. (2017). Information Technology (IT) Integration and Organizational Performance: International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management. United Kingdom Vol. V, Issue 5, May 2017 http://ijecm.co.uk/ ISSN 2348 0386. [25] Nelson, T.D. & Steele, R.G., (2006). Beyond efficacy and effectiveness: A multi-faceted approach to treatment evaluation, Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 37(4) (2006), 389–397. [26] Ngwenyama, O., Andoh-Baidoo, F. K., Bollou, F., & Morawczynski, O. (2006). Is There A Relationship Between ICT, Health, Education and Development: An Empirical Analysis of five West African Countries from 1997-2003, The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries (23:5), pp 1-11. [27] Nurminen, M. (2007). Guest experience design in hotel industry. Burnaby, B.C.: Si-mon Fraser [28] Ofosu-Kwarteng, J. (2012) Healthcare Delivery and Customer Satisfaction in Ghana: A Case Study of the Koforidua Regional Hospital. [29] Ortega, M. J. R. (2010). Competitive strategies and organization performance: technological capabilities‟ moderating roles. Journal of Business Research, 63(12), 1273-1281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2009.09.007. [30] Tallon, P. P. (2008). Inside the adaptive enterprise: an information technology capabilities perspective on business process agility. Information Technology and Management, 9(1), 21-36. [31] Vision 2030 Implementation. (2008). Africa Research Bulletin: Economic, Financial and Technical Series, 45(7). doi:10.1111/j.1467-6346.2008. 01829.x [32] WHO (2014). The health of the people: what works: the African Regional Health Report 2014. World Health Organization.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 46 [33] Williams, P., & Ruankaew, T. (2013). The impact of inventory inaccuracy in food manufacturing industry. Business Management Dynamics Vol.2, No.10, Apr 2013, pp.28-34. [34] Wu, Z., Huang, Z., & Wu, B. (2008). IT capabilities and organization performance: an empirical research from the perspective of organizational decision-making. In Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE ICMIT (pp. 526-531). Bangkok: IEEE [35] Yeniyurt, S. (2003). A literature review and integrative performance measurement framework for multinational companies. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 134-142.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 47 Magneto Hydrodynamic Turbulent Flow Past a Rotating Semi-Infinite Plate By Maswai R.C 1 and Kinyanjui M.N 2. 1: Gretsa University – Email: [email protected] 2: Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology – Email: [email protected] Abstract

The turbulent incompressible fluid flow past a semi-infinite vertical rotating plate has been investigated, the flow was considered to be in the presence of a strong inclined constant magnetic field. The velocity distribution of the fluid flow and the temperature profiles due to velocity variations were determined past a semi-infinite vertical plate. Finally, the effects of various parameters like non-dimensional numbers and the angle of inclination of the magnetic field on the flow variables were also determined. The equations governing this problem are solved numerically using finite difference method since these equations are highly non-linear and there exists no analytical method of solving them. A sample result of the velocity profiles and temperature profiles were then obtained followed by a graphical representation. The results will have major application in designing of cooling systems with liquid metals and purification of crude oil.

Key words: Hall current, incompressible flow, rotating plate, turbulent flow.

1. Introduction

Magnetohydrodynamics (Mhd) is a discipline which studies the dynamics of electrically conducting fluids. Examples of such fluids include plasmas, liquid metals, and salt water or electrolytes. The fundamental concept behind MHD is that magnetic fields can induce currents in a moving conductive fluid, which in turn changes the magnetic field itself and creates forces on the fluid. Considerable progress has been made recently in the general theory of MHD flows due to its wide spread application. Takhar and Soundalgekar (1997) studied the forced and free convective flow past a semi-infinite vertical plate also MHD and heat transfer over a semi-infinite plate under a transverse magnetic field. Kinyanjui et al. (2001) studied Magneto hydrodynamic free convection heat and mass transfer of a heat generating fluid past an impulsively started infinite vertical porous plate with hall current and radiation absorption. Seth et al (2012) presented their work on effects of Hall current and rotation on unsteady MHD Couette flow in the presence of an inclined magnetic field. Kinyajui et al (2012) analysed the hydromagnetic turbulent flow of a rotating system past a semi- infinite vertical plate with hall current where the magnetic field was considered to be variable and transverse they observed that the parameters in the governing equations affects the velocity, temperature and concentration profiles.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 48 An investigation on Stokes problem of a convective flow past a vertical infinite plate in a rotating system in presence of variable magnetic field was carried out by Mutua et al (2013), they observed that all of the parameters affect the primary velocity, secondary velocity and temperature.

2. Objectives of the Study

(i) To determine the velocity distribution of the fluid flow past a rotating semi- infinite vertical plate (ii) To determine the temperature profiles of the fluid flow past a semi-infinite vertical plate due to velocity variations.

3. Mathematical Analysis

3.1 Governing Equations

In the study we considered a hydromagnetic turbulent fluid flow past a rotating semi- infinite plate. A strong constant magnetic field H0 is applied in a direction inclined to the flow at an angle  .The plate is non-conducting and the fluid is electrically conducting. In the presence of a strong magnetic field, hall current significantly affect the flow. The induced magnetic field will be assumed to be negligible. The assumption is justified because the magnetic Reynolds number is very small. The fluid and the plate are in a state of rigid rotation with uniform angular velocity about the X - axis taken normal to the plate. In this study the plate is taken to be semi- infinite in extent and the flow is unsteady therefore the physical variables are functions of x, y and t only. At t  0 the temperature of the fluid and the plate are assumed to be the same. At time t >O, the plate starts moving impulsively in its own plane with velocity u 0 .Fluid flow is assumed incompressible, Newtonian and electrically conducting. The plate is maintained at a constant temperature and its temperature is instantaneously raised or lowered to which is maintained constant.

We let the superscript (*) star denote the dimensional form of the equations.

The continuity equation is given by Kinyanjui et al(2012) as *  u * v * w *     0 *     (1) t x * y * z *   For an incompressible two-dimensional fluid flow, w=0 and  0 hence (1) reduces t to u * v *   0 (2) x * y * The momentum Equation in free convectional fluid flow including the magnetic field and using the Reynolds Rule of averaging, is given by Kinyanjui et al (2012) as

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 49 * * * *' *'

 u u  p u u    i  * i 2 * i j *  *  u j *      u i   F i  J  B t  x* x*       (3)  i i x j

In free convectional fluid flow, the body force is given by Fig  g .The pressure    gradient  x  in the y-direction results from the change in elevation up the plate thus         g .  y     ' '  * * * * *   2 * 2 * u u u * u * v      i j   u  v    g  g   u   u     (J  B)      * 0 * *    *2 *2  * t x y   x y  x i

   Expressing the density difference terms  of the volume coefficient of expansion

      * * , where (T  T  )

therefore, the equation of momentum in component form is given by;

* * 2 * ˆ ˆ  * v v  2 *  (J  B) * v i  v  v  * * )    * * y u * v*  g (T  T  u v    t *  x*  y*  *2 *2 x x     (4) * y

* * * 2 * ˆ ˆ  2 *  (J  B) * w i * w * w    w   w  * *  z      u w * u * v 2 * t x y  x y*  x   *   *2 (5)

The generalized Ohms Law neglecting Hall effect is given by,

Jˆ   (Eˆ  qˆ  Bˆ)

(6)

Neglecting polarization effect, the electric potential E becomes Eˆ  0 , therefore equation (6) reduces to Jˆ   (qˆ  Bˆ) and the components for J the electric current density, B the magnetic induction and q velocity are given as

J  (0, J y , J z ) , B  (Bx , By ,0) , q  (0, v, w)

The term qˆ  Bˆ in Equation yields

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 50 iˆ ˆj kˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ qˆ  B  0 v w  wBx j  vBx k

Bx By 0

Thus from equation

J y  wB x J z  vBx

The Lorentz force becomes

iˆ ˆj kˆ ˆ ˆ J  B  0 J y J z  Bx J z j  Bx J y k

Bx By 0

but Bx  e H0 sin   The momentum equation is therefore given by;

* * * 2 * 2 *  * * v v v    H sin  * *   * *  v  v   T  )      e 0 *  u0  v  g (T 2 2  u v J z t * y  * *  *  x x y  x * (7)

where g is the acceleration due to gravity,  * is the volumetric coefficient of thermal

expansion T*,T * are the temperature in the boundary layer and free- stream J , J are the current respectively ,  the fluid density ,  is the kinematic viscosity, y z density components and v*, w* are the components in the Y and Z direction.

The Coriolis effect is the apparent deflection of moving objects from a straight path when they are viewed from a rotating frame of reference. The Coriolis effect is caused by the Coriolis force, which appears in the equation of motion in a rotating frame of reference (Persson, 1998).Initially both the plates and the fluid are in a state of solid rotation with constant angular velocity Ω about the x-axis. The vector formula for the magnitude and direction of the Coriolis acceleration is given by

ˆ ˆ ˆ i j k 2  q   2 0 0  2wˆj  2vkˆ (8)

u0 v w

Therefore, the momentum equation appears as follows;

* * * 2 * 2 *  * * v v v    H sin  * * *   * *  v  v    T  )      e 0 * u0  v  2w  g (T 2 2  u v J z t * y  * *  *  x x y  x * (9)

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 51 * * * 2 * 2 *  * * w w w    H sin  * *   *  w  w

     e 0 *  u0  v  2v 2 2 u w J y *  * *  *  t x y x y x * (10) Ohm‘s law for a moving conductor taking Hall current into account given by [14] and [15] is

   1  e e  . p  J  J  H    E   q  H   e H 0  e ee  (11)

where  , e ,e , e ,e,e , pe are the electrical conductivity, the magnetic permeability, the cyclotron frequency, the collision time, the electric charge, the number density of electron, the electron pressure respectively. For partially ionized fluids the electron pressure gradient may be neglected. In this case we consider a short circuit problem in which the applied electric field=0.Thus neglecting pressure, the y and z components become;   ˆj  e e ˆj  Hˆ    qˆ  Hˆ   H e

 i j m k i j k ˆj , ˆj  0 j j   0 v w y z y z e H 0 H 0 sin  H 0 cos 0 H 0 sin  H 0 cos 0

solving and equating the y and z components yields

j y  m( jz sin  )  e (wH 0 sin  )

jz  m( j y sin  )  e (vH 0 sin  )

 j  calculating j y and z we have;

 e H 0 sin  (w  mv sin  ) j   y 1  m2 sin 2  (12)   H sin  (mwsin   v) j  e 0 z 1  m2 sin 2  (13)

where m  e e is the hall current

v   vw  A z Prandlt deduced that

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 52  v 2 vw  l 2     z  Taking that l  kz where k is the von Karman constant so we have

2 2 2  v  vw  k z    z    Hence 2  v  2 2 vw  k z    z  Similarly we deduce

2 2 2 v  uv  k x    x    2  w  2 2 uw  k x    x  The final set of governing equations in dimensional form are;

* * 2 2 v * v v  2 * 2 *   v    v  v  (mw sin   v)  * * * * * v  v  2 2 2 2 2  u  v  2w  g (T  T  )  2  2  2k x   2k x     M (sin  )  * 0 * *  *  *    2   2 2  t  x y x y    x   x  x   1 m (sin  )          (14)  (14) * * 2 2 w * w w  2 * 2 *   w    w  w  (w  mvsin  )  * * * w  w  2 2 2 2 2  u  v  2v  2 2  2k x   2k x     M (sin )  * 0 * *  *  *    2   2 2  t  x y x y    x   x  x  1 m (sin )          (15)   T T    T  J 2  cp      k t x x x      i  i  i   (16)  B 2  0 is the magnetic parameter which is M2.  U 3

In this study non- dimensionalization is based on the following non- dimensional quantities * * * * * 2 x U y U u v * * t U 0 w u t   x   y   u  v  w  u     0 U U U U

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981 53  * g q    2 * cp    kU  U T  T Pr  Gr  E   (17)  

3 c *  k U c p q  kU  Tw  T

 E  r U 2   The final set of non-dimensional equations are;

2 2 2 2 v v v  v  v 2  v  2 2   v  v  2 2 (mw sin   v)   u 0  v  2Er w  2  2  2k x   2k x  2    Gr   M (sin  )    t x y  x y  x   x  x  1 m (sin  )    2 2     (18)

2 2 2 2 w w w  w  w 2  w  2 2   w  w  2 2  (w  mv sin  )   u 0  v  2Er v  2  2  2k x   2k x  2    M (sin  )    t x y   x y  x   x  x   1  m (sin )    2  2     (19)

2 2  2 2 2 2     v  1         v   w   v   w    u x y   2      Ec             t 0 Pr x x 2 Pr x x y y             (20) The initial and boundary conditions in non-dimensional form become

at t≤0 v(x, y,0)  0 w (x, y,0)  0  (x, y,0)  0

at t>0 v(0, y,t)  1 w(0, y,t)  0  (0, y,t)  1 (21) v(, y,t)  0 w(, y,t)  0  (, y,t)  0

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981

54 3.2 Method of solution Equations governing the flow are highly non-linear. Numerical solutions of the equations were generated by using the finite difference method. The equations are solved subject to the initial and boundary conditions. In finite difference the equations [18], [19]and [20] are of the form

k 1  v k v ik, j1 1 k  k  u t i 1, j  v t  2E w t     vi, j 0 i, j r i, j   x y    2   k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1 k x   vi 1, j vi1, j  vi, j 1  vi, j 1          2   2  2  2  2  k 1  x x y y (x)    2 2  v  i, j              k 1 k 2 1 k 1  k 1  2 k x k 1 k 2 1  2     v   t  vi 1, j  2vi 1, j vi 1, j  vi 1, j 3 vi 1, j i 1, j    x    k 2 2 k k    G   M (sin  ) (w i, j  mv i, j sin  ) 

   r i, j 2 2    1  m sin    tu tvk   0 2 2 1    i, j  t  t  (22)     2 2   x y x y 

 k 1 k 1  k w w i, j1 k  w  u t i 1, j k  2E v t  

 i, j 0 v i, j t r i, j  x y    2   w k 1 w k 1 wk 1 wk 1 k x   i 1, j  i 1, j  i, j 1  i, j 1         2 2  2  2  2   k 1  x x y y (x)    2 2  w  i, j              k 1 k 2 1 k 1 k 1  2 k x k 1 k 2 1  2   t w    w   i 1, j  2w i 1, jw i 1, j  w i 1, j 3 w i 1, j i 1, j     x    2 2 k k   M (sin  ) (mw i, j sin   v i, j )      2 2     1 m sin    tu k tw 2 2   0 1   i, j  t  (23)   t    2 2   x y x y   

k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1   k T T  T T T T   T  u t i 1, j k i, j 1  1 t i 1, j  i 1, j  i, j 1  i, j 1         v t         i, j 0 i, j  2 2 2 2   x y Pr x x y y      2 2 2   v k 1  v k 1   wk 1  wk 1   v k 1  v k 1   k 1   i 1, j i, j  i 1, j i, j  i, j 1 i, j            T     i, j        k  (t)E   x   x y    (t)T c      i, j  2  Pr  wk 1  wk 1    i, j 1 i, j        y       (24)   k 2t  1 1  ( t0)u (t)v  1       i, j            2 2    Pr (x) (y)  x y   The initial and boundary conditions in finite take the form.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981

55 At x  0 v0 (0, j)  1 w0 (0, j)  0  0 (0, j)  1

At y  0 v0 (i, j)  0 w0 (i, j)  0  0 (i, j)  0

At x  0 vk (0, j)  1 wk (0, j)  0  k (0, j)  1 (25) At y  0 vk (i, j)  0 wk (i, j)  0  k (i, j)  0

The computations are performed using small values of t , in this research t  0.00125 and x  0.05 y  0.05 .Fixing x  2.05that is i  41as corresponding to i   because v, w and  tend to zero at around x  2.0 .The k 1 k 1 k 1 velocities v i, j , w i, j and  i, j are computed from equation (22), (23) and (24). This procedure is repeated until k  400 that is t  0.5 .In the calculations the Prandlt number is taken as 0.71 which corresponds to air, magnetic parameter M2=5.0 which signifies a strong magnetic field. Case considered is when the Grashof number, Gr  0(5.0) corresponding to convective cooling of the plate.

To ensure stability and convergence, a program is run using smaller values of t = 0.0001, 0.000125, 0.0003. It is observed that there were no significant changes in the results, which ascertain that the finite difference method used in the problem will converge and is stable. 1. Findings and Discussion A program was run for various values of velocities and temperature profiles for the finite difference equations. The velocities v and w at the end of each time step is computed from equation (22 and 23) in terms of velocity and temperature at earlier time steps. Similarly, theta is computed from equation (24). In order to get physical insight into the problem under study, the velocity field and temperature field are discussed by assigning numerical values to the parameters i.e. the angle of inclination and non-dimensional numbers (Hall parameter, Eckert number, Rotational parameter and heat parameter) encountered into the corresponding equations. To be realistic, the value of Eckert number is Ec=0.02. The velocities are classified as primary (v) and secondary (w) along the y and z axes respectively. Cooling at the Plate In this case, the Grashof number Gr>0. Hence the plate is at higher temperature than the surrounding and so Gr=5.0. a) Primary Velocity From Figure 1 we note that: (i) Increase in the rotational parameter Er leads to a decrease in the primary velocity. This is because the presence of the inclined magnetic field which creates a resistive force similar to the drag force that acts in the opposite direction of the fluid; thus, causing the velocity of the fluid to decrease.

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981

56 (ii) Increase in the Hall parameter m leads to an increase in the primary velocity The Hall parameter increases with the magnetic field strength. Physically, the trajectories of electrons are curved by the Lorentz force. When the Hall parameter is low, their motion between the two encounters with heavy particles (neutral or ion) is almost linear. But if it is high, the electron movements are highly curved. Also, because effective conductivity decreases with an increase in Hall parameter which reduces magnetic damping force hence the increase in velocity.

(iii) Increase in the heat parameter  leads to a decrease in the primary velocity. This is due to an increase in the internal heat generation and because the plate is cooling, the rate of energy transfer is increased therefore the velocity of the fluid will reduce.

(iv) Increase in the Eckert number Ec leads to a decrease in the primary velocity. Increase in Ec means the fluid absorbs more heat energy that is released from internal viscous forces. This will in turn increase the velocity of the convection current.

(v) Increase in time t leads to a decrease in the primary velocity. With time the flow gets to the free stream and therefore its velocity increases.

(vi) Increase in the angle  leads to an increase in the primary velocity. b) Secondary Velocity

From Figure 2 we note that: (i) Increase in the rotational parameter Er leads to an increase in the secondary velocity. This is because the presence of the inclined magnetic field creates a resistive force similar to the drag force that acts in the opposite direction of the fluid; thus, causing the velocity of the fluid to decrease. (ii) . Increase in the Hall parameter m leads to an increase in the secondary velocity, because effective conductivity decreases with an increase in Hall parameter which reduces magnetic damping force hence the increase in secondary velocity.

(iii) Increase in the heat parameter  leads to an increase in the secondary velocity. This is due to an increase in the internal heat generation and because the plate is cooling, the rate of energy transfer is increased therefore the velocity of the fluid will reduce.

(iv) Increase in the Eckert number Ec leads to a decrease in the secondary velocity. Increase in Ec means the fluid absorbs more heat energy that is released from internal viscous forces. This will in turn increase the velocity of the convection current.

(v) Increase in time t leads to a decrease in the secondary velocity. With time the flow in the free stream decreases.

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57 (vi) Increase in the angle  leads to a decrease in the secondary velocity, increasing the angle of the magnetic field causes an increase in the Magnetic strength which retards the fluid motion by affecting the velocity. b) Temperature profile From figure 3 we note that: (i) Increase in the rotational parameter Er leads to an increase in the temperature profile. Frequency of oscillation increase thus increasing the temperature of the fluid. (ii) Increase in the Hall parameter m leads to a slight effect on the Temperature profiles, it tends to increase the temperature profile. This is due to the increase in the thermal boundary layer that is caused by an increase in Hall parameter. An increase in the thermal boundary layer decreases the temperature gradient and hence increases the temperature in the fluid. (iii) Increase in the heat parameter  leads to a decrease in the temperature profile. This is due to an increase in the internal heat generation and because the plate is cooling, the rate of energy transfer is increased therefore the velocity of the fluid will reduce. (iv) Increase in the Eckert number Ec leads to an increase in the temperature profile. Increase in Ec means the fluid absorbs more heat energy that is released from internal viscous forces. This will in turn increase the temperature. (v) Increase in time t leads to an increase in the temperature profile. With time as the flow gets to the free stream the velocity is increased hence there is increased rate of energy transfer and therefore the temperature will increase. (vi) Increase in the angle  leads to a decrease in the temperature profile.

m Er Ec  t  TEST 1.0 1.0 0.02 1.0 0.2 0.79 II 2.0 1.0` 0.02 1.0 0.2 0.79 III 1.0 2.0 0.02 1.0 0.2 0.79 IV 1.0 1.0 0.50 1.0 0.2 0.79 V 1.0 1.0 0.02 5.0 0.2 1.57 VI 1.0 1.0 0.02 1.0 0.15 0.79 VII 1.0 1.0 0.02 1.0 0.2 0.87

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58

Figure 1: Primary Velocity Profile

m Er Ec  t  TEST 1.0 1.0 0.02 1.0 0.2 0.79 II 2.0 1.0` 0.02 1.0 0.2 0.79 III 1.0 2.0 0.02 1.0 0.2 0.79 IV 1.0 1.0 0.50 1.0 0.2 0.79 V 1.0 1.0 0.02 5.0 0.2 1.57 VI 1.0 1.0 0.02 1.0 0.15 0.79 VII 1.0 1.0 0.02 1.0 0.2 0.87

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59

Figure 2: Secondary Velocity Profile

m Er Ec  t  TEST 1.0 1.0 0.02 1.0 0.2 0.79 II 2.0 1.0` 0.02 1.0 0.2 0.79 III 1.0 2.0 0.02 1.0 0.2 0.79 IV 1.0 1.0 0.50 1.0 0.2 0.79 V 1.0 1.0 0.02 5.0 0.2 1.57 VI 1.0 1.0 0.02 1.0 0.15 0.79 VII 1.0 1.0 0.02 1.0 0.2 0.87

Fig 3: Temparature Profile

2. Conclusions

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60 In the case considered, the applied magnetic field was resolved into components and our flow is considered turbulent. The equations governing the flows considered in our study are non-linear therefore in order to obtain their solutions, an efficient finite difference scheme has been developed. Increase in m and  leads to an increase in the primary velocity profiles for free convection cooling at the plate while an increase in Er, Ec and t leads to a decrease in the primary velocity profiles for free convection cooling at the plate.  leads to a decrease in the primary velocity profiles for the cooling of the plate, which agrees with [3], [4] and [5]. Increasing Er, m and t leads to an increase in the secondary velocity for cooling of the plate while, Ec and  leads to a decrease in the secondary velocity profile.  leads to a decrease in the secondary velocity profiles for the cooling of the plate. Increase in Er, Ec ,t and m leads to an increase in the temperature profiles for free convection cooling .The effect of the magnetic field inclined at an angle is to retard the fluid motion by affecting the velocity and temperature profiles.

From these results, it's clear that the parameters in the governing equations affect the primary, secondary and temperature profile. It's recommended that this work be extended by considering variable inclined magnetic field and also the effects of the parameters in the governing equations on skin friction and rate of mass transfer.

References

[1] Takhar, H.S, and Soundalgekar, V.M (1997), Effects of viscous dissipation on heat transfer in an oscillating `flow past a flat plate, Applied Science and Research, Vol.3, pp101-111.

[2] Kinyanjui, M, Chartuverdi, N, and Uppal, S.M (2001), Magneto hydrodynamic free convection heat and mass transfer of a heat generating fluid past an impulsively started infinite vertical porous plate with Hall current and radiation absorption, Energy Converse. Management., Vol. 42, No.8, pp 917-931.

[3] Seth, G.S, Nandkeolyar, R and Ansari, Md.S (2012), Effects of Hall Current and Rotation on Unsteady MHD Couette Flow in the Presence of an Inclined Magnetic Field, Journal of Applied Fluid Mechanics, Vol.5, No.2, pp 67-74.

[4] Kinyanjui, M.N, Emmah, M, and Kwanza K.J(2012), Hydromagnetic turbulent flow of a rotating system past a semi-infinite plate with Hall current, International Journal of Pure and Applied mathematics, Vol. 79, pp 97-119.

[5] Mutua N.M, Kinyanjui, N. M, and Kwanza, J.K (2013), Stokes problem of a convective flow past a vertical infinite plate in a rotating system in presence of variable magnetic field", International Journal of Applied Mathematical Research, Vol.2, No.

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61 Sub-Theme 2: Innovations in Hospitality Industry for Organizational Competitiveness CLUSTER & 2 Sub-Theme 5: Innovations in Business for Organizational Competitiveness

Moderators: 1. Dr. Jonathan Mulwa Mwau, Rongo University 2. Dr. Lilian Mwenda, Dedan kimathi University of Technology 3. Prof. J. Kuria, Gretsa University

Rapporteurs: 1. Irene Kinyua, Gretsa University 2. Serah Muthike, Gretsa University 3. Fridah Kathure, Gretsa University

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62 Customer Orientation of Service Employees and Guest Loyalty in Full-Service Restaurants in Thika Town, Kenya By: Kahuthu, J. K1, Nyokabi, K2, and Wanjiku, C. K3 1. Gretsa University, Email: [email protected]: Phone: +254 715 567 175 2. Gretsa University, Email: [email protected]: Phone: +254 722 505 414 3. Gretsa University, Email: [email protected]. Phone: +254 722 698 023 Abstract Customer orientation of service employees (COSE) is one of the main components contributing to the success of hospitality establishments - more so, in full-service restaurants. Despite the many benefits of this component, full-service restaurants have been faced with intense competition and ever-changing customer demands that ultimately affect guest loyalty. Service employees play a significant role towards ensuring that customers‘ expectations are met. Therefore, this study sought to examine the effects of COSE on customer guest loyalty through the customer satisfaction in full- service restaurants in Thika town. Particularly, the study sought to determine the effects of the four dimensions of COSE (technical skills, social skills, service employees‟ motivation, and decision-making authority) on guest loyalty. In addition, the study sought to examine the mediating effect of customer satisfaction on the relationship between COSE and guest loyalty in full-service restaurants in Thika town, Kenya. The study targeted all full-service restaurants in Thika town. A descriptive cross-sectional survey research study of 400 customers through self-administered questionnaires was conducted. The simple random sampling technique was used to select participants for data collection. All variables in the study were measured using adapted and modified constructs from previous researches. Questionnaires were pretested in 5 full-service restaurants in Nairobi town in order to assess their usability to the study. The study results revealed statistically significant positive relationships between COSE dimensions and guest loyalty. In addition, customer satisfaction was found to partially mediate the effects of COSE technical skills, social skills, and motivation and to fully mediate the effects of COSE decision-making authority on guest loyalty in full-service restaurants. The study recommends restaurant managers to develop strategies that enhance customer satisfaction through COSE so as to create and maintain long-lasting relationships with customers.

Keywords: Customer Orientation of Service Employees, Service Employees, Guest Loyalty, Customer Satisfaction, Full-Service Restaurants

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63 1. Introduction The world as well as a business market is becoming more complex and competitive by the day, so much so that everyone knows that failure to utilize proper techniques in this environment can lead to significant losses. Quick recognition of the society‘s main needs and requests is drastically needed for organizations as a key competency to success (Mohamadi, 2003). In this regard, customer-orient loyalty. Companies detect the developing customers‘ needs (such as education) better than their competitors and hence they can achieve better results and a fixed position (Brady & Cronin, 2001). Customer orientation is the foundation of market orientation (Yang, Xu & Da-hai, 2006). Drucker (1954) states that the customers‘ needs are the core and the starting point of all organization activities (Zheng & Hu, 2009). On the other hand, it should be mentioned that employees‘ empowerment is a key factor to customer orientation achievement, which shows the significant role of human resource in organizations (Feizi & Zolfaqari Moqadam, 2008).

Customer orientation at the company level means that the firm would concentrate on the prospective and potential customers‘ demands, and at an individual level, it means that the employees‘ concentration on the best for their clients contributes towards their short-term benefits (Kim & Ok, 2010). Customer orientation is an organizational culture that builds up the required behavior to respect the clients in the most efficient and effective ways (Divandari, 2004). Employees in any organization have a key role in customer orientation because they should implement it at all organizational levels and customer-oriented culture is meaningless without them. The employees can cope with the tasks assigned when they have the desired skills, knowledge and ability and know the organizational goals well. The most helpful tool in this field is empowerment (Feizi & Zolfaqari Moqadam, 2008).

Empowerment means the people‘s willingness to have self-control, self-care and free will (Whetten & Cameron, 2002). Researchers have identified that empowered employees tend to lean towards new ideas and creativity, such that they can respond effectively when dealing with broad environmental changes (Chang & Liu, 2008). Empowered employees help the company in increasing competitiveness, innovation and better responsiveness to customers. Empowerment improves the quality of services as well as reveals the employees‘ talents and motivation (Fernandez & Moldogaziev, 2011).

With respect to the services, which full-service restaurants provide, they are included service organizations. Customer orientation is one of the main activities of these kinds of organizations. These organizations‘ have employees that are completely involved in providing face-to-face services to their customers during their working hours, which enhances the significance of the subject and hence the concept of customer orientation of service employees (COSE). On the other hand, in consideration of the issue in the hospitality sector, full-service restaurants have faced intense competition. Therefore, the necessity of studying this field is obvious. Thus, the purpose of this study was to

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64 investigate the effects of COSE on guest loyalty in full-service restaurants setting. Specifically, the study aimed at addressing the following questions: Do technical skills, social skills, service employees‘ motivation, and decision-making authority contribute to guest loyalty? And, does customer satisfaction mediate the relationship between COSE dimensions and guest loyalty?

2. Literature Review 2.1 Customer Orientation of Service Employees Customer orientation requires that service employees‘ attitude and behavior are directed toward establishing the circumstances and needs of customers, and then undertaking actions towards satisfying those needs (Daniel & Darby, 1997). Customer orientation at the service employees‘ level is the extent to which an employee seeks to increase chances of long-term customer satisfaction that generates and stimulates future business. In service organizations, the service employee and the service are often regarded as similar from the customer‘s perspective (Bowen & Schneider, 1985). Customer interactions with service employees is the most imperative component customers use to evaluate quality and the resultant overall satisfaction (Hennig-Thurau & Thurau, 2003). Customers‘ interaction with service employees forms the basis of COSE.

According to Hennig-Thurau and Thurau (2003) COSE refers to service employees‘ behavior when serving and dealing with the needs and preferences of current and potential customers. They suggested three dimensions that together make up COSE which were motivation, skills and self-perceived decision-making authority all directed towards fulfilment of customers‘ needs and preferences. In order for an employee to meet customer‘s service-oriented expectations, Hennig-Thurau and Thurau (2003) argued that the three dimensions should be entangled and each should be manifested to a significant level.

Drawing from the work of Hennig-Thurau and Thurau (2003), Hennig-Thurau (2004) came up with four COSE dimensions and emphasized that all four dimensions are important to a certain extent to enable service employees to conduct themselves in a customer-oriented way. He sub-divided Hennig-Thurau and Thurau (2003) skills dimension into technical skills and social skills. This resulted to four perspectives of COSE which are technical skills, social skills, motivation, and self-perceived decision- making authority of service employees.

2.1.1 Social Skills The concept of social skills refers to the service employees‘ ability to take the customers‘ perspective during service interactions visually, cognitively, and emotionally (Hennig-Thurau, 2004). He argued that a service employee who manifests social skills is able to empathize with the customer‘s perceptions, thoughts, and feelings. It should be remembered that customers are not always willing to demonstrate what they think of service, feel and think, especially during a short duration of service

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65 interactions. It is therefore imperative that service employees endeavor towards ensuring that they understand customers‘ perspectives of service which would help them understand customers‘ needs. In this way, service employees require social skills to be able to effectively and efficiently perform in customer-oriented way.

2.1.2 Motivation Accoridning to Hennig-Thurau (2004) motivation is the force that drives behavior and leads employees to exert social and technical skills in performing in a customer- oriented way. Motivation dimension has three important elements: (a) having a positive valence toward customer-oriented behavior and its consequences; (b) perceiving oneself as capable of behaving in a customer-oriented way; and (c) expecting desired outcomes from engaging in such behavior (Hennig-Thurau, 2004). A service employee must demonstrate all three elements to a certain degree in order to engage in customer- oriented behaviors (Hennig-Thurau and Thurau, 2003).

2.1.3 Technical Skills Accoridng to Hennig-Thurau (2004) employees‘ technical skills are the expertise, knowledge, and competency that a service employee should possess to deliver service in accordance with the customer‘s needs throughout the service encounter. The apparent nature of services – simultaneous production and consumption – means that technical skills are important to customer satisfaction and the perception of quality.

2.1.4 Self-perceived Decision-making Authority This is the degree to which service employees feel authorized to make decisions related to a customer‘s service interests and needs (Hennig-Thurau & Thurau, 2003). Lack of self-perceived decision-making authority may form a major ingredient towards demotivating the employee and may prevent him/her from fully utilizing skills to fulfill the needs of customers (Hennig-Thurau, 2004). In this sense, it is good to differentiate self-perceived authority and empowerment. The former is subjective in nature and is manifested by the employee themselves whereas the latter is a formal authority given by a supervisor or a senior person in an organization to a subordinate (Hennig-Thurau, 2004, Hennig-Thurau & Thurau, 2003). Hennig-Thurau and Thurau (2003) argued that an employee that subjectively perceives more authority to make customer-oriented decisions is more likely to develop greater motivation toward they work and hence becomes more efficient. It is equally important to investigate whether it is the same in the context of full-service restaurants where services are fast moving.

2.2 Customer Satisfaction The concept of customer satisfaction has been studied extensively in the field of marketing and service. The impact of satisfaction in predicting behavioral intentions is well documented in literature (Zeithaml et al., 1996). According to Appiah-Gyimah et al. (2011) long-term orientation is affected by the extent to which customers and sellers trust their channel partners. Earlier studies showed that satisfaction was considered to be transaction-specific which emanated from immediate post purchase judgment

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66 (Oliver, 1993). Customer satisfaction is also considered from a cumulative satisfaction perspective and is defined as customer‘s overall experience to date with a product or service provider (Johnson et al., 2001). Many current studies are using this view of customer satisfaction (Ganguli & Roy, 2011). It is important to underline the fact that customer satisfaction is a complex construct and has been defined in various ways (Ganguli & Roy, 2011). Recently, researchers have argued that there is a distinction between customer satisfaction as related to tangible products and as related to service experience. In service markets, customer satisfaction is often measured as the difference between service expectation and experience (Trasorras et al, 2009; Mysen et al, 2011). Rust and Oliver stated that satisfaction reflects whether a consumer believes that the possession and/or use of a service evokes positive feelings (Jayawardhena & Farrel, 2011).

2.3 COSE and Customer Satisfaction The service employee is an important component of service itself and the personal interactions between a customer and a service employee has a significant influence on overall customer satisfaction. Thus, COSE can encourage employees to act in a way that bests meet the customer‘s needs and therefore enhances customer satisfaction (Hennig-Thurau, 2004). COSE dimensions had strong positive impact on customer satisfaction although this differ depending on the industry. For example, the impact of COSE dimensions on customer satisfaction is stronger in the case of travel agencies than for media retailers (Hennig-Thurau, 204).

2.4 Theoretical Model The study was anchored on customer orientation of service orientation (COSE) model which was initially coined by Hennig-Thurau and Thurau in 2003. According to them, COSE comprised of skills, motivation and self-perceived decision-making authority of service employees. They argued that, the three dimensions are entangled and that a service employee must manifest each of them to certain considerable degree in order to fit in a customer-oriented service environment. Their work was furthered by Hennig- Thurau in 2004 who sub-divided skill dimension into social and technical skills giving it a more succinct look. The study was based on this later perspective of COSE and investigated the effects of each dimension on guest satisfaction and loyalty in full- service restaurants in Thika town, Kenya.

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67 Independent Mediating Dependent Variable Variables Variable

CUSTOMER ORIENTATION OF SERVICE EMPLOYEES (COSE) Technical skills  High level of knowledge  Employees’ experts in their job  Employees highly competent

Social skills  Extensive social skills  Considerations of customers’ opinions Guest Loyalty  Employees know how to treat customers Customer  Fulfillment Satisfaction of  Fulfillment of expectations expectation Employees Motivation  No disappointments s  Strong commitment to the job  Excellent experiences  No disappointments  Employees perform to their best  Excellent experiences  Employees always motivated

Decision-making Authority  Independent decision-making  Room to solve customer problems  No need to seek supervisor

Figure 1. A conceptual model for measuring the effect of COSE dimensions on guest loyalty

3. Research Methodology 3.1 Research Design, Target Population, and Sample Size The study used descriptive cross-sectional survey design in order to describe the relationships among the study variables. This design, not only allows one to analyze inter-relationships among the independent and dependent variables at the time of research, but also provides information pertaining the degree of relationship between the variables being studied (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003). Utilizing this design, the study targeted all full-service restaurants in Thika town. Customers dining in the full- service restaurants were considered as sampling units. The sample for the study was obtained from five full-service restaurants. The sample for this study constituted 384 customers dining in full-service restaurants at the time of the study. The simple random sampling technique was used to select customers for inclusion in the sample.

3.2 Research Instrument and Measurement of Items To investigate the study hypotheses, a self-reported questionnaire designed with closed- ended questions was used. According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) a questionnaire with closed-ended questions encourages respondents to willingly complete the survey and at ease. Additionally, this type of questionnaire consumes a reduced amount of time

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68 and is less expensive to collect data from a large sample size. To measure the constructs in the conceptual model, the study used validated scales from literature. The scales were adapted to full-service restaurants context. To measure COSE dimensions (technical skills, social skills, motivation and perceived service employee decision making authority), the study adopted twelve items earlier used by Hennig-Thurau (2004). Customer satisfaction scale was measured with three items drawn from Cronin, Brady, and Hult (2000). To measure guest loyalty, five-item scale developed by Zeithaml, Berry, and Parasuraman (1996) was used. All items in the constructs considered in this study were examined on a 5-Point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Variables measured on this scale are easy to code and allow for fast data entry and consequent analysis (Kothari, 2012). Table 1 demonstrates the measurement scale items, their source and reliability statistics. Reliability results indicated that all constructs had α statistics above .60, thus, were considered reliable for further analysis in line with the study objectives.

Table 1. Study Constructs, Measurement Items, Source, and Reliability Statistics No. of Scale Measurement Items Source Items α TS o The employees of the restaurant have a high level of 3 .87 knowledge; Hennig-Thurau o The restaurant employees are experts in their job; and (2004) o The employees of the restaurant are highly competent. SS o The employees of this restaurant have extensive social skills; 3 .91 o The employees of this restaurant are able to consider their Hennig-Thurau customers‘ perspective; and (2004) o The employees of the restaurant know how to treat a customer well.

M o The employees of the restaurant show strong commitment to 3 .82 their job; o The employees of the restaurant do their best to fulfill their Hennig-Thurau customers‘ needs; and (2004) o The employees of the restaurant are always highly motivated.

DA o The employees of the restaurant are allowed to decide 3 .71 autonomously in customer matters; o The employees of the restaurant have appropriate room for Hennig-Thurau operation in solving customer problems; and (2004) o In the case of customer requests, the restaurant employees do not need to ask their superior for permission. CS o I made the right choice to dine at this restaurant; Cronin, Brady, 3 .85 o The restaurant always fulfills my anticipations; and and Hult o My experiences with the restaurant are excellent. (2000) GL o I say positive things about this restaurant to other people; 5 .88 o I recommend this restaurant to others; Zeithaml, Berry, o I encourage friends and relatives to visit the restaurant; and Parasuraman o I consider this restaurant as my first choice to dine; and (1996) o I will also visit this restaurant in future. Note: TS = Technical Skills. SS = Social Skills. M = Motivation. DA = Decision-making Authority. CS = Customer Satisfaction. GL = Guest Loyalty. α = Chronbach‘s Alpha statistic. N = 345

3.3 Data Collection Techniques The researcher sought permission from the respective supervisors of full-service restaurants before distributing the questionnaires. The supervisors of the identified full-

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69 service restaurants were requested to assist in data collection by encouraging the customers to participate in the study by filling in the questionnaires. Questionnaires were distributed to 384 customers in full-service restaurants. Potential participants were given a brief description of the essence of the study. Each participant was then requested to answer the questions in the questionnaire on the basis of his or her personal experience with such a full-service restaurant. A total of 384 customers were approached, of which 360 (93.5%) completed the questionnaires. Of these questionnaires, 15 were discarded either because they had incomplete data or were not properly filled. Therefore, a total of 345 questionnaires were considered legitimate for use in data analysis.

3.4 Analytical Methods Data processing was conducted before any data analysis. This process consisted of checking, editing, coding, and transformations. Checking was done to ensure that all the questions were completely filled by the participants without omission. Following this step, coding, data entry, screening and data transformations were performed in order to facilitate data analysis. The present study used the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) for descriptive and inferential analyses. Descriptive statistics including the means and standard deviations were used in order to clarify and describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation (Sekaran & Bougie, 2010). For inferential statistics, multiple regression analysis was used to test the study hypotheses and to examine the mediating role of customer satisfaction on the relationship between COSE and guest loyalty in full-service restaurants in Thika town.

4. Findings and Discussions 4.1 Demographic Information The demographic analysis indicates that the number of male and female participants was almost equal, 48.5 and 52.5%, respectively. The majority of participants (34.5%) were between 30-39 years of age. The personal profile with regard to occupation revealed that 34.6% of the participants held professional positions. The participants reported, most often, that the main reasons for dining in the full-service restaurants were good service employees (42.8%) and needs fulfillment (48.3%).

4.2 Descriptive Analysis of Constructs This section presents descriptive analyses of the study constructs.

4.2.1 Employees Technical Skills Scale

Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations for the three items measuring COSE technical skills towards customer satisfaction.

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70 Table 2. Analysis of Technical Skills Scale Statements M SD The employees of the restaurant have a high level of knowledge 4.20 1.89 The restaurant employees are experts in their job 4.28 1.32 The employees of the restaurant are highly competent 4.15 0.89 Note. N = 345. M = Mean. SD = Standard Deviation It is clear from Table 2 that respondents agreed with all the items of technical skills scale. Participants highly agreed that full-service restaurants employees appeared to perform their job well and showed expertise in every duty they were allocated (M = 4.28, SD = 1.32).

4.2.1 Analysis of Social Skills Scale Table 3 presents the means and standard deviations for the three items measuring COSE social skills in the context of full-service restaurants and indicates that participants in this study agreed with the three items of COSE social skills.

Table 3. Analysis of Social Skills Scale Statements M SD The employees of this restaurant have extensive social skills 4.30 1.99 The employees of this restaurant are able to consider their customers‘ perspective 4.17 0.79 The employees of the restaurant know how to treat a customer well 4.75 0.91 Note. N = 345. M = Mean. SD = Standard Deviation The means for the three items were above 4.00. In particular, participants showed high agreement with ‗employees of the restaurant know how to treat customers well‘ (M =4.75, SD = 0.91). This indicated that employees working in full-service restaurants valued their customers and could offer their very best to ensure customers were satisfied.

4.2.2 Analysis of Employees‟ Motivation

Table 4 shows the means and standard deviations for the three items measuring COSE motivation scale.

Table 4. Analysis of Motivation Scale Items M SD The employees of the restaurant show strong commitment to their job 4.20 1.99 The employees of the restaurant do their best to fulfill their customers‘ needs 4.38 1.42 The employees of the restaurant are always highly motivated 4.56 0.79 Note. N = 345. M = Mean. SD = Standard Deviation Results in Table 4 showed that all the means of items measuring COSE motivation were ranging from 4.20 to 4.56 indicating high level of agreement. Participants in particular rated highly ‗employees of the restaurant are always highly motivated‘ (M = 4.56, SD

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71 = 0.79). The standard deviation of 0.79 indicated low variation of study participants‘ responses in this item.

4.2.3 Analysis of Decision-making Authority Table 5 shows the means and standard deviations for the three items measuring self- perceived decision-making authority scale.

Table 5. Analysis of Decision-making Scale Items M SD The employees of the restaurant are allowed to decide autonomously in customer 4.68 1.09 matters The employees of the restaurant have appropriate room for operation in solving 4.28 1.72 customer problems In the case of customer requests, the restaurant employees do not need to ask their 4.76 0.99 superior for permission Note. N = 345. M = Mean. SD = Standard Deviation

Table 5 indicates that all the means of items measuring decision-making scale were ranging between 4.38 and 4.76 indicating high level of agreement. Particularly, participants highly agreed that ‗in the case of customer requests, the restaurant employees do not need to ask their supervisors for permission‘ (M = 4.76, SD = 0.99) and that ‗employees were allowed to decide independently on customer matters‘ (M = 4.68, SD = 1.09).

4.2.4 Analysis of Guests‟ Satisfaction Table 6 shows the means and standard deviations for the four items measuring guest satisfaction scale.

Table 6. Means and Standard Deviations of Motivation Scale Items M SD I made the right choice to dine in this restaurant 4.20 1.89 The restaurant always fulfills my anticipations 4.38 1.52

My experiences with the restaurant are excellent 4.56 0.89

Note. N = 345. M = Mean. SD = Standard Deviation Table 6 indicates that all the means of items measuring guest satisfaction were above 4.00 indicating that participants in this study showed a level of agreement with the said items. Specifically, respondents highly agreed that ‗my experiences with the restaurant are excellent‘ (Mean = 4.56, SD = 0.89).

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72 4.2.5 Analysis of Guest Loyalty Table 7 shows the means and standard deviations for the four items measuring guest satisfaction scale.

Table 7. Means and Standard Deviations of Motivation Scale Items M SD I say positive things about this restaurant to other people 4.19 1.89 I recommend this restaurant to others 4.28 1.52 I encourage friends and relatives to visit the restaurant 4.26 0.89 I consider this restaurant as my first choice to dine 4.03 0.96 I will also visit this restaurant in future 4.11 1.02 Note. N = 345. M = Mean. SD = Standard Deviation

Table 7 demonstrates that all the means of items measuring guest loyalty were above 4.00 indicating that participants in this study showed a level of agreement with the said items. Specifically, respondents highly agreed that they would recommend the restaurant to others (M = 4.28, SD = 1.52) and would encourage friends and relatives to visit the restaurant (M = 4.26, SD = 0.89).

4.3 Regression Analysis Before running the regression analyses, inter-construct correlations were conducted to evaluate multi-collinearity issues and results are demonstrated in Table 8.

Table 8. Inter-construct Correlations TS SS M DA CS GL TS 1 SS 0.42** 1 M 0.39** 0.13** 1 DA 0.48** 0.28* 0.19* 1 CS 0.25* 0.35** 0.28** 0.08 1 GL 0.36** 0.46** 0.09 0.35** 0.25** 1 Note: *, ** Significant at .05 and .01 levels (two tailed), respectively. TS = Technical Skills. SS = Social Skills. M = Motivation. DA = Decision-making Authority. CS = Customer Satisfaction. GL = Guest Loyalty

Results presented in Table 8 reveal that no correlation exceeded the threshold of .80 as suggested by Hair et al. (2006), thus, multi-collinearity was not an issue in this study and that each construct held independent information. The reliability analysis and inter- construct correlations results indicated that constructs in the present study were suitable for further analysis (Voli, 1998). These results allowed for regression analyses. In the present study, four regression analyses were conducted on the basis of objectives. The first regression analysis considered COSE dimensions as independent variables and customer satisfaction as the dependent variable (Table 9). As can be seen in Table 9, COSE technical skills (TS) had a positive impact on customer satisfaction (β = 0.40, t = 12.3, p < .01). Findings related to COSE social skills (SS) reveal that it had a positive impact on customer satisfaction (β = 0.19, t = 4.5, p < .01). COSE motivation (M) and decision-making authority (DA) revealed significant positive impact on customer

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73 satisfaction (β = 0.19, t = 7.8, p < .01) and (β = 0.22, t = 7.9, p < .01) respectively. The determination coefficient revealed that the regression model significant predictors could explain about 61% of variation on customer satisfaction.

Table 9. Regressions Analysis results when Customer Satisfaction is the Outcome Variable Unstandardized Standardized coefficients coefficients T Sig. Tolerance VIF B SE β (Constant) 2.25 0.04 124.8** 0.00 TS 0.41 0.04 0.40 12.3** 0.00 0.68 1.47 SS 0.19 0.03 0.19 4.5** 0.00 0.89 1.12 M 0.20 0.03 0.19 7.8** 0.00 0.92 1.08 DA 0.22 0.02 0.22 7.9** 0.00 0.88 1.13 R 0.78 R2 0.61 Adjusted R2 0.58 F 179.2** Notes: Dependent variable, CS. **Significant at the .01 level. TS = Technical Skills. SS = Social Skills. M = Motivation. DA = Decision-making Authority. CS = Customer Satisfaction.

The second phase of the regression analysis examined the prediction effect of COSE dimensions on guest loyalty (Table 10). As can be seen in Table 10, COSE technical skills (TS) had a positive impact on guest loyalty (β = 0.32, t = 8.3, p < .01). Findings related to COSE social skills (SS) reveal that it had a positive impact on guest loyalty (β = 0.17, t = 5.5, p < .01). COSE motivation (M) and decision-making authority (DA) revealed significant positive impact on guest loyalty (β = 0.17, t = 6.8, p < .01) and (β = 0.16, t = 4.9, p < .01) respectively. The determination coefficient revealed that the regression model significant predictors could explain about 45% of variation on guest loyalty.

Table 10. Regressions Analysis results when Guest Loyalty is the Outcome Variable Unstandardized Standardized coefficients coefficients T Sig. Tolerance VIF B SE β (Constant) 3.25 0.03 114.7** 0.00 TS 0.30 0.04 0.32 8.3** 0.00 0.92 1.08 SS 0.15 0.03 0.17 5.5** 0.00 0.85 1.16 M 0.14 0.03 0.17 6.8** 0.00 0.78 1.26 DA 0.13 0.03 0.16 4.9** 0.00 0.89 1.12 R 0.67 R2 0.45 Adjusted R2 0.63 F 69.2** Notes: Dependent variable, GL. **Significant at the .01 level. TS = Technical Skills. SS = Social Skills. M = Motivation. DA = Decision-making Authority. GL = Guest Loyalty

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74 The third phase of regression analysis examined the relationship between customer satisfaction and guest loyalty (Table 11). The findings demonstrate that customer satisfaction had a positive effect on guest loyalty at 1 percent significant level (β = 0.70, t = 22.3, p < .01).

Table 11. Simple Regression Analysis results between Customer Satisfaction and Guest Loyalty

Unstandardized coefficients Standardized coefficients T Sig. B SE β (Constant) 1.25 0.06 18.8** 0.00 CS 0.61 0.02 0.70 22.3** 0.00 R 0.73 R2 0.61 Adjusted R2 0.53 F 229.2** Notes: Dependent variable, Customer Loyalty (CL). **Significant at the .01 level.

The fourth phase of regression analysis examined whether customer satisfaction mediated the relationship between COSE dimensions and guest loyalty. In order to conduct the mediation test using regression analysis, mediation rules were observed. Four condition were fulfilled (Baron & Kenny, 1986). First, a regression analysis between COSE dimensions and the mediator variable (customer satisfaction) was conducted. Second, a regression analysis between COSE dimensions and the outcome variable (guest loyalty) was conducted. Third, a simple regression analysis between the mediator variable and the outcome variable was conducted. And, lastly, a regression analysis of COSE dimension along with the mediator variable on guest loyalty was conducted to test the mediation power of customer satisfaction.

The first three regression analysis are presented in Table 9, 10, and 11 respectively. Results in Table 11 indicated that the effect of COSE technical skills reduced from 0.30 to 0.10 but remained statistically significant. In addition, the effect of COSE social skills and motivation reduced from 0.15 to 0.05 and 0.14 to 0.04 respectively, but remained statistically significant. Therefore, customer satisfaction partially mediated the relationships between these variables (COSE technical skills, social skills and motivation) and guest loyalty for full-service restaurants. Effects of COSE decision- making authority reduced to statistically insignificant level. Thus, customer satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between this variable and customer satisfaction for full- service restaurants.

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75 Table 11. Multiple regressions Analysis results for mediation analysis Unstandardized Standardized coefficients coefficients T Sig. Tolerance VIF B SE β (Constant) 2.03 0.13 14.7** 0.00 TS 0.10 0.04 0.02 2.3* 0.00 0.43 2.29 SS 0.05 0.02 0.17 2.5* 0.00 0.82 1.21 M 0.04 0.04 0.07 3.8* 0.00 0.38 1.47 DA 0.03 0.03 0.60 11.9 0.10 0.59 1.70 CS 0.45 0.05 0.52 22.3* 0.00 0.39 2.51 R 0.67 R2 0.45 Adjusted R2 0.63 F 139.2** 0.00 Notes: Dependent variable, GL. **Significant at the .01 level. TS = Technical Skills. SS = Social Skills. M = Motivation. DA = Decision-making Authority. GL = Guest Loyalty

5. Conclusions and Suggestions for Further Research The findings of this study advance the understanding of COSE dimensions and how they relate with customer satisfaction and loyalty in full-service restaurants in Thika town. The study demonstrates the importance of COSE dimensions to achieve customer satisfaction and guest loyalty. Results of the study provide empirical evidence that customer satisfaction affects guest loyalty. Customer satisfaction was found to partially mediate the effects of COSE technical skills, social skills and motivation and to fully mediate the effect of COSE decision-making authority on guest loyalty. This means that, service employees are expected to showcase decision-making authority when dealing with customers‘ issues, however, it does not play significant role in their satisfaction and loyalty. From a practical perspective, findings confirm that customer satisfaction mediates the relationship between COSE dimensions and guest loyalty. This provides many opportunities in furtherance of this study. Other researchers should consider not only mediators but also potential moderators that might obscure the relationship associating the independent variable to the dependent variable. This study was conducted on full-service restaurants in Thika town only, which means generalizations of results can only be done with much caution. It requires replication of this study in a bigger geographical region considering many full-service restaurants.

References

[1] Appiah-Gyimah, R., Boohene, R.A., & Agyapong, G.K.Q. (2011). Customer Satisfaction in the Outdoor Advertising Industry: A Case of Alliance Media Ghana Limited. International Journal of Marketing Studies, 3(2), 82-91. [2] Brady, M.K., & Cronin, J.J. (2001). Customer orientation: Effects on customer service perceptions and outcome behaviours. Journal of Service Research, 3(3), 241–251.

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76 [3] Chang, L., & Liu, C. (2008). Employee empowerment, innovative behaviour and job productivity of public health nurses: A cross-sectional questionnaire survey. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 45, 1442–1448. [4] Cronin, J.J., Brady, M.K. & Hult, G.T.M. (2000). Assessing the effects of quality, value, and customer satisfaction on consumer behavioural intentions in service environments. Journal of Retailing, 76(2), 193-218. [5] Daniel, K., & Darby, D. N. (1997). A dual perspective of customer orientation: A modification, extension and application of the SOCO scale. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 8, 131-147. [6] Divandari, A. (2004). Evaluation of organizational culture among the country‘s commercial banks, in respect of consistency with customer orientation strategy. Journal of Organizational Culture Management, 2(6), 123–150. [7] Drucker, P.F. (1954). The practice of management. New York, NY: Harper & Row. [8] Feizi, T., & Zolfaqari Moqadam, A. (2008). Recognition of variables related to the psychological empowerment of employees in the educational organization of Qom. Management Culture, 6(18), 123–151. [9] Fernandez, S., & Moldogaziev, T. (2011). Empowering public sector employees to improve performance: Does it work? The American Review of Public Administration, 41(23), 23–47. [10] Ganguli, S., & Roy, S.K. (2011). Generic technology-based service quality dimensions in banking. International Journal of Banking Marketing, 29(2), 168-189. [11] Hair, J.E., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E. & Tatham, R.L. (2006). Multivariate Data Analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice-Hall. [12] Hennig-Thurau, T. & Thurau, C. (2003). Customer orientation of service employees – toward a conceptual framework of a key relationship marketing construct. Journal of Relationship Marketing, 2(1), 1-32. [13] Hennig-Thurau, T. (2004). Customer orientation of service employees: Its impact on customer satisfaction, commitment, and retention. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 13(5), 460-478. [14] Johnson, M.D., Gustafsson, A., Andreassen, T.W., Lervik, L., & Cha, J. (2001). The evolution and future of national customer satisfaction index models. Journal of Economic Psychology, 22(2), 217-45. [15] Kim, W., & Ok, C. (2010). Customer orientation of service employees and rapport: Influences on service-outcome variables in full-service restaurants. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 34(1), 34–55. [16] Mugenda, O., & Mugenda, A. (2003). Research Methods Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. Nairobi: ACTS Press. [17] Mohamadi, E. (2003). Customer orientation: Respecting customers. Tehran: Rasa.

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77 [18] Oliver, R.L. (1993). A conceptual model of service quality and service satisfaction: compatible goals, different concepts, in Swartz, T.A. (Ed.). Advances in Service Marketing and Management, 12. JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 65-85. [19] Trasorras, R., Weinstein, A., & Abratt, R. (2009). Value, satisfaction, loyalty and retention in professional services. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 27(5), 615-632. [20] Voli, P.K. (1998). The convenience orientation of service consumers: an empirical examination, doctoral dissertation, Old Dominion University, Norfolk. [21] Whetten, D., & Cameron, K. (2002). Empowering and delegation (trans. B. Yazdani). Karaj: Institute of Management Research & Education pub. [22] Yang, Z., Xu, Z., & Da-hai, D. (2006). A re-examination of customer orientation and business performance: From a cultural perspective. International Conference on Management Science and Engineering, Lille, pp. 1355–1359. [23] Zheng, W., & Hu, Y. (2009). Research on the relationship between customer orientation of NPOs and performance. International Conference on Management and Service Science, Wuhan, pp. 1–5. [24] Zeithaml, V.A., Berry, L.L. & Parasuraman, A. (1996). The behavioural consequences of service quality‖, Journal of Marketing, 60, 31-46.

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78 The Role of Corporate Social Responsibility in Managing Customer Perceptions: A Case Study of Wings to Fly Programme at Equity Bank Kenya By: Kimani M.W.

Gretsa University – Email: [email protected]: Phone: +254726562074

Abstract This study sought to investigate the role of corporate social responsibility, a case study of the Wings to Fly Programme in shaping customer perceptions in Equity Bank Kenya. Specifically, the study aimed to achieve the following specific objectives: to explore the role played by Wings to Fly as corporate social responsibility program; to examine the benefits of Wings to Fly in shaping customer perceptions; to investigate the awareness of Equity Bank brands due to the Wings to Fly Programme; and to examine the perception of customers of the Equity Bank brand after the Wings to Fly Programme was rolled out. The study was conducted based on by a theoretical construction made up of the stakeholders, corporate citizenship and integrative social contract theories. Descriptive cross-sectional research design was applied for the study. The study relied on a mixed method with both qualitative and quantitative methods being used collect data from a sample of 100 respondents drawn by cluster random method from Equity Bank Branches in Embakasi, Kasarani, Westlands and Nairobi central business district (CBD). Results indicate that Equity Bank‘s Wings to Fly has created a sense of purpose for beneficiaries and a reason for customer loyalty among those directly affected by the Programme. The results also indicate that the programme has a potential to recruit and retain many customers in the bank. Apart from creating high level of awareness of the bank products and services, results also show that the bank through Wings to Fly Programme has had positive image and perception among most stakeholders. In conclusion, results agree with literature that Corporate Social Responsibility programme by a banking institution increase the company profile often evident by high number of customers. The study recommends that companies employing CSR are supposed to set up policy guidelines to ensure continuity and proactivity. Key words: Corporate Social Responsibility, perception, customer

1. Introduction

Corporate responsibility (CR) is a concept with roots in society and in business (Andriof and Waddock, 2002). In this study it is employed as a broad term to describe the issues that relate to the responsibilities of business. CR is largely linked to other concepts in the business and society literature, of great relevance is the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) (Lockett et al., 2006; Windsor, 2006; Moir, 2001), however is has been cited as different from CSR as being wider and relating each and every day operating strategies and practices of business as well as impacts on society and the surroundings (Andriof and Waddock, 2002). The name CR does not include the word social from prior conceptualizations to highlight an emerging sense that responsibilities are crucial to all actions, decisions, behaviors and impacts of business (Waddock,

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79 2003). CSR, on the other hand, can thus usefully be seen as relating to the particular social, philanthropic and community focused responsibilities of business. It was Harrison Shirley (1995), who famously quipped that companies are not the state and they are not there to provide services and facilities which should properly be provided by the welfare agencies and paid for out of taxation. But companies are part of the society in which they carry out their duties and they need to consider their corporate behaviors part of their role in society. Davis (1967), believes that if there is no responsibility there is no power. If organizations wish to maintain their positions of power in a pluralistic society they must accept their societal responsibilities. There are other reasons for the growth of social responsibility in companies, including the wish of companies to maintain a favorable reputation, and public opinion is in favor of more responsible action. Friedman‘s (1962), view that the business of businesses is, simply, business requires some clarification, in the 1990s the rise of consumerism; the increasing public awareness of environmental and ethical issues supported by sophisticated pressure groups, the understanding by business that a competitive edge can rely on reputation and not simply on products, price and services; all this factors translate to the conclusion that companies ignore corporate social responsibilities on at their own peril. So, what exactly are the social responsibilities of organizations? What are the reasons that organizations should consider their social responsibilities? How can they discharge them effectively? What are the ethical impacts for companies in undertaking social responsibility programs? The discussion of these issues forms the basis of this study. It contends that major corporates engage in corporate social responsibility without a proper framework to deal with their corporate reputation and image.

2. Objective of the Study

This study‘s objective is stipulated as to investigate the role of corporate social responsibility on customer perceptions towards Equity Bank Kenya.

3. Literature Review

Reasons Why Corporates Should Consider Their Social Responsibilities

According to Biddiecombe (1971), a company has specific responsibilities, which it can either discharge, or not. This needs to be a question of quite conscious decision and, like other business choices; it is a matter of weighing the risks. Thus, it could be conceived that certain situations a company might decide not to discharge a responsibility, having considered the cost too great, aware though it may be of the implications.

The patterns of responsibility are changing, minimum being in the open world in which we are increasingly living a new awareness of responsibility is becoming apparent. It

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80 is no longer possible for a company simply to say it is responsible to its shareholders, to make a profit even though the shareholders have more legal rights in a company than all or any other party to it. To make a profit is only one of a number of responsibilities and it may well even be that shareholders will expect their company to make a profit in this or that way and not at the expense, say of trading with poor products simply for quick returns (Keyster, 1971).

A global brand brings threat and opportunities. Most scholars have accepted that the way to the acceptance or rejection of the CSR is its deterministic nature and use of the triple bottom line. In tandem with the expectations of the society have changed; businesses are not only involved in generating profits. Some businesses have formulated their checklist on the manner in which CSR‘s value may be transformed. The Royal Dutch Shell Group alleges that the use of CSR policies may minimize the threat by attaining expectations, lower expenses associated with eco-efficient, change portfolios by expecting changes in the market, influencing innovation, attracting additional clients, recruiting the best talents and enhancing overall brand reputation (Schwartz, 1999).

Aguilera et al. (2007), puts across the perception that there exists sufficient proof of both theoretical and practical help for CSR to advance from description issues to considerations of highly relevant and urgent issues of what drives companies to take part in CSR initiatives and accordingly result to social transformation (2007, 837). Their model assesses CSR from some multidisciplinary perceptions at individual or micro level, organizational or meso, macro or national level, implying how actors at each level may be motivated to act in a socially responsible manner. Behavior at each level is considered from both a moral or instrumental relational perspective with an aim of changing the discussion from emphasizing on relative social transformation linked with CSR, to a regard of the motives and issues that immediately linked with positive and proactive techniques in context.

4. Research Methodology This study applied a descriptive cross-sectional design. Mixed method approach where both qualitative and quantitative methods were used. The research was carried out in four Equity Bank branches within Nairobi City i.e. in Embakasi, Westlands, Kasarani and Central Business District (CBD). The study employed cluster random sampling technique to recruit respondents from the four regions in Nairobi City. Convenience sampling technique was applied in each cluster which only allowed willing respondents to fill up the questionnaire. A total sample of 100 respondents was selected using Yamane Formula. Yamane (1967) provides a simplified formula to calculate sample sizes at 90 percent confidence level based on varied populations. Data was analyzed by use of Likerts scale while computer based Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to generate tables and charts necessarily for

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81 presentation. Other presentations were made in form of figures, text, graphs and percentages.

5. Findings and Discussions

5.1 Role of corporate social responsibility

The first objective sought to examine the role of corporate social responsibility in Equity bank Kenya. The first question required the respondents to rate the Wings to Fly programmes by Equity bank Kenya. The graph below presents the findings.

Rate of wings to fly programs by Equity bank Kenya 80%

70% 67%

60%

50%

40%

30 24 % % 20 % 9 % 10 0 0 %0 % % % Very Goo Averag Poo Very good d e r poor Figure 4.1 Customers‟ Rating of wings to fly programs by Equity bank Kenya

As indicated in Figure 4.5, majority of the respondents (67%) rated the Wings to Fly as very good, 24% as good while 9% as average. This shows that the wing to fly was highly regarded by customers at equity bank. Additionally, majority of respondents by this response confirmed knowledge of the Wings to Fly programme. In summary, the respondents who are customers approved the programme as being helpful. This confirm literature indicating the need for corporate to venture in corporate social investments.

The respondents were further required to indicate their level of agreement on the given statements regarding the role of wing to fly program as a corporate social responsibility by Equity Bank. The responses were placed on a five Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The findings are presented in the Table 4.1.

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82

Table 4.1: Role of corporate social responsibility

Role of Corporate Social Responsibility Mean Mean % Std dev.

Equity Bank wings to fly educate needy students to 4.75 95% 0.179 create a sense of purpose.

Equity Bank wings to fly initiative leads to unwavering 4.45 89% 0.285 customer support.

Equity Bank wings to fly initiative establish a public 4.65 93% 0.231 presence Equity Bank endeavors to increase the future potential 4.20 84% 0.345 of the children education

Wings to fly empowers families who in turn remain 4.30 86% 0.166 loyal to the bank Wings to fly gives equity bank a positive publicity and 4.00 80% 0.483 image

Table 4.2 shows how respondents viewed the role of CSR at Equity Bank. Most of the respondents 95% (mean=4.75) agreed to a very great extent that Equity Bank wings to fly educated needy students to create a sense of purpose. The respondents agreed to a very great extent 93% (mean=4.65) that Equity Bank wings to fly initiative establish a public presence. They further agreed to a great extent that 89% (mean=4.45) that Equity Bank wings to fly initiative leads to unwavering customer support. They agreed 86% (mean=4.3) that Wings to fly empowers families who in turn remain loyal to the bank. Additionally, Equity Bank endeavors to increase the future potential of the children education at 84% (mean=4.2); Wings to fly gives equity bank a positive publicity and image 80% (mean=4.00). On answering to this question in an interview, one participant had this to say:

“CSR helps in fostering firm‟s visibility to its target customers, reduces the cost of doing business as money that could be invested in conducting massive adverting is saved through CSR programs, promotion of corporate citizenly where a firm is seen as being responsive to the needs of the environment surrounding them, harnessing of a concrete relationship between a firm and its stakeholders, promotion of a firm‟s reputation and corporate image,” Another indicated that

“The wings to fly program has cemented the firm‟s relationship with the state through partnership to growing the economy and creating job opportunities, eradication of societal ills e.g. illiteracy where the wings to fly programs which has provided scholarships to over 10,000 beneficiaries since its inception and manifestation of a conducive business environment as a firm is perceived to be ethically congruent to the customer needs,”

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83 The findings concur with Kim, Kim and Kim (2014) whereby the majority of respondents indicated that companies engage in CSR for self-gain and not as a way of genuinely helping the public. According to a study by Lamberti and Noci‘s (2012) corporate credibility significantly affected the buying decisions of consumers and their attitude towards a brand while the contributions of a firm to charity and environmental protection gave a reflection of positive company credibility.

5.2 Benefits of Corporate Social Responsibility

The second objective sought to examine the benefits of corporate social responsibility. The question required the respondents to indicate their level of agreement on the given statements regarding the benefits of wing to fly program as a corporate social responsibility by Equity Bank using a five Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The findings are presented in the Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Benefits of Corporate Social Responsibility

Benefits of Corporate Social Responsibility Mean Mean Std % dev. Equity Bank wings to fly have positive impact in the 4.35 87% 0.158 community Equity Bank wings to fly supports public value outcomes 4.10 82% 0.245

Equity Bank wings to fly increases the number of 4.25 85% 0.282 community members willing to work with equity bank Equity Bank encourages both professional and personal 3.40 68% 0.345 development Wings to fly enhances relationships with customers at equity 4.15 83% 0.125 bank

Findings in table 4.3 show how respondents viewed the benefits of CSR by Equity Bank. Most of the respondents 87% (mean=4.35) agreed to a very great Equity Bank wings to fly have positive impact in the community; Equity Bank wings to fly increases the number of community members willing to work with equity bank 85% (mean=4.25); Wings to fly enhances relationships with customers at equity bank 83% (4.15); Equity Bank wings to fly supports public value outcomes 82% (mean=4.10). A total of 68% (mean=3.40) agreed that Equity Bank encourages both professional and personal development. The findings correspond to Jayakumar (2013) who indicates that positive CSR relations have the likelihood of resulting in the positive evaluation of a firm and this has the capability of affecting consumers‘ reaction to a product or service positively. The findings are also in agreement with Aouina and Bhatli (2014) indicating that firms have to go beyond the expectation of consumers as well as consumer points of reference which in this case refers to industry standards for the purpose of differentiating themselves among rivals in terms of CSR. In an interview, one participant said that:

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84 “My desire to open bank accounts in the institutions is informed by the number of CSR programs executed by the bank. I feel that the bank is more concerned in responding to the needs of the environments in which it operates, and not just profit making”

The findings agree with Jayakumar (2013) who posits that consumers have the tendency of choosing a firm with ethical conduct over another that is regarded as unethical when both the firms offer excellent product attributes. Another respondent indicated that “The bank is not just out there to make huge profits but it is cognizant of the societal needs. I feel much proud being associated with an organization that‟s extends its magnanimity to the less fortunate in the society and claim that organizations can only ignore their social responsibility at their peril”.

Among the small minority who were opposed to the notion of other banks and financial institutions emulating the ―Wings to Fly‖ program noted that such may amount to manipulation of the people to take up their products and the increase in the level of interest charged on loans given the anticipated rise in the cost of the banks. One participant was of the opinion that: “Equity bank can either chose to engage in CSR activities or not depending on a number of reasons including the organizational culture, the nature of the business and the financial muscle and government policies on the practice.

Other respondents noted that this will help expand entry into institutions of higher learning to the poor. Overall, it appears that a majority of the respondents would like to see an increase in the activities aimed at opening up opportunities for learning especially targeted to the poor in the society and are appreciative of the program. According to Pérez and Rodríguez del Bosque (2013) the experiences of consumers with firms affect their individual‘s assessment of firms and help in setting beliefs and expectations.‖

5.3 Awareness of the Wings to Fly program The third objective sought to establish awareness of customers of corporate social responsibility programs in Equity bank Kenya. The questions were: Are you aware of equity banks wings to fly? How did you get to know of wings to fly? What do you know about the wings to fly program? In what ways are you involved in CSR programs in Equity bank? The figures below present the findings.

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85 3 % Responden ts

Ye s No 97 %

Figure 4.2 whether customers were aware of Equity Bank‟s Wings to Fly

The findings in the graph show that 97% of the respondents are aware of the Wings to Fly educational assistance programme run by the Equity Bank. Only three percent of the respondents were not aware of the programme. This implies that there is widespread awareness of the programme among the public and that this CSR activity has been well communicated to the public. Additionally, this confirms the information on the Equity Bank website to the effect that about ten thousand students have benefited from the programme. In congruence to the reports that Equity Bank has over eight million customers in their website, the awareness of Wings to Fly at a whopping 97 percent is a confirmation that its penetration rate is high in Kenya. On how the respondents got to know about the programme, the graph below presents the results.

Friend 6 s %

Social 5 media %

Newspap 10 er %

Radi 7 o %

Televisio 72 n %

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 % % % % % % % % % Figure 4.3 How the customers got to know about Wings to Fly programme

The findings shown in Figure 4.7 shows that 73% came to know about the program via the television followed by the newspaper at 15%. This makes sense since most of the

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86 advertisements regarding the program has mostly targeted these two channels of communication. Other channels of communication included the radio at 7%, friends at 6% and social media at 5%. The above information clearly shows that the wings to fly program has been largely communicated through the television and newspapers and as a result, majority of respondents have come to learn about the program through those two channels of communication. Quite worrying though, is the fact that the presence in the social media might not be intense yet this is the channel which is increasingly becoming a way to connect with many people easily and cheaply.

Many respondents were able to correctly point out the link that the program is an initiative of Equity Bank which aims at promoting education among the needy students in the society through giving them some kind of sponsorship such as paying their tuition fees in higher institutions of learning such as secondary schools and universities both locally and abroad. Additionally, since the respondents comprised of both beneficiaries and the general customers of the bank, it was expected that despite the programmed targeting the youth, most do not have direct link with the banks, but the general customers had. This explains where social media did not win as the dominant media for creating awareness on the Wings to Fly programme. A closer look at the website of Equity Bank shows confirms the findings in that customer analysis indicates shows middle age as majority age for their customers.

5.4 Customer perception towards equity bank

The fourth objective study sought to investigate how Equity Bank customers perceived corporate social responsibility programmes Wings to Fly. The question required the respondents to indicate their level of agreement on the given statements regarding the benefits of wing to fly program as a corporate social responsibility by equity bank using a five Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The findings are presented in the Table 4.3.

Table 4.3: Customer perception towards equity bank

Customer perception towards Equity Bank Mean Mean Std % dev. I consider myself a loyal customer of Equity Bank 4.85 97% 0.092 Equity Bank is my first choice, compared to others in the sector 4.50 90% 0.385 I will continue to be a customer of Equity Bank 4.00 80% 0.231 In the future I plan to purchase more services from Equity Bank 4.60 92% 0.345 I would recommend Equity Bank to my friends and 4.40 88% 0.172 acquaintances I wouldn‘t give up being a customer even if a competitor came 4.45 89% 0.273 up with a better offer

Most of the respondents agreed to a very great extent 97% (mean=4.85) that they consider themselves loyal customers of Equity Bank. In the future they planned to purchase more services from Equity Bank 92% (mean=4.60). They opined that Equity

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87 Bank was their first choice, compared to others in the sector 90% (mean=90%). They agreed to a great extent 89% (mean=4.45) they would not give up being customers even if a competitor came up with a better offer; they would recommend Equity Bank to their friends and acquaintances 88% (mean=4.40) and they will continue to be a customer of Equity Bank 80% (mean=4.00). One of the participants had this to say during an interview: “Wings to fly is adequately involved in Equity bank as CSR programs especially on the choice of activities. The bank can do more by adopting all-inclusive approach to address the real issues affecting the common citizens. The bank will end up sponsoring the programs that gives them positive publicity at the expense of the diverse needs of the communities they operate in.” Another participant also had this to say: “Equity Bank involves its customers in deciding which programs to sponsor. The forms are well distributed in all its branches across the country. The local communities are involved in selecting the needy and vulnerable candidates who qualifies for the program”

Additionally, another participant claimed that: “Employees and volunteer members of the community are widely involved in the execution of the various corporate social responsibility program. Government of Kenya and other corporate are also involved as equal partners e.g. the Master Card Foundation.‖ Most respondents opined that corporate social responsibility is the main ingredient to positive customer perceptions. This is because most potential customers will always want to be associated with organizations that engage in CSR programs. They argued that Equity bank commands a big market share because it engages in corporate philanthropy, which according to them is a prerequisite to the bank‘s success. On the contrary a few numbers of respondents opined that CSR programs executed by Equity bank is not the key ingredient to the bank‘s success. There could other factors like the bank‘s customer service, customer congruent services like internet banking, adoption of paperless banking, no ledger fees is charged, accessibility of the bank across Kenya and the entire eastern Africa and the banks competitive advantage over its rivals.

The findings concur with Inoue and Kent (2014) that consumers tend to select products with added CSR characteristics, but in the case that a trade-off between CSR and price or performance is introduced, consumers have the tendency of going for products that are cheaper or with better performance. According to Zaharia and Zaharia (2013), CSR initiatives of a company have the capability of helping in achieving repeated purchases.

6. Conclusions

The study sought to study the impact of corporate social responsibly on customer perceptions a case study of wings to fly programme executed by Equity Bank Kenya. From the study it was concluded that Equity Bank wings to fly serve numerous roles,

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88 specifically, they educate needy students to create a sense of purpose and establish a public presence. The initiative leads to unwavering customer support and empowers families who in turn remain loyal to the bank. Equity Bank endeavors to increase the future potential of the children education. Wings to fly gives equity bank a positive publicity and image. The study also concludes that Equity Bank wings to fly have positive impact in the community. Equity Bank wings to fly increases the number of community members willing to work with Wings to fly enhances relationships with customers at equity bank. Equity Bank ―wings to fly‖ supports public value outcomes. Equity Bank ―wings to fly‖ also encourages both professional and personal development.

References

[1] Andriof, J. and M. McIntosh (eds.): 2001, Perspectives on Corporate Citizenship (Greenleaf, Sheffield, UK) [2] Andriof, J. and Waddock, S. (2002) 'Unfolding stakeholder engagement', in S. Sutherland [3] Anguilera, R. V., Rupp, D. E., Williams, C. A. and Ganapathi, J. (2007) putting the S back incorporate social responsibility; a multilevel theory of social change on organization; Academy of management review, 32 (3): 836- 863. [4] Bernstein, A. (2000). Too much corporate power. Business Week, 11th September, 149. [5] Biddlecombe, P; and Keyser, W. (1971) good will the wasted asset. Business books limited. The Camelot press LTD. [6] Brammer, S.J., Pavelin, S., & Porter, L.A. (2009). Corporate charitable giving, multinational companies and countries of concern. Journal of Management Studies, 46(4), 575-596 [7] Carmeli, A. (2005)'Perceived external prestige, affective commitment, and behaviors', citizenship Organization Studies, 26 (3), 443–464. [8] Carroll, A. B. (1979) ‗a three-dimensional conceptual model of corporate performance‘, Academy of management review, 4(4): 497-505 [9] Carroll, A. B. and Shabana. K. M. (2010) ‗the business case for corporate social responsibility: areview of concepts, research and practice‘, international journal of management reviews, 85-105. [10] Dion, M.: 2001, „Corporate Citizenship and Ethics of Care: Corporate Values, Codes of Ethics and Global Governance‟, in J. Andriof and M. McIntosh (ed.), Perspectives on Corporate Citizenship (Greenleaf, Sheffield, UK), pp. 118–138. [11] Donaldson, T.: 1982, Corporations and Morality (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliff, NJ) [12] Du, S., Bhattacharya, C.B., &Sen, S. (2007). Reaping relational rewards from corporate social responsibility: The role of competitive positioning. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 24(3), 224-241.

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89 [13] Dutton, J.E., Dukerich, J.M. and Harquail, C.V. (1994) 'Organizational images and member identification‘, Administrative Science Quarterly, 39, 239–263. [14] Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A. et al. (2002) Management Research, Sage Publication, London. [15] Flanklin, B. Hogan, M., Langley, Q., Mosdell, N. and Pill, E. (2009) key concepts in public relations. Sage publications limited. [16] Fombrun, C.J. (1996) Reputation: Realizing Value from the Corporate Image, Harvard Business School Press, Boston. [17] Fredrick, W. C. (1994) ‗from CSR1, to CSR2; the maturing of business and society‘, business and society, 33(2): 150-164. [18] Freeman (1984) Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach, Prentice- Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. [19] Friedman, M. (1962) Capitalism and freedom, Chicago; University of Chicago press. [20] Frywell, G.E. and Wang, J. (1994) 'The fortune corporate 'reputation' index. Reputation forwhat?' Journal of Management, 20 (1), 1–14. [21] Hao, X. (1994) television viewing among American adults in the 1990‘s. Journal of broadcasting and electronic media 38, 353-360. [22] Harrison, J.S. (1995) Public relations: An introduction, London: Routledge. [23] Hayek, F. A. (1969). The corporation in a democratic society: In whose interest bought it and will, it be run. Business Strategy.Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 225. [24] Kothari, C.R. (2004) research methodology methods and techniques. New age international (p) publishers limited. [25] Lindgreen, A. and Swaen, V. (2005) 'Corporate citizenship: Let not relationship marketing escape the management toolbox', Corporate Reputation Review, 7 (4), 346–363. [26] Lindlof, T R., & Taylor, B.C. (2011). Qualitative communication research methods (3rd Edition). Thousand Oaks. [27] Lockett, A., Moon, J. and Visser, W. (2006) 'Corporate social responsibility in management research: Focus, nature, salience and sources of influence', Journal of Management Studies, 43 (1), 115–136. [28] Mahon, J. (2002) 'Corporate reputation: A research agenda using strategy and stakeholder literature', Business and Society, 41 (4), 415–445. [29] Moir, L. (2001) 'What do we mean by corporate social responsibility', Corporate Governance, 1 (2), 16–23. [30] Montiel, I. (2008) ‗corporate social responsibility and corporate sustainability; separate pasts, common futures‘, organization and environment, 21: 245-269. [31] Parsons, T (1961) „an outline of the social system‟, theories of society. New yolk: free press.

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90 [32] Popper, (1959). The logic of scientific discovery. Reprinted by Routledge, Taylor and Francis. [33] Robin, R (2010) Seventh Edition, communication research strategies and sources, Wadsworth language learning. [34] Rubin, R. (2010) communication research, strategies and sources. Wadsworth Cen Gage learning. [35] Schwartz, P. (1999) when good companies do bad things: John Wiley and sons. [36] Sharma, S. &Henriques, I. (2005). Stakeholder influences on sustainability practices in the Canadian forest products industry. Strategic Management Journal, 26(2), 159-180.

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91 Financial Service Delivery at Kenya Canners Sacco in Thika Sub -County By: Kaku F. M

Gretsa University – Email: [email protected]: Phone: +254722482707

Abstract This study examined the factors influencing the effectiveness of financial services offered by the Kenya Canners Savings and Credit Cooperative Society (KC-SACCO). The study established that KC-SACCO started as a small organization in 1966 with a membership of one hundred and thirty-seven. The Society has grown to well over four thousand members with enviable assets and properties. The quality of services and the speed of delivery are key to the growth of the SACCOs which are a lifeline of majority of middle level Kenyans. The target population were members of KC-SACCO. The researcher obtained two hundred questionnaires from respondents through stratified and simple random sampling techniques with the sample frame being any member of KC-SACCO. Data was collected through questionnaires, coded, entered, processed and analysed through use of computer based Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and the findings were expressed in frequency tables, bar graphs, pie charts and percentages. Out of the 200 respondents, 97 (48.5%) rated the services offered by the KC-SACCO as average, 84 (42%) as good and 19 (9.5%) as excellent. It was noted that majority of the members were satisfied with the services offered by the SACCO. The role of staff, in terms of their behaviour and expertise in their jobs are issues of prime importance as findings show it as a significant factor in determining efficiency and effectiveness. SACCOs have similar facilities like those of fully flagged commercial banks. Therefore, they need to improve on their marketing strategies and customer service for their FOSA in order to keep and maintain their core customers.

Key Words: Efficiency, Effectiveness, Service Deliver and SACCOs 1. Introduction Savings and Credit Co-operative Society (SACCO) may be defined as an association of persons who have voluntarily joined together to achieve a common economic and social end, through formation of a democratically controlled business organization (Ouma, 1988). It is owned, governed and managed by its members who share common bond like employment, religion, community (Mudibo, 2006). These members agree to save their money together in the SACCO and advance loans to each other at reasonable rates of interest. SACCOs have a sense of belonging as the users of the financial services are members and not customers.

SACCOs encourage thrift amongst its members, educate them on proper use of money and give them tips on available investment choices. SACCOs have become popular in all industries such as traders, transport, and community based SACCOs.

The development of urban and rural SACCOs started around 1970: In rural areas, a selection of Primary Co-operative societies and unions, mainly coffee Cooperatives

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92 offered financial services to their members (Kadasia, et al., 2002). The financial services are delivered by commercial banks, financial institutions, mortgage finance companies, Savings and Co-operative Credit Societies (SACCOs) and microfinance institutions (MFI). The number of registered SACCOs in Kenya as of 2007 was 5122 (Central Bank of Kenya, 2007).

In Kenya there is an umbrella body called Kenya union of saving and credit Co- operative Limited (KUSCCO) which develops and lobbies for the rights of SACCOs and other co-operative societies in Kenya (KUSCCO, 2011). There is also a government agency called Sacco Societies Regulatory Authority (SASRA) which was created through the Sacco Societies Act 2008 in 2009 under the Ministry of Cooperative, Development and Marketing charged with the prime responsibility of licensing and supervising deposit taking SACCO societies in Kenya (SASRA, 2011). SACCOs exist all over the world especially in developing countries mainly to combat poverty through access of affordable financial services. The international body, World Council of Credit Unions (WOCCU) is the global trade association and development agency for credit unions.

Kenya Canners Savings and Credit Cooperative Society (KC-SACCO) is of an average size SACCO and it‘s owned by employees of Del Monte Kenya Limited in Thika Sub- County. The SACCO offers various products and services, it has ventured into Front Office Banking Services (FOSA) to provide to the members similar financial services to those of full flagged commercial banks. KC-SACCO is a member of KUSCCO and Cooperative Bank of Kenya is its main banker.

Effectiveness is doing the right things and it is related to the company‘s own recipe to generate a sustainable growth in its surrounding business network. Effectiveness is not a characteristic of organizational outputs but rather a continuous process relating to the organizational constituencies (Gaender, et al., 2004). Effective and efficient financial services delivery is the heart of modern business strategy. Efficiency is the degree of economy with which the process consumes resources-especially time and money (Roberts, 1995). This is because efficiency and effectiveness are central in measuring performance of an organization. Efficiency is a measure of operational excellence and it‘s mainly concerned with costs minimization and improvement on operational margins. Understanding member‘s demographics, expectations, motivations and desires creates an opportunity to serve members better than the competitors. Serving members better creates satisfaction, builds repeat business and drives profitability. The dependent variable was service delivery while the independent variables were speed, service quality and service access

There is no void in the financial sector in Kenya because the providers are many and varied. To remain in the financial market and to be competitive, a financial service provider must remain dedicated to their service delivery and create an identity which differentiates itself from other financial service providers.

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93 2. Objectives of the Study The main objective of the study was to assess the efficiency and effectiveness of the financial service delivery by Kenya Canners Savings and Credit Cooperative Society (KC-SACCO) in enhancing the economic growth of Kenya. 3. Research Methodology The research adopted descriptive survey design. The research was a case study that involved examination of the members‘ report from the financial records of the Kenya Canners SACCO for the last five years and a questionnaire was designed incorporating the measures of efficiency and effectiveness of service delivery. The researcher used both quantitative and qualitative data. The researcher assessed the factors that would lead to efficiency and effectiveness of service delivery by the KC-SACCO by examining the expectations of the members and what needs to be done by the management to improve its performance. The target population comprised of all current and past members of the KC-SACCO. These members were found in all areas of Thika Sub-County. All such members were given an equal chance of being selected. Stratified random sampling method was used to select the study subjects. This was to assist in understanding the differences in the demographic subgroups in the population. The membership in the Kenya Canners SACCO for the management staff was 200 while that of the union was 2000. The questions in the questionnaire were coded by giving them chosen labels and the respondents were given identification: the management staffs were coded ―M‖ while the union members were identified as ―U‖. The data was processed and analysed through use of computer based Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and the findings were expressed in frequency tables, bar graphs and percentages. The researcher wanted to determine if speed of delivery, service quality, service access was associated with the efficiency and effectiveness of service delivery. 4. Findings and Discussions 4.1 Response Rate The respondents were 200 of which 179(89.5%) were unionizable and 21(10.5%) were management staff. These findings showed that the Unionizable respondents were more than the management staff and hence the opinion of the study carried more weight from Unionizable employees. This is shown in table 4.1

Table 4.1 Category of respondents Frequency Proportion Union 179 89.5% Management 21 10.5% Total 200 100% Source: Research Data

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94 4.2 Summary of Some Service Quality attributes Reputation in the community came out as the best quality of KC-SACCO, ranked number 1 with aggregate weight of 756 and a mean grade of 3.78 out 5. These findings indicate that the public image of KC-SACCO to the general public is good. The interest rate was ranked 2, followed by variety of services ranked 3 and confidence with management ranked 4. ATM services and the channel of communication were ranked 8 and 7 respectively. ATM services are crucial in this era of advanced technology as well as the channel of communication. These findings indicate that the ATM services needs to be improved with a view of members being able access them whenever necessary. This would assist in retaining or increasing membership and capital base. Table 4.2 illustrates

Table 4.2 Summary of Service Quality attributes Description Average Weight Mean Grade Ranking Fast and Efficient services 635 3.18 5 Reputation within the Members 756 3.78 1 Interest rate 754 3.77 2 Availability of 596 2.98 8 ATMs 737 3.69 3 Variety of Services/Products 620 3.10 6 Friendly Personnel 683 3.42 4 Confidence with Management 614 3.07 7 Communication channel Source: Research Data

4.3 Overall View of Speed of Service Delivery Majority of the respondents were under the category of average 48.5%, 42% viewed it as good while a small percentage of 9.5% found the services to be excellent. The findings indicated that warning signs were being signalled that a lot of mending of the public image and social responsibility needs to be done and urgently to change the members view from average to good and hence excellent. KC-SACCO could be sitting on a time bomb in the long run. These findings indicate that better service delivery is required and hence transform them from average to good and even optimal. Hence KC- SACCO would have better capital base. These views are illustrated in table 4.3.

Table 4.3 Overall Speed of Service Delivery Frequency Proportion Excellent 19 9.5% Good 84 42% Average 97 48.5% Total 200 100%

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95 4.4 Overall Service Delivery Majority of the respondents were satisfied at 68.5 %, 20.5 % were dissatisfied and 11 % were highly satisfied by the financial services delivered by the KC-SACCO. The findings imply that a lot of members‘ education should be provided by KC-SACCO to expose members to the various product and services in order to attract those who were dissatisfied. This is because satisfied customers advertise the good services through the word of mouth. The members would be retained and the KC-SACCO would not be threatened by their competitors. Hence, they would enjoy their niche and meet their organizations‘ strategic objectives. This shown in table 4.4

Table 4.4 Overall Service Delivery Frequency Proportion Highly satisfied 22 11% Satisfied 137 68.5% Dissatisfied 41 20.5% Total 200 100%

4.5 Financial Performance of the Kenya Canners SACCO The membership of the KC-SACCO had decreased by 8% during the 5-year period, but the share capital had increased year after another. This shows that members have known the importance of investment and hence economic development. The dividend rate seemed to have been good all through with a slight increase in 2008 which remained constant in 2009 and 2010. The outstanding loans amount increased in 2007 and 2008 and declined in 2009, in 2010 they rose again. The amounts of loans given each year had increased by 20% during the five-year period. These data showed that the KC- SACCO had a strong capital base and even as the membership number reduces, loans given were increasing. This is shown in table 4.5.

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96 Table 4.5 Kenya Canners Financial Performance Million Kshs Share Loans Interest Outstanding Membership Capital and Given with on Loans Dividend Year Deposit The Year Deposit Dividend Rate

2010 4524 389.55 322.17 332.00 30.62 1.58 16%

2009 4699 342.03 320.25 322.17 32.40 2.27 16%

2008 4520 335.40 329.06 271.66 32.16 0.72 16%

2007 4643 341.15 323.22 260.31 30.68 4.60 15%

2006 4935 320.00 313.00 274.45 29.40 0.79 15% Source: Kenya Canners SACCO, 2010

5. Conclusion Effective service delivery is a crucial factor to financial services delivery and the fulfilment of satisfaction to the customers. Most of the members of KC-SACCO were middle aged and majority of the employees of Del Monte Kenya Limited are Unionizable.

This study has established that the KC-SACCO provides variety of financial services and products. Most the financial services were operating well while some of them like ATM services, communication channels and customer care relationship required a complete overhaul in order to make the members delighted.

The overall financial service delivery was at average, therefore there was some efficiency in the provision of the financial services by the KC-SACCO but the effectiveness was not there and this is the reason that made the financial services not optimal. The KC-SACCO should get ways of knowing the perception of the members as well as their expectation. This can be done by providing suggestions boxes where members would drop their suggestions and they could also be conducting a customer survey at regular basis.

Satisfying members should be the focal point of KC-SACCO, this is because there are so many financial provided in the market ready to lure the registered members and other potential members into financial service provision which are very fast and efficient. In previous studies (Levesque, et al., 1996) suggested that customer satisfaction with Canadian retail banks was derived from service quality dimensions, service features and pricing issues, as well as problems solving. The management staff and the committee should make a large significant influence in the work environment. In satisfying members, both staff and convenience of the branch facility should continuously be assessed and upgraded, as it was still the main delivery channel for financial services provision. The role of staff, in terms of their behaviour and expertise in their jobs were issues of prime importance as findings showed it as a significant factor in determining efficiency and effectiveness.

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97 In the model of customer satisfaction, product quality, pricing and service were factors in the evaluation of services leading to customer satisfaction (Parasuraman, et al., 1994). Financial services charges and interest rates do determine the overall satisfaction of the customer.

The main problem facing the KC-SACCO was the increasing competition from commercial banks and other financial and non-financial institutions which offer various products and services. Most of these commercial banks have ownership from the West and they get funds pumped from their headquarters while KC-SACCO is locally owned and majority of its members are the Unionizable employees of Del Monte Kenya Limited. The management staffs of these commercial banks have high chances of going for training overseas and thus gaining high level expertise.

The KC-SACCO is relatively well managed and has continued to give competition to the commercial banks as it has been able to retain members for a long time. Majority of the members had been in KC-SACCO for over 10 years.

References

[1] Central Bank of Kenya. (2007). http//:www.centralbank.go.ke/publications/mer/index.html (Monthly Economic Reviews- 2008). Accessed on 12th December 2011 [2] Kadasia, B. (2002). International Cooperative Alliance (ICA)) Status of Agricultural Marketing Cooperatives in Kenya, Nairobi, ICA-ROECSA. [3] Kalakota, R. and Whiston, A.B. (1997). Eletronic Commerce, A Managers Guide. Addison Wesley. [4] Kenya Canners Savings and Credit Co-operative Society. (2010). Financial Statements. KC-SACCO, Thika. [5] Kenya Union of Savings and Co-operative. (2011). http//: www.KUSCCOLTD.com/advocacy Accessed on 24th November 2011. [6] Levesque, T. and McDougall, G. H. C. (2000). Customer satisfaction with services: putting perceived value into the equation. Journal of Services Marketing, 14(5):392-410. [7] Mudibo, E. (2006). The Importance of SACCO Regulation and Supervision: Case of Regulatory Reforms in Kenya. KUSSCO, project report, Nairobi. [8] Ouma, S. J. (1988). History of Cooperative Movement in Kenya. Nairobi, Bookwise Ltd. [9] Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A. and Berry, L.L. (1994). Alternative scales for measuring service quality: A comparative assessment based on psychometric and diagnostic criteria. Journal of Retailing, 70(3):201-30. [10] Robert, C.P (1995). Simulation of Truncated normal Variables, Statistics and Computing, 5: 121-125. [11] Sacco Societies Regulatory Authority. (2011). http//:www.SASRA.go.ke/publications/2011 Accessed on 26th April 2012

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98 [12] Zeithaml, V. A., Berry, L. L. and Parasuraman, A. (1998). The Behavioral Consequences of Service Quality. Journal of Marketing, 60: 31-46.

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99 Role of Top Management Towards Performance of Cafeteria Employees in Dedan Kimathi University of Technology By: Geoffrey C. M.1 and Chege P. W.2

Dedan Kimathi University of Technology, Kenya Email: [email protected] Dedan Kimathi University of Technology, Kenya Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Travel and Tourism industry is currently among the largest and fastest-growing industries worldwide, forecasted to support 328 million jobs or 10 percent of the workforce, by 2022 (World Travel & Tourism Council). Every organization across the globe, have ways of ensuing that their employees are motivated and they contribute effectively and efficiently towards the mission and the vision and in line with the organization objectives. In Dedan Kimathi University of technology the review of the performance is a case in point and more so in the hospitality facilities. This study analyzed factors influencing the performance of employees in hospitality industry in the said university. Motivation was vital in the performance of employees in every set up of an organization, top management support and the empowerment presided over to the employees were associated with the productivity of organization. The study concluded that lack of staff motivation was key factor influencing staff performance in Dedan Kimathi University of Technology. Finally, the researcher recommended that effective ways and modes of motivating staff should be adopted and implemented by the institution in order to increase employee morale and productivity. Staff training and development program should be an on-going activity in the university. Top management should work hand in hand with subordinate staffs in implementing new ideas as well as sharing opinion.

Key words: Customer Satisfaction, Motivation, Performance, Management, Implement

1. Introduction

According to the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC), the Travel and Tourism industry is currently among the largest and fastest-growing industries worldwide, forecasted to support 328 million jobs, or 10 percent of the workforce, by 2022. According to Knight, 96 percent of December 2012 hospitality program graduates reported finding a job in their field within six months of graduating, in positions ranging from Catering Manager to Event Coordinator to Guest Services Agent.

Contrary to the past years when Kenyans perceived tourism and holidays as an International affair, local tourism has increased considerably over the years. This has also contributed to the increase of tourism revenues and the impressive performance as well as aggressive marketing in non-traditional markets and efficient utilization of

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100 available resources. The tremendous growth is posing new opportunities for new investors and for businesses already in the tourism industry that are willing to step up their services to meet current international needs. Kenya Tourist Development Corporation (KTDC) is mandated to develop and diversify the Kenya‘s Tourism industry by financing and offering advisory services to new investors and businesses in the tourism industry. In an effective organization, work is planned out in advance. Planning means; setting performance expectations and goals for groups and individuals to channel their efforts toward achieving organizational goals and objectives. Getting employees involved in the planning process will help them understand the goals of the organization, what needs to be done, why it needs to be done, and how well it should be done (Bob Brotherton 2010, Laurie J. Mullins. 2001). In an effective organization, employee developmental needs are evaluated and addressed. Developing in this instance means increasing the capacity to perform through training, giving assignments that introduce new skills or higher levels of responsibility, improving work processes, or other methods. Providing employees with training and developmental opportunities encourages good performance, strengthens job-related skills and competencies, and helps employees keep up with changes in the workplace, such as the introduction of new technology (Erstad 2000). Good managers don‘t wait for their organization to solicit nominations for formal awards before recognizing good performance (Mullins and Aldrich 2004). Recognition is an ongoing, natural part of day-to-day experience. Dedan Kimathi University of Technology started as a community project in 1972 then known as Kimathi Institute of Technology (KIT), opening doors to its first students in 1978. KIT rapidly emerged as a leading institution in the country in the training of Certified Public Accountants. It was upgraded to University status in 2007, and renamed Kimathi University College of Technology (KUCT), a constituent college of Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology. This institution operated as a constituent college for five years until 14th December, 2012 when it was upgraded to full university status after being granted a charter and renamed Dedan Kimathi University of Technology (DeKUT).

2. Literature Review

2.1 Effective Management

Effective management is at the heart of organization development and improved performance. For instance, patching refers to the importance of the relationship between the three levels of business strategy; management strategy and organization and management development strategy. This applies as much top service organizations and the hospitality industry as to any other industry. The role of management is one of the most important factors in the success of any hospitality organization. At the corporate level, top management has a responsibility for determining the direction of the organization as a whole and for its survival, development and profitability. Top management has a particular responsibility for determining the objectives and formulation of policy for the hospitality operations as a whole. They clearly have

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101 essential part to play in improving organizational performance and the effective management of human resources. 2.2 Key Areas of Management Performance Clarification and communication of corporate aims and objectives, the identification of key areas of performance and results including social responsibilities, interaction with and responsibilities to external environment influences and the effective management of change, pursuing corporate goals in accordance with an ethical and operational foundation and recognition of the psychological contract, design of organization structure which takes account of the socio-technical system and is most suited to organizational process and the execution of work organizational strategies and practices for example relating to human resource planning and the management of staff turnover, welding a coherent and coordinated pattern of work activities, and harnessing the efforts of staff, clear consistence and equitable policies and procedures, for example relating to the personnel function including training and development, a style of managerial behavior which adopts a position policy of investment in people, recognition of the needs and expectation of people at work and systems of motivation, job satisfaction and rewards, effective control of those critical activities important to the overall success of the organization, creating an organizational climate which encourages members of staff to work willingly and effectively.

2.3 Process of Management Top management has a particular concern of the community or institutional level and the work of the organization as a whole. But it is the role of the management throughout all levels of the organization to act as an integrating activity and to coordinate direct and guide the efforts of members towards the achievement of goals and objectives. The process of management, however, takes place not in a vacuum but within the context of the organizational setting. Applications of organizational behavior and the effective management of human resources are dependent, therefore, not only upon the nature of the hospitality industry, but also upon the characteristic features of the individual organization – and its organizational culture and climate.

3. Study Objective Motivation is Key in the performance of employees in every set up of the organization (Laurie J. Mullins. 2001). The organization productivity is closely associated with the motivation, the top management support and the empowerment presided over to the employees. This study sought to assess the role of top management towards performance of employees.

4. Research Methodology

4.1 Research Design

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102 Research design was descriptive cross–sectional survey. This can be used when collecting information about people‘s attitudes, opinions, habits or any of the variety of education or social issues (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). 4.2 Sampling Techniques

The study employed simple random sampling techniques to select the sample. This method yielded research data that can be generalized to a larger population. It allowed the researcher to apply inferential statistics to the data and provide equal opportunity to selection for each element of the population (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). The sample consisted of 34 non-teaching staffs and 6 teaching staffs 4.3 Research Instrument

The study employed questionnaires as research instrument which was used in data collection. The researcher used both open – ended and close – ended questionnaires.

4.4 Data Analysis

The researcher analyzed the collected data in descriptive statistical analysis. The researcher utilized numerical and graphical method to summarize the data. The analysis was geared to the purposes of the research, the complexity of the research design and the extent to which conclusions can be reached.

5. Findings and Discussion

Table 5.1: Employees‟ job gave them a sense of accomplishment Level of accomplishment Frequency Percentage (%) To a greater extent 4 10 To a great extent 18 45 To moderate extent 12 30 To a small extent 6 15 Not at all 0 0 TOTAL 40 100

Out of the 40 respondents, 10% indicated to a greater extent that their job gives them a sense of accomplishment, 45% indicated so to a great extent, 30% indicated so to a moderate extent, 15% indicated so to a small extent and none indicated that employee‘s job does not give them a sense of accomplishment. Implying majority of the respondents indicated that they were satisfied with their jobs. The study therefore established that staffs felt a sense of accomplishment in executing their jobs.

Table 5.2: Staff training was an ongoing activity in the Institution Level of perception Frequency Percentage (%) To a greater extent 6 15

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103 To a great extent 8 20 To moderate extent 10 25 To a small extent 12 30 Not at all 4 10 TOTAL 40 100

Out of the 40respondents, 15% indicated to a greater extent that staff training was an on-going activity, 20% indicated so to a great extent, 25% indicated so to a moderate extent, 30% indicated so to a small extent and 10% indicated that staff training was not an on-going activity in the institution. Implying majority of respondents indicated that they agreed with the above statement to a small extent. The study therefore established that staff training as an on-going activity in the institution to a small extent.

Table 5.3: Staff training program was part of strategic plan in the University Level of extent Frequency Percentage (%) To a greater extent 6 15 To a great extent 12 30 To moderate extent 14 35 To a small extent 6 15 Not at all 2 5 TOTAL 40 100

Out of the 40 respondents, 15% indicated to a greater extent that staff training program was part of strategic plan in the university, 30% indicated so to a great extent, 35% indicated so to a moderate extent, 15% indicated so to a small extent and 5% indicated that staff training program was not part of strategic plan in the university. Implying majority of respondents indicated that they agreed with the above statement to a moderate extent. The study therefore established that employee training program was moderately part of strategic plan in the university.

Table 5.4: Employees were highly trained and could handle diverse activities Level of extent Frequency Percentage (%) To a greater extent 14 35 To a great extent 10 25 To moderate extent 8 20 To a small extent 6 15 Not at all 2 5 TOTAL 40 100

Out of the 40 respondents, 35% indicated to a greater extent that employees were highly trained and could handle diverse activities, 25% indicated so to a great extent, 20% indicated so to a moderate extent, 15% indicated so to a small extent and 5% indicated that employees were not trained and could not handle diverse activities. Implying majority of respondents indicated that they agree with the above statement to a greater

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104 extent. The study therefore established that employees were highly trained and could handle diverse activities.

Table 5.5: Employees were consulted on planning and procedure issues in departments Level of extent Frequency Percentage (%) To a greater extent 4 10 To a great extent 4 10 To moderate extent 12 30 To a small extent 18 45 Not at all 2 5 TOTAL 40 100

Out of the 40 respondents, 10% indicated to a greater extent that employees were consulted on planning and procedure issues in the departments, 10% indicated so to a great extent, 30% indicated so to a moderate extent, 45% indicated so to a small extent and 5% indicated that employees were not consulted on planning and procedure issues in the departments. Implying majority of the respondents indicated that they agreed with the above statement to a small extent. The study therefore established that employees were consulted on planning and procedure issues in the departments to a small extent

5.3 Conclusion

The study established that there was moderate involvement of employees in planning and procedure issues in the department.

5.4 Recommendations.

The researcher recommends that top management should work hand in hand with staffs to bridge the current gap between the two parties so that staffs could easily talk to management on challenges and issues concerning execution of their duties.

Reference [1] Bob Brotherton (2010) – Researching Hospitality and tourism, Students guide- Sage. [2] Britha Mikkelsen (2005). Methods for Development work and research. Sage, New Delhi. [3] David Onen and Willis Yuko Oso (2009) A general guide writing research Proposal and report A hand book for beginning researchers. Revised edition. Nairobi: Prints Arts Limited. [4] David Silverman (2004) Doing Quantitative Research: A practical Handbook by Sage, UK. [5] Donald Kisilu Kombo and Delno L. A Tromp (2009) The proposal and thesis writing. Paulines: Pauline Publications Africa.

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105 [6] Kothari, C. (2003). Research methodology Methods and Techniques, 2nd edition New Age International (p) limited publishers. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Limited. [7] Kothari, C. (2004) Research methodology Methods and Techniques, New Age International (p) limited publishers. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Limited. [8] Laurie J. Mullins. (2001) Hospitality management and organizational behavior; Fourth Edition. [9] Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications education. 4th edition San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers [10] Mugenda, O. & Mugenda, A. (1999). Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Approach: Nairobi: ACTS Press [11] Mugenda, O.M, and Mugenda, A.G (2003). Research methods Quantitative and Qualitative Methods. Nairobi: ACTS publishers.

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106 A Critical Review of Literature on E-commerce Transaction Capability By: Mutuku M.1, Muathe S.2 and James R.3 1: Kenyatta University – Email: [email protected] 2: Kenyatta University- Email: [email protected] 3: Kenyatta University – Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Commercial banks play a key role of financial intermediation between depositors and borrowers prompting a more productive allocation of resources and faster economic growth in the economy of any nation. Kenya‘s Vision 2030 economic blueprint (2008 – 2030) aims to transform Kenya into a middle-income country. The Government of Kenya thorough CBK has provided an enabling environment, supporting legal and regulatory framework like regulation of interest rates to ensure that commercial banks contribute towards realization of vision 2030 prosperous economy. In order to play their intermediation role, commercial banks have to be profitable and have thus invested heavily in e-commerce solutions. Despite these initiatives by the government, commercial banks have presented mixed results in terms of their performance. This study will therefore investigate the effect of transaction capability on performance of commercial banks in Kenya. This will be a desk top review and will be anchored on UTAUT theory. It is anticipated that a detailed conceptual framework will be developed to guide future research. The findings of the study will provide valuable insights and a basis for understanding the effect of e-commerce transaction capability on performance of commercial banks in Kenya. Bank managers and other firm‘s policy makers will benefit from the pool of knowledge advanced by the findings of this study by understanding the effect of e-commerce transaction capability on performance of a firm. This will assist them to formulate sound policies regarding leveraging their key e-commerce resources in creating and sustaining competitive advantage that leads to improved performance.

Key Words: E-commerce Capability, Competitive Advantage, Transaction Capability, Firm Performances.

1. Introduction

Every market economy requires the presence of the existing banking system ready to guarantee mobilization of funds and directing them towards the quest for efficient financial activities (San & Heng, 2013). As such, commercial banks play a crucial role of financial intermediation between depositors and borrowers prompting a more productive allocation of resources and faster economic growth in the economy of any nation (Driga, 2006; Ongore, 2013). The Unified Theory of Technology Acceptance and Use (UTAUT) holds that in the banking industry, the consumer behavior is task oriented and consumers can freely choose between several channels to do transactions

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107 like computer, mobile phone or face-to-face banking (Lee, Park, Chung & Blakeney, 2012). Thus, performance analysis of commercial banks has been a subject of great interest to researchers since the Great Depression in the 1940‘s (Ongore & Kusa, 2012).

According to the researcher, commercial banks have to generate enough income to cover the operational cost they incur in the due course of their business operations. Therefore, for sustainable and effective intermediation, commercial banks need to be profitable. Banks performance has also been a subject of interest by shareholders, investors, financial analysts, bank managers and government agencies. Financial efficiency is one of the key determinants of banks profitability. Despite more than two decades of financial deepening by commercial banking industry in sub Saharan- African, commercial banks have posted mixed results (European Investment Bank, 2015). According to IMF (2016a), growth in financial deepening has been lagging in numerous countries in sub Saharan-African, in that it stands way below the level consistent with its structural characteristics. Consequently, there is ample room for banking sector deepening both at the top of the distribution and at the bottom.

According Damanpour and Damanpour (2001) firms can enhance their overall performance by using e-commerce capabilities. These capabilities incorporate decreased transaction costs, improved data administration, more extensive geographical scope, better coordination amongst providers and firm. Drawing on dynamic capabilities‘ theory, the way a firm‘s resources are coordinated, configured and deployed is instrumental in managing its overall financial health (Teece, 2016). Globalization, collaboration and wireless technologies have led to stiff competition in the banking sector. As a result, commercial banks have embraced the use of e- commerce solutions and services to deliver services to customers. Overall, research shows that while the majority of the commercial banks in Kenya have adopted e- commerce solutions, usage levels have remained relatively low, as not many customers are using this technological innovation in Kenya (Ayuma & Munyoki, 2012). However, Magutu, Richard & Haron (2009) contend that the uptake of e-commerce is influenced by its potential to create business value and by awareness of its participants of its contribution to firm‘s financial performance.

Lin and Lin (2008) point out that amazon.com uses its website to provide product images, product details and customer reviews, if the customer needs to search for another product, the website will provide search engine services. Additionally, business firms use multi-channel retailing advantages such as catalog, brochure, and television or radio advertising for distributed information to customer target groups and recommend they purchase products from website for convenience and save time (Choi & Park, 2006). Transaction e-commerce capability can be described as ability to conduct online transactions capability such as buying, online payment and provision of web security (DaSiveira, 2003). Transaction cost model postulates that firms endeavor to minimize

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108 costs. According to Shah, Braganza and Morabito, 2007) e-commerce innovations bring provide cost advantages to a firm in two ways which include reduction of transaction costs of merchants and increasing transactions that leads to improved operational effectiveness and profitability. This also serves as a source of competitive advantage (Porter, 2001). According to Ho, Kauffman and Liang (2007) consumers are likely to investigate what they should buy from a website just like they conduct their actual purchases in physical stores. Arising from the above, this study therefore investigates the effect of transaction capability on performance of commercial banks in Kenya

2. Literature Review 2.1 Theoretical Literature Review Several theoretical foundations can be used to explain the effect of e-commerce on firm performance. Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) theory, the Resource Based Theory and Dynamic Capabilities theory have been used by several management information systems researchers to show the effect of e- commerce on performance. In this paper the UTAUT theory is considered, as the theoretical foundation for a conceptual framework transaction capability and firm p erformance.

UTAUT framework was developed by Venkatesh, Morris, Davis and Davis (2003) by merging eight technology acceptance models. The eight models comprise of Theory of Reasoned Action, Theory of planned behavior, Technology Acceptance Model, Diffusion of Innovations, Social-Cognitive Theory, Motivation Model and Model of PC Utilization. The UTAUT aims to explain user intentions to use technology and subsequent use behavior. UTAUT holds that four crucial constructs including expected performance, expected effort, social influence, and facilitating conditions determine technology acceptance and use behavior. Gender, age, experience, and voluntariness constructs are posited to mediate the relationship between user acceptance and use (Venkatesh et al., 2003). Studies by Oshlyansky, Cairns and Thimbleby (2007) indicate UTAUT as a useful tool in explaining innovations acceptance and use across different cultures and it is a robust theory with higher explanatory power as compared to other technology acceptance and use models Lee et al. (2012) contend that in banking industry consumer behavior is task oriented and consumers can freely choose between several channels to perform transactions like computer, mobile phone or face-to-face banking. In addition, banks operate in a competitive environment and to differentiate their web operations, they tend to underline distinctive attributes of web design like product information, navigation and facilitating online transaction in an attempt address the issues of various customer groups (Floh, Zauner, Koller, and Rusch, 2013).

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109 Nevertheless, the majority tend to use more than one conduit depending on the type of transaction like face to face for high-involvement transactions like loan application and online channels for low-involvement transactions like balancing checking (Cortinas et al., 2010).

According to Hwang and Schmidt (2011), UTAUT theory is useful to this research because it provides a better understanding of the key factors that influence user acceptance of technology like e-commerce which is a key concept in this study. Additionally, studies have revealed that for firms to accomplish superior technology administration success, correct IT solution is of essential significance (Benbasat & Zmud, 1999; Muathe (2010).

2.2 Empirical Literature Review Croom (2000) found that web-based procurement leads to reduction of administration costs, improved expenditure control and increased profitability. The study results further show that greater information processing capability achieved through the use of electronic commerce, specifically Web-based procurement, enables significant cost improvements. The study employed Delphi method to determine the impact of Web- based order processing system for the procurement of management, repair and operation items. The study used exploratory design and aimed to explore the opportunities and capabilities of web-based procurement systems. This is also underscored by works DaSiveira (2003) who also established that e-commerce transaction capability like the ability to conduct online transactions such as buying, online payment and provision of web security can minimize operational costs and lead to profitability. The study revealed an effective transactional e-commerce function works as a new sales channel, and its positive effects should be seen in the sales revenue and in the cost of administration and sales or inventory turnovers as well. Hernando and Nieto (2006) study findings reveal that adopting the web as a conveyance channel leads to diminishment in overhead costs especially, staff, promoting and IT which translates to an improvement in bank profitability. The investigation additionally shows that web is utilized as a supplement to, as opposed to a substitute for, physical branches. Further, the study found that this impact differs after some time in regards to expenses and revenue structure which are the principle drivers of improved performance. The study used time-series data has a single dimension and might fail while using complicated behavioral hypotheses unlike panel data models. The current study will use panel that since it has time-series and cross-sectional characteristics and it allows the researcher to analyze a number of important economic questions that cannot be addressed using cross-sectional or time-series data sets. Mehra (2013) found that fraud-related losses amount to an average of US$9000 for every US$1 million in revenue. The researcher argues that this amount of loss can be prevented by identifying relevant insights through the use e-commerce. In addition, the study findings reveal that e-commerce firms are able to identify fraud in real time by

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110 combining transaction data with customers‘ buying history, web logs, social media feeds and geospatial maps data from smartphone applications. In the Kenyan perspective, CBK (2015) points out that the increased use of IT innovations has resulted to IT related frauds in the recent years. However, this argument has not been empirically tested. According to DaSiveira (2003) described transaction capability as the ability to conduct online transactions such as buying, online payment and provision of web security. Transaction cost model postulates that organizations endeavor to minimize costs. As discussed in the literature, e-commerce provides cost advantages to an organization in two ways which include reduction of transaction costs of merchants and increasing transactions that leads to improved operational effectiveness and profitability. Kuang (2011) explored e-commerce capabilities such as information, transaction and customization as influencers of firm performance but failed to recognize back-end integration. The study also found that macro-economic environment does not control the relationship between e-commerce capability and performance. The study focused on ICT retail industry but not commercial banks. Thus, there is need for more research in this sector to inform financial management decisions on the effect of e-commerce capability on financial performance of commercial banks in Kenya. In addition, this study shall incorporate business operating environment as a moderating variable as well as competitive advantage as a mediating variable. This study proposes the following conceptual framework and hypothesis testing of other e-commerce transaction capabilities since transaction capability is just one dimension of e-commerce capability.

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111 Competitive Advantage H06  Customer Satisfaction

Mediating Variable E-commerce Capability

Information H  Product Information 01 Financial  Search capability Performance  Product Review  ROI

Transaction H02  Payment Capability  Account Management  Security

Customization H  Cutomer Registration 03

 OnlineRecommendatio

n H04 Back-end Integration  EDI links  Virtual Community  Data Sharing H05 Dependent Business Variable Environment Independent Variable  CBK Regulations

Moderating Variable

Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram

The conceptual framework shows the relationship that exists among the independent variables (information, transaction, customization and back-end integration), the mediating variables (competitive advantage) and the moderating variables (business operating environment) and their effect on the dependent variable financial performance commercial banks in Kenya.

According to Zhu (2004) the first and most common dimension of e-commerce capability is information. This is the ability of an organization to provide meaningful information about its products and services to its customers. Through e-commerce, organizations are enabled access new markets, create new distribution channels and attract potential and new customers. All these should help generate more revenue. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H01: E-commerce information capability has no significant effect on financial performance of commercial banks in Kenya.

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112 E-commerce transaction capability is the ability to conduct online transactions such as buying, online payment and provision of web security (DaSiveira, 2003). Transaction cost model holds that organizations endeavor to minimize costs. As discussed in the literature, e-commerce provides cost advantages to an organization in two ways which include reduction of transaction costs of merchants and increasing transactions that leads to improved operational effectiveness and profitability. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H02: Transaction capability has no significant effect on financial performance of commercial banks in Kenya.

E-commerce customization capability is the ability to improve customer interactions through personalization of products or services (Zhu, 2004; Zhu & Kraemer, 2005). Customization includes online registration, online product recommendation, content personalization, account management and real-time support. The ability of potential customers or partners to resonate with the organizations products and services allows us the organization grow and thrive as a business. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H03: E-commerce customization capability has no significant effect on financial performance of commercial banks in Kenya. E-commerce back-end integration capability is the ability of a firm to forge a strong electronic integration to facilitate inventory management, coordination and fulfilment between back offices and external users (Zhu, 2004). E-commerce is transforming the way organizations operate by redefining how back-end operations, product design and development and even how marketing activities are conducted. A argued by Zhu and Kraemer (2003) this enhances faster decision making and reducing chances of making mistakes. This leads to reduced operational cost and increased profitability. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H04: E-commerce back-end integration capability has no significant effect on financial performance of commercial banks in Kenya. According to Fermando (2011) business operating environment includes external factors, forces and institutions that are beyond the control of the business organization and they affect the performance of the organization. These comprise of customers, suppliers, competitors, government, political, legal and technological factors. For instance, where there is an adjustment in the government policies, political change or a change in economy due to inflation, the organization has to adjust to the new changes. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H05: Business operating environment has no moderating effect on the relationship between e-commerce capability and financial performance of commercial banks in Kenya.

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113 The sole objective of an organization is to achieve predominant performance. To achieve this superior performance, an organization in an industry must have possess core competencies that are difficult for other organizations firms in the same business to impersonate. The non-rare homogenous resources must be converted into rare and heterogeneous practices that market rivals cannot imitate (Kabue & Kilika, 2016). If this is achieved, the organization becomes competitive and the financial performance is improved. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

3. Conclusions and Recommendations Although e-commerce has been acknowledged to play a key role in the financial performance of commercial banks, the empirical literature is yet to ascertain the value associated with this new technology base model of banking. There exists a debate within the Kenyan context on whether adopting electronic solutions improve firm performance. Despite attempts by past studies to explain the importance of e- commerce, the effect of e-commerce on banks financial performance is still misunderstood. Without this understanding, attempts to invest in e-commerce may be doomed to a failure. In a similar study Zhu (2004) found that information, transaction, customization and back-end e-commerce capabilities have a significant effect on competitive advantage and firm performance. However, these studies failed to demonstrate the mediation effect of competitive advantage provided by e-commerce in both high-tech and traditional manufacturing firms which is a cause of inconclusive empirical results. These studies focused on the manufacturing sector, used case and exploratory research designs which are weak designs. Thus, these studies are not intended to provide conclusive evidence. The studies also used a small number of samples that may not adequately represent the target population. The current study will use explanatory research design to identify the extent and nature of cause-and-effect relationships between the variables. The design also provides advantages of replication and greater levels of internal validity. References [1] Ayuma, A., & Munyoki, M. (2012). E-Commerce Strategy and Performance of Commercial Banks in Kenya. In African International Business and management conference. [2] Benbasat, I. & Zmud, R. (1999). Empirical research in information systems. The practices of relevance.MIS Quarterly,23(1),3-16. [3] Central Bank of Kenya (2015) website: www.centralbankofkenya.go.ke [4] Choi, J., & Park, J. (2006). Multichannel retailing in Korea. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management,34(8),577-596. doi:10.1108/09590550610675912. [5] Cortinas, M., Chocarro, R., & Villanueva, L. (2010). Understanding multi- channel banking customers. Journal of Business Research, 63(11), 1215- 1221.

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114 [6] Croom, S. R. (2000). The impact of web‐based procurement on the management of operating resources supply. Journal of Supply Chain Management, 36(4), 4-13. [7] Damanpour, F. & Damanpour, J. (2001). E-business e-commerce evolution: Perspective and strategy. Managerial Financial, 27: 16-33. [8] Driga, I. (2006). The Role of the Banking System in the Sustainable Development of the Economy, Annals of the University of Petroşani, Economics, vol.6, pp.55-60. [9] European Investment Bank (2013). Banking in sub-Saharan Africa, Challenges and Opportunities. EIB‘s Economics Department, 2013 [10] European Investment Bank (2015). Banking in sub-Saharan Africa Recent Trends and Digital Financial Inclusion. [11] Fermando, A. C. (2011) Business Environment. Darling Kindersley Publications. India. [12] Floh, A., Zauner, A., Koller, M., & Rusch, T. (2013). Customer segmentation using unobserved heterogeneity in the perceived-value- loyalty-intentions link. Journal of Business Research, forthcoming. [13] Hernando, I., & Nieto, M. J. (2007). Is the Internet delivery channel changing banks‟ performance? The case of Spanish banks. Journal of Banking & Finance, 31(4), 1083-1099. [14] Hwang, I. & Schmidt, L. (2011). Assessing moderating effect in meta- analysis: a re-analysis of top management support studies and suggestions for researchers. European Journal of Information Systems online publication. doi:10.1057/ejis.2011.12. [15] Kabue, L. W., & Kilika, J. M. (2016). Firm resources, core competencies and sustainable competitive advantage: An integrative theoretical framework. Journal of management and strategy, 7(1), 98. [16] Kuang, Z. (2011). A Framework for Investigating the Impact of IT and E- Commerce Capability on Firm Performance: A Resource-Based View. 2009 International Conference on E-Business and Information System Security. doi:10.1109/ebiss.2009.5137870 [17] Lee, Y. K., Park, J. H., Chung, N., & Blakeney, A. (2012). A unified perspective on the factors influencing usage intention toward mobile financial services. Journal of Business Research, 65(11), 1590-1599. [18] Lin, H., & Lin, S. (2008). Determinants of e-business diffusion: A test of the technology diffusion perspective. Technovation, 28(3), 135-145. doi: 10.1016/j.technovation.2007.10.003. Management Perspectives 23(2): 65-81. [19] Magutu, P., Richard, N., & Haron, M. (2009). Modeling the Effects of E- Commerce Adoption on Business Process Management: Case Study of Commercial Banks in Kenya: [20] Mehra, G., (2013). 6 uses of big data for online retailers, Practical Ecommerce. Available at: http://www.practicalecommerce.com/articles/3960-6-Uses-of-Big-Data-for- Online-Retailers (Accessed 30th October, 2017).

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115 [21] Muathe, SMA. (2010). The determinants of adoption of information and Communication technology by small and medium Enterprises within the health sector in Nairobi, Kenya. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. Nairobi: Kenyatta University. [22] Ongore, V.O.& Kusa G.B (2013). Determinants of Financial Performance of Commercial Banks in Kenya. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 237-237. [23] Ongore, V.O (2013). Determinants of Financial Performance of Commercial Banks in Kenya. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2013, pp.237- 252. ISSN: 2146-4138. [24] Oshlyansky, L., Cairns, P. & Thimbleby, H. (2007). Validating the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) tool cross- culturally. British Computer Society, Volume 2 Proceedings of the 21st BCS HCI Group Conference. [25] Porter, E (2008). On competition, Updated and Extended Edition. Boston: Havard Business School Publishing. [26] San, O. T. & Heng, T. B. (2013). Factors Affecting the Profitability of Malaysian Commercial Banks. African Journal of Business Management, 7(8), 649-660. [27] Teece, D. J. (2016). Dynamic Capabilities. The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Strategic Management, 1-9. doi:10.1057/978-1-349-94848-2_689-1. [28] Venkatesh, V., Brown, S., Maruping, L., & Bala, H. (2008). Predicting Different Conceptualizations of System Use: The Competing Roles of Behavioral Intention, Facilitating Conditions, and Behavioral Expectations. MIS Quarterly, 32, 483–502. [29] Zhu, K. (2004). The complementarity of information technology infrastructure and e-commerce capability: A resource-based assessment of their business value. Journal of management information systems, 21(1), 167-202. [30] Zhu, K., & Kraemer, K. L. (2005). Post-adoption variations in usage and value of e-business by firms: Cross-country evidence from the retail industry. Inform. Systems Res. 16(1), 61–84.

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116 Perceived Price and Brand Image on Customer Loyalty in Fast Food Restaurants in Nairobi City Business District, Kenya By: Irungu P. N1 and Gitau J.K2 1: Gretsa University – Email: [email protected] 2: Gretsa University – Email: [email protected]

Abstract A good and trusted brand – a message to the customer of a given level of product and/or service quality – is, arguably, one of the most imperative sources of information at the point of purchase. Since effective management of positive brand image lead to continued and repeat purchases, it is important to understand precisely its effect on customer loyalty from the perspective of a fast food restaurant. However, given the increasing important of positive brand image in the hospitality industry, and in particular the restaurant industry, the subject has not received the scrutiny it deserves. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the influence of perceived price and brand image on customer loyalty in fast food restaurants in Nairobi Central Business District (CBD). A descriptive cross-sectional study of 385 fast food restaurant customers through self-administered questionnaires was conducted. The target population of the study was all fast food restaurants within the CBD. In addition, the study used convenience sampling technique to select customers purchasing from the fast foods for inclusion in the study sample size. The independent variables (perceived price and brand image) and the dependent variable (customer loyalty) were measured using validated constructs from previous studies. Content validity was used to assess the validity of the questionnaire. Reliability of the constructs was examined using Cronbach‘s Alpha coefficient technique. Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics were used to analyze quantitative data. Correlation analysis was used to establish possible relationships among perceived price, brand image and customer loyalty whereas multiple regression analysis was used to test the study hypotheses in line with the study objectives and to identify the most significant predictor of customer loyalty. Pearson correlation results revealed a strong positive relationship between perceived price and customer loyalty (r = 0.655, p = 0.000) and a very strong association between brand image and customer loyalty (r = 0.811, p = 0.000). Multiple regression analysis returned a relationship coefficient R = 0.882 and a coefficient of determination R2 = 0.778. The latter indicated that about 77.8% of variance in customer loyalty could be explained by the regression model significant predictor variables. Both perceived price and brand image were significant at 95% confidence level (ß= 0.060, t = 1.621, p = 0.000) and (ß= 0.205, t = 4.786, p = 0.000) respectively. However, brand image was the most significant predictor of customer loyalty. The study recommends that managers of fast food restaurants need to emphasize on strategies that are geared towards ensuring positive brand image that would encourage current and repeat purchases through creating loyal customers.

Keywords: Customer loyalty, Brand image, Perceived price

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117 1. Introduction Fast food restaurants in Nairobi Central Business District (CBD) are no different from others in the rest of Kenya and in the world. Although there exists a difference in taste and choices, fast food restaurants‘ customers in Nairobi CBD demand the same type of treatment from hospitality sector just like those in other parts of the world. The focus of this study is on two determinants of customer loyalty in hospitality industry with a particular interest in fast food restaurants. These include 1) brand image and 2) perceived price. The rationale behind selecting these particular two variables is that fast food restaurants have been increasing and people are more price conscious, they prefer quality with price and they are brand conscious as well. Thus, brand image of the fast food restaurants can make them loyal towards that restaurant.

When comparing a hospitality experience such as dining in a fast food restaurant or in a hotel, it is always important to keep in mind that in contrast to tangible products or pure services, most hospitality experiences are a blend of both products and services. A customer's satisfaction with a hospitality experience such as having a restaurant or hotel meal is actually a combination of satisfaction with the individual factors of all products and services which constitute the entire experience. According to Edvardsson et al. (2000), service should be considered from the point of view of a customer because it is a perception in his or her mind and depends on how he or she determines the service quality. The term ―service‖ means different things to different customers because it is an experience. Therefore, it is difficult to define or measure.

Service is intangible in nature so it creates several challenges such as managing, measuring, and standardizing for restaurants or hotels. But if the manager can develop solutions to these problems, then there is a greater chance for the customers to be satisfied, when dining in his/her fast food restaurant or hotel. The satisfied customer will not only become a repeat visitor, he may also recommend the restaurant or hotel to his/her friends. This will only prove to be profitable for the business. Thus, the study sought to address two research questions:

RQ1: What is the influence of perceived price on customer loyalty for fast food restaurants in Nairobi CBD, Kenya?

RQ2: What is the relationship between brand image and customer loyalty for fast food restaurants in Nairobi CBD, Kenya?

2. Literature Review 2.1 Customer Loyalty Foremost, Yang and Peterson (2004) have acknowledged that defining customer loyalty has demonstrated to be extremely difficult. While this is the case, different researchers have defined customer loyalty differently. For example, Oliver (1999) has defined customer loyalty as a buyer‘s total commitment or deep attachment to a product,

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118 service, brand or organization, John (2010) as a mind-set that persuades a customer either to revisit a company, shop or outlet to purchase a particular product, service or brand, and Morgan and Hunt (1994) have argued that it is associated to the concept of relationship commitment, which can be expressed as a sustaining desire to be in a valued connection. All these definitions seem to center around one key aspect of customer loyalty – ability of an organization to create and maintain a loyal customer for prolonged business. Research has demonstrated that customer loyalty is a multidimensional concept encompassing both behavioral and attitudinal elements (Oliver, 1999). From the latter perspective, customer loyalty is viewed as a specific desire to continue a relationship with a service provider (Kim, Park, & Jeong, 2004). While this is the case, behavioral perspective sees customer loyalty as repeat patronage (i.e. repeat purchases by customers) as measured based on the number of times a customer chooses the same product or service in a particular category compared to the total number of purchases made by the customer in that category (Tarus & Rabach, 2013). Business organizations and service providers use customer loyalty as a key to gaining competitive advantage over rivals (Woodruff, 1997). Customer loyalty is imperative for both the organization and the customer. From the organization point of view, loyal customers are ready to make repeat purchases in a trade that provide worth beyond their imaginations and significantly add to the overall value of the organization (Zahra et al., 2016).

According to Hunt, Arnett, and Madhavaram (2006) remaining loyal to an existing service provider or organization is beneficial to a customer as well because it helps to minimize time and resources used while determining alternatives. Service loyal customers is consistently more cost-effective than attracting new customers, which underlines the importance of customer loyalty to an organization (Rowley, 2005). Indeed, Nwankwo (2013) have argued that a high retention rate is equal to a low defection rate. In quick service restaurants, the strength of brand image cannot be abandoned as it positively influences customers loyalty (Christou, 2003), however switching barriers in contrast with other factors have negative impact on customer loyalty, that is, the less will be the switching barriers the more will be the customer loyalty (Chen et al., 2009). So, it can be suggested that perceived price and brand image can create customer loyalty. Customer loyalty demonstrates itself in a diversity of behaviors, the common ones being endorsing customers to the service provider and repeatedly visiting the businesses (Fornell, 1992). Several researchers have perceived these two behaviors as indicators of customer loyalty (Lam, Shankar, Erramilli, & Murthy, 2004; Zaithaml et al., 1996). Along similar lines, the current study theorizes customer loyalty on the basis of the two behaviors. 2.2. Perceived Price

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119 Perceived price can be defined as a process by which consumers see the price and attach value to a product or service. It has interested researchers for several years. It is a well- known fact that price and quality are two important factors of value. They both lead to customer satisfaction and also customer retention, which help increase the profits of any business. So, for a manager of a fast food restaurant it is imperative to know customers perception of price and value. Earlier empirical studies examining the impact of price on perceived value have suggested a negative link: the higher the price, the lower the product value is perceived (Grewal et al., 1998). This is a general phenomenon that when customers go out for shopping they tend to buy products which have lower prices so they get better value.

This is supported by (Hutton, 1995) claiming that now more customers are trying to maximize value for money spent, demanding better quality at lower prices. Although this may not be entirely true for all the customers because some of them are willing to pay more if they really like a product. Higher perceived value results in a greater willingness by the customer to adopt a new product (McGowan & Sternquist, 1998). Customers who are willing to pay higher prices for a product or service tend to be brand- conscious and prestige sensitive. They also believe price is an indicator of quality or prestige (Sproles & Kendall, 1986). Once customers are convinced that they are getting the best quality product or service, they will tend to develop loyalty to it in the long run. Research conducted by Kandampully and Suhartanto (2003) on hospitality industry found a positive relationship between price and customer loyalty.

2.3. Brand Image Brand image has been a vital concept in consumer behavior research because it affects individuals‘ subjective perceptions and consumer‘s senses of value, satisfaction, and consequent behavior (Verhoef et al., 2009). The past history of brand equity is measured to be brand attitude and brand image, and the outcome of brand equity are deliberate to be brand preference and purchase objectives (Chang & Liu, 2009). International brands often challenge to boost their sales through the start of brand extensions (Pina et al., 2010). Brand image considerably influence quality and trust professed by consumers (Chiang & Chang, 2006). Self-image correspondence can manipulate brand preference, brand satisfaction and purchase intentions (Jamal & Muhammad, 2007). The re-branding and re-positioning in the hospitality industry tinted the significance of the management-employees' participation in constructing a positive global brand image of the business (Chiang, 2007).

Branding is a significant instrument in conveying the importance of health and underlying towards healthier food preferences (Chrysochou, 2010). Perceived quality, information cost saving, brand awareness, and brand image is positive associated with brand equity (Li et al. 2010). Customer care and ethical behavior mainly direct the force in establishing positive corporate reputation (Tustin, 2007). One of the researches conducted on hospitality industry found positive and significant relationship between image and customer loyalty. In this research it was argued that desirable image of the

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120 hotel can lead towards customer satisfaction, so image is an important phenomenon for building customer loyalty (Kandampully & Suhartanto, 2003). Therefore, customer loyalty can be created through positive brand image and company reputation.

3. Research Methodology 3.1 Research Design A research design provides a fundamental direction for conducting a study (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). The study was conducted in Nairobi CBD fast food restaurants and used descriptive cross-sectional survey design in order to describe the relationships between independent variables (perceived price and brand image) and dependent variable (customer loyalty). The design not only allows one to analyze inter- relationships among the independent and dependent variables at the time of research, but also provides information relating to the degree of relationship between the variables being studied (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003).

3.2 Target Population, Sampling Techniques and Sample Size The study targeted all fast food restaurants in Nairobi CBD. Customers purchasing from the restaurants were the study participants and were considered to have the information regarding the study given the nature of its topic. Census sampling technique was used to select all fast food restaurants in Nairobi CBD. In order to select the study participants, convenience sampling technique was used. This technique was used to select 384 customers to be included in the study sample.

3.3 Measurements The study used constructs adapted from previous researchers in order to measure the variables. The dependent variable (customer loyalty) was measured using three items were modified from Baloglu (2002). Brand image – such as reputation and familiarity – were measured based on earlier research by Kim and Kim (2004). Perceived price was adopted from Zhang and Feng (2009). All the constructs were measured on a 5- point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

3.4 Validity and Reliability of the Questionnaire According to Kothari (2004) validity refers to the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences, which are based on the research results. The study used content validity technique to evaluate the validity of the questionnaires. This technique was ensured and assessed through the help of peer reviewers. Cronbach‘s Alpha technique was used to test the reliability for all the study constructs. Three separate Chronbach‘s Alpha coefficients were conducted for perceived price, brand image and customer loyalty yielding 0.99, 0.89, and 0.94 Alphas respectively. All Alpha coefficients were above the cut-off criterion of 0.67 and were therefore considered adequate for data analysis and reporting.

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121 3.5 Data Collection Techniques The process of data collection started after ensuring the validity and reliability of the questionnaires. Permission was sought from the respective managers of fast food restaurants prior to data collection. Self-administering method was used to distribute the questionnaires, where filled ones were collected at the time of data collection. The researcher requested the assistance of restaurant attendants in data collection by encouraging the customers to participate in the study by filling the questionnaire in order to enhance chances of higher response rate. A total of 384 questionnaires were distributed where all were returned for a response rate of 100%. This rate could be attributed to the fact that, questionnaires were distributed to customers at the time of service. Of these questionnaires, 36 had incomplete data, and were therefore discarded leaving 348 useable ones.

3.6 Data Analysis Data processing was conducted in order to assess its quality before running any statistical analysis. This process comprised of coding, data cleaning, and running data transformations and computations. Data cleaning is an important procedure during which the data are inspected and erroneous ones corrected. Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics were used in order to address the research hypotheses. Descriptive statistics including the mean, and standard deviations were used in order to clarify and describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation (Sekaran, 2010). For inferential statistics, Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient analysis was used to analyze the relationship between the study variables. The yielded correlation coefficient (r) was used to establish the strength and nature of the association between the variables of the study. Since correlations do not allow for direct conclusions about causality, the squared correlation coefficients (r2) (coefficient of determination) were used in order to show the amount of variation in one variable that is explained by the other (Field, 2000). Multiple regression analysis was used to establish the most significant predictor of customer loyalty between perceived price and brand image. Beta coefficients (weights) were used to establish the weight of each variable on customer loyalty where t-test was used to establish the significance of the variable relationship.

4. Findings and Discussions 4.1 Sample Characteristics Table 1 reports the descriptive statistics of the respondents in this study. About 60% of the total respondents were male and 40% female; 20% were between 21 and 30 years and 60% between 31 and 40 years.

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122 Table 1: Respondents’ Demographic Profile Frequency (n) Percentage Sex Male 231 60% Female 153 40% Age <20 years old 38 10% 21-30 years old 77 20% 31-40 years old 231 60% >40 years old 38 10%

4.2 Regression Analysis The results of the regression model summary are demonstrated in Table 2.

Table 2: Regression Analysis Model Summary Change Statistics Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Sig. F Change 1 .882a .778 .774 .36509 .000 a. Predictors: (Constant), Perceived Price, Brand Image

In the regression analysis, R Square is 0.778 which is a very significant value and it shows the impact of independent variables that are perceived price and brand image on dependent variable (customer loyalty). The determination coefficient is 77.8% indicating the variance in customer loyalty that could be attributed to perceived price and brand image. Table 3 demonstrates the regression model coefficients.

Table 3: Regression Coefficients Standardized Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig. 1 (Constant) 0.908 .093 9.764 .000 Perceived Price (PP) 0.060 .037 .077 1.621 .000 Brand Image (BI) 0.205 .043 .291 4.786 .000 a. Dependent Variable: Customer Loyalty

It is clear from Table 3 that all the predictors and the model constant were significant. The Beta coefficients for both perceived price and brand image were (β = 0.060, t = 1.621, p < .001) and (β = 0.205, t = 4.786, p < .001) respectively. The overall regression model equation was: Y (customer loyalty) = 0.908 + 0.060PP + 0.205BI

4.3 Summary, Conclusions and Implications Analysis of the study data has revealed several major findings. First, both perceived price and brand image were found to be predictors of customer loyalty for fast food restaurants in Nairobi CBD. When compared to perceived price, brand image was found to be the most significant predictor of customer loyalty. A greater probability exists for customers‘ being loyal to fast food restaurants where the brand images are satisfactory. These findings suggest that brand image is a critical factor when customers‘ loyalty is

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123 considered in fast food restaurants. Thus, restaurant operators should invest in forming a positive brand image to create an emotional bond with customers because this variable elevates customers‘ resistance to switching service providers.

4.4 Limitations and Further Research Several recommendations for further research are made to address areas the present study did not look into, yet they are important. First, the fieldwork of the study was carried only in Nairobi CBD. A more extended geographical sample might show that, in other Counties, there is a difference in customer attributes towards loyalty, which would also impact relevant managerial implications. Second, a study needs to be conducted which looks into the moderating role of customer satisfaction. Lastly, there is need to conduct a study that incorporates more predictors such as food quality and service quality.

References

[1] Christou, E. (2003). Guest loyalty likelihood in relation to hotels corporate image and reputation: a study of three countries in Europe. Edvardsson, B., Johnson, M. D., Gustafsson, A., & Strandvik, T. (2000). The effects of satisfaction and loyalty on profits and growth: Products versus services. Total Quality Management, 11, (7), 917–927. [2] Fornell, C. (1992). National customer satisfaction barometer: the Swedish experience. Journal of Marketing, 56(1), 6–21. [3] Grewal, D., Monroe, K. B., & Krishnan, R. (1998). The effects of price comparison advertising on buyers‘ perceptions of acquisition value and transaction value. Journal of Marketing, 62, 46–60. [4] Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B., & Anderson, R. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis (6th Ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. [5] Hunt, S., Arnett, D., & Madhavaram, S. (2006). The explanatory foundations of relationship marketing theory. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 21(2), 72–87. [6] Hutton, B. (1995). Survey of South Korea: fear of subsides-Bethan: Hutton announces the overdue birth of the Korean consumer. Financial Times, London edition, p. 4. [7] John, J. (2010). An analysis on the customer loyalty in telecom sector: Special reference to Bharath. India: Sanchar Nigam Limited. [8] Kandampully, J. & Suhartanto, D. (2003). The Role of Customer Satisfaction and Image in Gaining Customer Loyalty in the Hotel Industry. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 10 (1), 3-25. [9] Kim., W. G., & Kim, H.-B. (2004). Measuring customer based restaurant brand equity. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 45(2), 115–131.

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124 [10] Kim, M., Park, M., & Jeong, D. (2004). The effects of customer satisfaction and switching barrier on customer loyalty in Korean mobile Telecommunication services. Telecommunications Policy, 28(2), 145–159. [11] Kothari, C. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd Ed.). New Delhi: New Age International. [12] Lam, S., Shankar, V., Erramilli, M., & Murthy, B. (2004). Customer value, satisfaction, loyalty, and switching costs: an illustration from business-to- business service context. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 32(2), 293–311. [13] Morgan, R., & Hunt, S. (1994). The commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing. Journal of Marketing, 58(3), 20–28. [14] Mugenda, O., & Mugenda, A. (2003). Research Methods Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. Nairobi: ACTS Press. [15] Nwankwo, S. (2013). Customer Relationship Management and Customer Retention: Empirical Assessment from Nigeria‘s Insurance Industry. Business and Economics Journal, 4(2), 2–6. [16] Oliver, R. (1999). Whence Consumer Loyalty? Journal of Marketing, 33–44. [17] Rowley, J. (2005). The four Cs of customer loyalty. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 23(6), 574–581. [18] Sekaran, U. (2010). Research methods for business: A skill building approach approach (4th Ed.). Noida, India: Sheel Print-N-Pack. [19] Sproles, G. B. & Kendall, E. L. (1986). A methodology for profiling consumers‘ decision-making styles. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 20, 267– 79. [20] Tarus, D., & Rabach, N. (2013). Determinants of customer loyalty in Kenya: does corporate image play a moderating role? The TQM Journal, 25(5), 473– 491. [21] Woodruff, R. (1997). Customer value: the next source for competitive advantage. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 25(2), 139–153. [22] Yang, Z., & Peterson, R. (2004). Customer perceived value, satisfaction and loyalty. The role of switching costs. Journal of Psychology and Marketing, 21(10), 799–822. [23] Zhang, X. & Feng, Y. (2009). The Impact of Customer Relationship Marketing Tactics on Customer Loyalty-Within Swedish Mobile Telecommunication Industry. Master Thesis, Halmstad University. [24] Zahra, M., Ahmad, R., & Ismail, H. (2016). Predictors of customer loyalty in the Pakistani banking industry: a moderated-mediation study. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 34(3), 411–430.

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125 The State of Strategy Implementation at Kahuho Uhuru High School By: Kahunja, J. W.1 and Chege, P. W.2 1. University of Nairobi 2. Dedan Kimathi University of Technology, Kenya -: [email protected]

Abstract Recent government policy initiatives have focused on attainment of Education for all (EFA) in Kenya which led to declaration of Free Secondary Education (FSE) in 2008. All these changes require continuous planning of secondary school education so as to realize the government objectives in education. The objective of the study was to determine state of strategy implementation at Kahuho Uhuru High School. The research was conducted through a case study design and primary data collected through interviews. The qualitative data was analyzed through content analysis. The study concludes that strategy implementation at Kahuho Uhuru High School is characterized by successful application of practices in strategy implementation and shortfall in other practices. The practices that have been applied successfully include: communication, monitoring and evaluation, performance measurement, and performance appraisal. Nevertheless, Kahuho Uhuru High School is still facing shortfalls in the involvement of stakeholders, training, and leadership style. The study recommends that the process of implementing strategic plans in school can be enhances if all stakeholders are involved, frequent training and review of implementation process time to time.

Key Words: Plan, Strategic plan, Strategic Behavior, Strategic Commitment, Administration 1. Introduction A strategic plan is a set of processes undertaken in order to develop a range of strategies that will contribute to achieving the organizational direction (Tapinos et al., 2005). This therefore calls for formulation of a coherent document which will guide the efforts of all the stakeholders, outline what the organization is trying to achieve and how it intends to achieve it. Strategic planning is important to an organization because it provides a sense of direction and outlines measurable goals. (Benjamin and Carroll, 1998). Fayol (1916) in his book Principles of Administration also discussed the administration theory; he proposed that there are five primary functions of management: forecasting and planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling (Cole, 1996). The EFA 2000 Assessment Report for Kenya indicates that although education has been a concern for the government and other development actors, Kenya is yet to achieve EFA goals given the increasing level of poverty, continued implementation of SAPs and servicing of both continue to miss out on education, notwithstanding the quality (OOA Achieved News, 2008). Further adjustments are expected in education management in Kenya with introduction of free secondary education. The current education system 8-4-4 is soon to be replaced with 2-6-3-3-3 system of education

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126 (Odhiambo taskforce,2016). There is also a new phenomenal in education management where community engagement is paramount. We engage the community in answering the question at hand and then, we, as part of the community decide. That shift in language and in actions makes all the difference (Anderson,2009). Implementing a strategy, according to Pearce and Robinson (2007), is the process through which a set of agreed work philosophies is translated into functional and operational targets (Kotter and Best 2006). According to Hussey (2000), implementation follows a six-step process namely, envision, activate, install, ensure, and recognize. He further states that the implementation of strategy remains one of the most difficult areas of management. Its success depends both on the selection of an appropriate strategy and converting that strategy into action. Lewa and Mutuku, (2009) Argues Kenyan universities, colleges and secondary schools especially public ones, have always planned but there is never anything strategic about it because the ―planning has always been the traditional one that followed the government‘s five-year planning cycle‖. Barney (2001) highlights some of the factors affecting strategic planning implementation; he asserts that the choice of a method for strategic management implementation will depend upon situational factors such as size of the institution, complexity of programs, institutional culture, and the style of the management. Mintzberg (2004) contends that insufficient partner buy-in, insufficient leadership attention, ineffective leadership, weak or inappropriate strategy and resistance to change are also some of the factors that affect strategic management implementation. 1.1 Education Sector in Kenya

Education sector development has been addressed through commissions, committees and taskforces. According to GoK (2010), education in Kenya has undergone numerous changes which have always necessitated the need for continuous planning. After independence the primary aim for secondary school education was to fight disease, poverty and ignorance. They are various reports outlining how this was to be achieved Ominde report 1964, Gachathi Report 1976, focused on redefining Kenya‘s educational policies and objectives considering national unity, and economic, social and cultural aspirations of the people of Kenya. It resulted in Government support for‖ Harambee‖ school. Mackay Report 1981, Kamunge Report 1988 and Koech Report 2000. Recent government policy initiatives have focused on attainment of Education for all which require continuous planning of secondary school education so as to realize the government objectives in education, a survey by Ngware et al. (2006) showed that over 60% of schools in the country does not have strategic plans. Kahuho Uhuru High School is located in the Kabete constituency Kiambu county. It is a Boys Boarding school started in 1930 as a primary school. The current enrollment is about 800 students with a student teacher ratio of 18.9.

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127 1.1.2. Research Problem Recent government policy initiatives have focused on attainment on education for all (EFA). This led to declaration of free primary education and subsidized secondary education. The current political regime has promised total free secondary education starting January 2018.All these changes require continues planning, strategy formulation and reviews for the government to realize its education goals. A lot in research has been done in strategic management in business and corporate organizations while little has focused on non-profit making organization such as schools. This research seeks to find the state of strategy implementation at Kahuho Uhuru High school.

2. Literature Review 2.1 Theoretical Foundation The theoretical background reviews two theories of strategy and competitive advantage, namely, industrial organization (IO) and resource-based view (RBV). Competition amongst private and public education institutions is hypothetically largely due to an oversupply of student places and slowing demand from suitably qualified students. The most appropriate approaches to strategy development in this case are industrial organisation (IO) (Porter,1981) and the resource-based view (RBV) (Wernerfelt, 1984; Barney, 1991). While sustainable competitive advantage was the catch phrase of the 1980s, especially through the work of Porter (1980, 1985), there has been relatively little in-depth development of theory and practice related specifically to the strategic. The RBV seeks to identify the important ‗bundles of resources‘ as these are the source of the firm‘s competitive advantage (Barney, 1991; Grant; 1991). Grant (1991) further defined these as resources and capabilities of the firm. Amit and Schoemaker (1993) noted that resources are a bundle of assets. 2.2 Factors in Successful Strategy Implementation Hamid (2008) argues that, every organization has to balance the sophistication and complexity of its strategy with the challenges of implementation. According to Manyasi (2009), inthe education sector, quality education assures sustainable acquisition of knowledge, be it intellectual or practical capable of developing the individual and contributes to national and global development. The process of providing quality education begins with proper planning for financial, human and physical resources and curriculum. This involves all the stakeholders and it is incorporated in the teaching/learning process (Chege, 2009). There are several factors that seem to have a major impact on an organization‘s ability to implement a strategic plan. They include firstly Strategic Behaviour and Commitment; According to Campo (2003), commitment starts at the top but it must not end there. Secondly an organizational Structure that Supports the Strategy; One of the most powerful implementation tools available to a company is its organizational structure (Mintzberg, 2010). Thirdly Ability to Measure Progress and Communication; Chege (2009) contends that, every implementation effort has an element of trial and error learning.

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128 3. Research Objective A survey by Ngware et al. (2006) showed that over 60% of schools in the country do not have strategic plans. A base line study conducted in Kiambu district showed that only two out of the twenty-four secondary schools in the district had formulated and were implementing strategic plans. This represents only 8.3 % of all eligible schools. It is a government requirement to carry out strategic planning (GOK, 2006). It is therefore imperative that Kahuho Uhuru High School undertakes Strategic planning as one of the major steps to address the challenges they face in enhancing the quality of their programs in provision of Education. The study sought to find out the state of strategy implementation at Kahuho Uhuru High School.

3.1 Research Gap A lot in research has been done in strategic management in business and corporate organizations while little has focused on non-profit making organization such as schools. This research seeks to find the state of strategy implementation at Kahuho Uhuru High school.

4. Research Methodology 4.1 Research Design The research was conducted through a case study design as it allows for in-depth contextual analysis.

4.2 Data Collection The researcher collected primary data through interviews. An interview guide was used to guide the researcher in collecting data on implementation of strategic plans in Kahuho Uhuru High School. A total of 6 interviewees were interviewed. The interviewees were drawn from the six levels of organization structure.

Table 1: Sample Size Level in the school structure (strata) Population Sample size Sample size % Board Management 15 4 27 School Administration 8 2 25 Teachers 38 5 13 Parent representatives 16 2 13 Support Staff 30 3 10 Student Council 26 4 12

4.3 Data Analysis Qualitative data was analyzed through content analysis. It involves observation and detailed description of objects, items or things that comprise the study. The method allowed the researcher to learn and understand the underlying issues as well as get actual facts on strategy implementation.

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129 4.4 Data Presentation After analyzing the data, the researcher presented the analyzed data in form of percentages, frequency tables, charts and graphs for ease of understanding and from which inferences and conclusions were drawn.

5. Findings and Discussions The objective of the study was to investigate the state of strategy implementation. The study established that Kahuho Uhuru High School values stakeholder involvement in the implementation process. There is consultation among different stakeholders before strategies are implemented at the school.

Table 2: Level of Practices Practice applied Frequency Percentage (%) Stakeholder Involvement 6 32 Training 2 10 Communication 4 22 Team participation 2 10 Motivation 2 10 Monitoring and Evaluation 3 16

Nevertheless, consultation of students is very limited and administration often communicates strategic directions to students without their prior input. Involvement of stakeholders creates a sense of ownership thus allowing smooth implementation of strategic plans. School administrators must ensure those stakeholders are fully engaged in the formulation and implementation of strategies.

Table 3: Involvement of stakeholders Level of Involvement Frequency Percentage (%) Partially Involved 10 53 Actively Involved 5 26 Not Involved 4 21

Communication and training practices influence strategy implementation at Kahuho Uhuru High School. Communication fosters timely feedback during implementation, helps in identification of setbacks during strategy implementation, and facilitates teamwork. The study established that training of staff in readiness for strategy implementation has not been adequate at Kahuho Uhuru High School. The staff underwent training on strategy implementation three times a year prior to the process. Monitoring and evaluation are considered a necessary practice in strategy implementation process at Kahuho Uhuru High School. Monitoring and evaluation enable the institution to identify gaps and problems in the implementation process thus allowing for timely corrective measures; ensures that management, staff and the students effectively carry out their mandates in the implementation process and; allows for innovation and adjustments during strategy implementation.

Performance measurement and appraisal is also a major practice in strategy implementation at Kahuho Uhuru High School. The indicators for performance measurement include: the students‘ results in internal assessment tests, students‘ performance in Kenya Certificate of

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130 Secondary Education (K.C.S.E.), students‘ population, the morale of the teachers, student discipline, school infrastructure, curriculum events and interpersonal relations. Performance appraisal constitutes incentives in form of annul trips, rewards to students and teachers during prize giving ceremonies, and parent recognition. Apart from the practices the following factors were identified to influence implementation of strategies at different levels.

Table 4: Influential factors Factor Frequency Percentage (%) Level of resources 7 36 Leadership style 3 16 Organization culture 3 16 Organization structure 3 16 Employee Loyalty 3 16 Total 19 100

The study shows that resources play the greatest role in the implementation of strategies at Kahuho Uhuru High School. This is supported by 36% of the respondents. Most of the respondents felt that the resources should be availed to make the work of implementation easier. The study established that strategy implementation process at Kahuho Uhuru High School is influenced by organizational culture and organizational structure. The organizational culture fosters ease of accepting change, sense of accountability, the spirit of teamwork, motivation and meeting strict deadlines for discharge of duties and responsibilities. On the other hand, organizational structure enables ease of communication by encouraging feedbacks on the implementation process and allows for decentralization of power and responsibilities among school administrators, staff and student.

The study further established that implementation process at Kahuho Uhuru High School is influenced by leadership style. The administrators apply a mixture of autocratic and democratic styles of leadership. The democratic leadership style allows for participation of all stakeholders in the implementation process, enables sharing of ideas in an upward and downward communication and cultivates sense of ownership of the strategic plans among the stakeholders (administrators, staff and students). On the other hand, the administrators apply autocratic leadership in enforcement of discipline, work ethics and adherence to strict deadlines. Table 5: Role of leadership in successful strategy implementation Frequency Always 9 Usually 8 Sometimes 2 Rarely 0 Never 0 Total 19

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131 9 8 7

6 Always 5 Usually 4 Sometim 3 es Rarely 2 Never 1 0 Role of leadership in successful strategy implementation

6. Conclusion The study concludes that strategy implementation at Kahuho Uhuru High School is characterized by successful application of practices in strategy implementation and shortfall in other practices. The practices that have been applied successfully include stakeholders‘ involvement, communication, monitoring and evaluation, performance measurement, and performance appraisal. The short falls is in training and motivation on achievement at different levels.

Level of resources is a major factor in the influence of strategy implementation. Other factors such as leadership style, organization culture and structure as well as employee loyalty are of equal importance when it comes to strategy implementation.

Kahuho Uhuru high School has achieved the following upon strategy implementation as stated in the strategic plan. Improved enrolment rate, high retention and completion rate, improved infrastructure, better community involvement and networking, reduced employee turnover and improved student results nationally.

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132 6.1 Management Implications The study recommends that the process of implementing strategic plans in school can be enhanced if all stakeholders are involved. Other than the internal stakeholders such as administrators, teachers, staff, students and parents, schools should engage outside stakeholders such as community members, non-governmental organizations and media outlets in strategy implementation. These are the personnel who can easily mobilize resources to support strategy implementation.

6.2 Suggestions for Further Research The study recommends further research to determine whether strategy implementation varies across national, county and district schools or across rural and urban schools in Kenya. A study should be carried out to find out why private schools remain attractive to many parents even after introduction of free secondary education in Kenya.

References [1] Barney, J. B. (2001). Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage. Journal of Management. Strategic Management Journal 18(7), 509-533 [2] Campo, C. (2003), Collaborative School Cultures: How Principals Make A Difference; School Organization 13(2), 119-125. [3] Chege K, (2011) Relevant, Effective, Appropriate and Transformative Leadership in Higher Education in the 21st Century. A Conference Paper Presented at the 1st KIM Conference on Management: A Journal of The KIM School of Management. ISSN 2070-4730 55 [4] Chege, K (2009) Relevant, Effective, Appropriate and Transformative Leadership in Higher. Education in the 21st Century. A Conference Paper Presented at the 1st KIM Conference on Management: A Journal of The KIM School of Management. ISSN 2070-4730 [5] Kotler, P. & Murphy, P. E. (1981). Strategic Planning for Higher Education. The Journal of Higher Education 52(5), 470-489. [6] Lewa M, Mutuku S & Mutuku M. (2009) Strategic Planning in the Higher Education Sector of Kenya: Case study of Public Universities in Kenya: A Conference Paper Presented at the 1st KIM Conference on Management: A Journal of The KIM School of Management.ISSN 2070-4730 [7] Ministry of Education (2008). Development of Education; National Report of Kenya Nairobi: Ministry of Education. 63-112 57 [8] Mintzberg. H. (2010) Patterns in Strategy Formation. Management Science. Journal of Management. 17-26 [9] Wernerfelt, B. (1984). A Resource-Based View of The Firm. Strategic Management Journal 5(2), 171-181.

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133 Influence of Service Convenience on Customer Loyalty in Commercial Banks: A Case Study of Equity Bank, Kirinyaga County, Kenya By: Kathure F1, Kahuthu, J. G.2 and Kuria, P.3

1. Gretsa University – Email: [email protected]: Phone: +254733396535 2. Gretsa University – Email: [email protected]:Phone: +254715567175 3. Gretsa University– Email: [email protected]:Phone: +254722888696

Abstract Although previous studies have attempted to explain the reasons customer remains loyal to a product, service or organization as a whole, little is known in Kenya about the influence of Service Convenience on customer loyalty in commercial banks. Even so, in Kirinyaga County, Kenya. Thus, the purpose of this study is to examine the influence of service convenience on customer loyalty in commercial banks using Equity bank as a case study in Kirinyaga County. In particular, the study sought to establish the influence of service convenience using Service Convenience model (SERVCON) dimensions (that is: decision convenience, access convenience, transaction convenience, benefit convenience, and post-benefit convenience) on customer loyalty. A descriptive cross-sectional study of 50 retail banking customers through researcher administered questionnaires was conducted. The population of the study was all retail banking customers of all branches of Equity bank in Kirinyaga County, Kenya, who frequently visit bank premises for transactions, and have accounts in the bank. In addition, the study used purposive sampling technique to select all Equity bank branches that constituted the sampling frame. Moreover, simple random sampling was used to select the study participants. All variables were measured using adapted and modified constructs from previous researches. Questionnaires were pretested in a different commercial bank to assess their usability to the study. Researcher administering method was used to collect the filled questionnaires. Content validity was used to assess the validity of the questionnaire. Reliability of the constructs was examined using Cronbach‘s Alpha coefficient technique. Descriptive statistics (means, %s, and standard deviations) and inferential statistics (correlation analysis) were used to analyze quantitative data. Correlation analysis was used to test the study hypotheses in line with the study objectives. The researcher obtained permission approvals from respective managers before data collection. The study results revealed that service convenience has a positive impact to customer loyalty. Specifically, transaction convenience was found to have a strong positive correlation with customer loyalty when compared with decision, access, benefit, and post-benefit conveniences. The study recommends that bank managers to emphasize on strategies that are geared towards ensuring customers take the minimum time possible during service purchase and delivery.

Keywords: Customer loyalty, commercial banks, Kirinyaga County, Service Convenience 1. Introduction

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134 The banking sector at large is categorized under the service sector whose aim is to offer services and products that are based on finances. Before economic liberalization, public sector banks enjoyed a protected market (Kaura, 2013). In the current era, global organizations (including commercial banks) have to deal with multiple challenges in an environment in which high competition, rapid changes in technology, and the dynamic choices of customers are of great importance (Zahra, Ahmad, & Ismail, 2016). Many commercial banks have been facing severe completion and major customers‘ switch off. Commercial banks are not only competing among each other; but also, with non-banks and other financial institutions. Competition has even been intensified due to the nature of the products and services provided by commercial banks. Most products and services are easily duplicated and even identical, and therefore, commercial banks can differentiate themselves on the basis of price and quality (Magasi, 2016). There has been increased low levels of customer retention which has not been profitable for both commercial banks and customers. In the light of this statement, Manickavasakam (2012) has argued that customer loyalty is potentially an effective tool that commercial banks can use to gain a strategic advantage and service in today‘s ever-increasing banking competitive environment. Intense competition and ever- increasing consumer demands have led commercial banks to identify drivers of customer loyalty (Lenka, Suar, & Mohapatra, 2009). The key to success in the changed environment is a bank‘s ability to reach the customer at his or her doorstep and provide products and services in a tailored way (Bedi, 2010). Extensive understanding of marketing concepts is needed in the banking sector to distinguish banks from their competitors and to provide their customers with more convenient banking services to satisfy them (Kaura, 2013). Customers are opting for those commercial banks that are providing better service and convenience. 1.2 Statement of Research Problem Service environment is characterized by intense competition as organizations rival each other for customers. This underlines the significance of customer loyalty as it is vital for a firm‘s survival and growth. Building a loyal customer base has not only become a major marketing goal, but it is also an important basis for developing a sustainable competitive advantage (Mandhachitara & Poolthong, 2012). Understanding loyalty is therefore considered to be a key element in delivering long-term corporate profitability, as profits can be increased over the lifetime of a customer through his/her retention (Oberseder, Schlegelmilch, & Murphy, 2013). Switching off customers has been a challenge among commercial banks. Customers will continue to defect from one bank to another and this has the cost implication not only to the customer but also the bank itself (Caroline & Elizabeth, 2014). In this vein, the inability of commercial banks to retain customers highlights the factors that result in customer defection and affecting the banks‘ ability to increase future growth of business.

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135 Several researchers have tested many constructs thought to be determinants of customer loyalty such as service quality (Zaithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1996), customer satisfaction (Chandrashekaran, Rotte, Tax, & Grewal, 2007), customer trust and commitment (Garbarino & Johnson, 1999). These constructs influence customer repurchase decisions to varying degrees depending on the industry studies. This means, the determinants of one industry cannot be generalized in other industries. While this is the case, research assessing the influence of service convenience on customer loyalty in commercial banks is scanty in Kenya, and more so in Kirinyaga County.

1.3 Study Objectives The generally objective of this study was to establish the effects of service convenience on customer loyalty in commercial banks in Kirinyaga County, Kenya. The Specific Objectives were to determine the effect of decision convenience on customer loyalty, establish the effect of access convenience on customer loyalty, investigate the effect of transaction convenience on customer loyalty, to assess the effect of benefit convenience on customer loyalty, to examine the relationship between post-benefit conveniences on customer loyalty. 2.1 Literature Review This study was anchored on SERVCON model. This model was developed by Seiders et al. (2007) and empirically validated service convenience construct in the context of retail chain with approximately 100 stores situated in all major geographic regions of the United States of America. This model has five dimensions of service convenience: decision convenience, access convenience, transaction convenience, benefit convenience, and post-benefit convenience. SERVCON model was used in the study to establish the relationships between its dimensions and customer loyalty.

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136 2.2 Study Conceptual Model Independent Variables Dependent Variable

SERVICE CONVINIENCE

H01 Decision convenience

Access convenience H02 Customer H Transaction 03 Loyalty convenience H Benefit convenience 04

Post-benefit H05 convenience

3. Research Methodology 3.1 Research Design The study used descriptive cross-sectional survey design in order to describe the relationships between independent variables (SERVCON model dimensions) and dependent variable (customer loyalty). Self-administered questionnaires were used to collect quantitative data. The study targeted all Equity bank branches in Kirinyaga County. Retail bank customers were the study participants and were considered to have the information regarding the study given the nature of its topic. Univariate descriptive statistics and bivariate associations (inferential statistics) were used in order to address the research hypotheses. Descriptive statistics including the mean, and standard deviations were used in order to clarify and describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation. Pearson correlation analysis was used to analyze the relationship between the study variables. The coefficient (r) was used to indicate the strength of the relationship between the variables of the study. The squared correlation coefficients were used in order to show the amount of variation in one variable that is explained by the other

4. Findings and Discussions

4.1 Reliability Analysis To establish the internal consistency of decision convenience, access convenience, benefit convenience, transaction convenience, post-benefit convenience and customer loyalty constructs, the Cronbach‘s α coefficient for reliability was computed. The coefficient alpha exceeded the minimum standard of 0.70 (Nunnaly & Bernstein, 1994), which indicates that it provides a good estimate of internal consistency. Table 1 demonstrates the reliability analysis for the constructs that were used in the study.

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137 Table 1: Reliability Analysis Construct Number of Items Cronbach’s Alpha (α) Decision convenience 4 0.83 Access convenience 4 0.89 Benefit convenience 3 0.93 Transaction convenience 3 0.91 Post-benefit convenience 3 0.79 Customer Loyalty 5 0.94

4.2 Correlation Analysis Correlation analysis was used to assess the strength of association between the study variables and to test the hypotheses. The independent variable for the study was service convenience expressed in the form of decision, access, benefit, transaction and post- benefit conveniences. The dependent variable was customer loyalty.

4.2.1 Decision Convenience and Customer Loyalty

In order to achieve objective one of the study, a null hypothesis (H01) was set that there is no significant relationship between decision convenience and customer loyalty for Equity bank retail customers. The analysis demonstrated in Table 2 revealed a strong positive correlation between decision convenience and customer loyalty (r = 0.76, p < 0.05)

Table 2. Correlation between Decision Convenience and Customer Loyalty Decision Convenience Customer Loyalty Decision Convenience r 1 0.76* p-value 0.000

n 45 45 Customer Loyalty r 0.76* 1 p-value 0.000 n 45 45 *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Findings showed reveal that decision convenience has a positive impact on customer loyalty. On the basis of these findings H01 is rejected at the 0.05 significant level, indicating that decision convenience correlates positively with customer loyalty.

4.2.2 Access Convenience and Customer Loyalty In order to assess the relationship between access convenience and customer loyalty,

H02 was developed to address objective two of the study. The hypothesis stated that there is no relationship between access convenience and customer loyalty for Equity bank retail customers. Table 3 presents the results of correlation analysis between access convenience and customer loyalty.

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138 Table 3. Correlation between Access Convenience and Customer Loyalty Access Convenience Customer Loyalty Access Convenience r 1 0.55* p-value 0.000

n 45 45 Customer Loyalty r 0.55* 1 p-value 0.000 n 45 45 *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Empirical findings presented in Table 3 indicate that access convenience has positive impact on customer loyalty (r = 0.55, p < 0.05). The results are significant at 5% level and thus, H02 is rejected.

4.2.3 Transaction Convenience and Customer Loyalty In order to establish the relationship between transaction convenience and customer loyalty, H03 was developed to address objective four of the study. The hypothesis stated that there is no relationship between transaction convenience and customer loyalty for Equity bank retail customers. Table 4 demonstrates the results of correlation analysis between transaction convenience and customer loyalty.

Table 4: Correlation between Transaction Convenience and Customer Loyalty Transaction Convenience Customer Loyalty Transaction r 1 0.85* Convenience p-value 0.000

n 45 45 Customer Loyalty r 0.85* 1 p-value 0.000 n 45 45 *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). As shown in Table 4, transaction convenience has a positive impact on customer loyalty (r = 0.85, p < 0.05). The results are significant at 5% level and thus, H04 is rejected. 4.2.4 Benefit Convenience and Customer Loyalty In order to examine the relationship between benefit convenience and customer loyalty, H04 was developed to address objective three of the study. The hypothesis stated that there is no relationship between benefit convenience and customer loyalty for Equity bank retail customers. Table 4 exhibits the results of correlation analysis between benefit convenience and customer loyalty.

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139 Table 4. Correlation between Benefit Convenience and Customer Loyalty Benefit Convenience Customer Loyalty Benefit Convenience r 1 0.64* p-value 0.000

n 45 45 Customer Loyalty r 0.64* 1 p-value 0.000 n 45 45 *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Results show that benefit convenience has a positive influence on customer loyalty (r = 0.64, p < 0.05). The results are significant at 5% level and thus, H03 is rejected. 4.2.5 Post-benefit Convenience and Customer Loyalty In order to establish the relationship between post-benefit convenience and customer loyalty, H05 was developed to address objective five of the study. The hypothesis stated that there is no relationship between post-benefit convenience and customer loyalty for Equity bank retail customers. Table 6 shows the results of correlation analysis between post-benefit convenience and customer loyalty.

Table 6. Correlation between Post-benefit Convenience and Customer Loyalty Post-benefit Convenience Customer Loyalty Post-benefit r 1 0.72* Convenience p-value 0.000

n 45 45 Customer Loyalty r 0.72* 1 p-value 0.000 n 45 45 *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). As indicated, post-benefit convenience has a positive impact on customer loyalty (r = 0.72, p < 0.05). The results are significant at 5% level and thus, H05 is rejected.

4. Findings and Discussions Findings revealed that decision convenience, access convenience, benefit convenience, transaction convenience, and post-benefit convenience impacts customer loyalty positively. Transaction convenience was most profoundly found to influence customer loyalty compared with other dimensions of service convenience. Previous research studies found that transaction convenience has a significant impact on customer loyalty (Aagja et al., 2011; Collwell et al., 2008). The results of this study confirm these findings. Supporting earlier findings, the study results showed that decision convenience increased customer loyalty (Aagja et al., 2011). Access convenience was equally found to increase customer loyalty. When customers have access convenience, they can contact the service provider easily and it helps in increasing their satisfaction, hence loyalty. Post-benefit convenience shows a positive impact on customer

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140 satisfaction (Aagja et al., 2011; Colwell et al., 2008). The study confirmed these notions. Banking services are provided to customers continuously, and in the process, customers may encounter any of the problems related to banking services. How the banks handle these problems have an impact on customer loyalty. According to Zeithaml and Bitner (2000), unresolved or unreported complaints generally result in decreased repurchase behavior. In the banking sector, services are given to intangible assets; therefore, more precaution is required while delivering the services. As services are being given to customers continuously, negative encounters are unavoidable. However, dealing with this negative encounter in an effective way helps in satisfying customers and retaining them. Aagja et al. (2011) found that transaction convenience has a significant impact on customer loyalty for retail mall customers in India. The study confirmed these notions. For the banking sector, transaction convenience plays an important role in customer loyalty. When customers find that they can complete their service purchase easily and quickly with a particular bank, they are found to be satisfied and hence increases chances of becoming loyal. Moreover, a well-managed queue contributes to customer satisfaction. According to Lenka et al. (2009), customers in banks prefer those services that have well-managed queues. The importance of waiting lines are given by Maister (1985). According to Maister, unoccupied time feels longer than occupied time, preprocess waits feel longer than in-process waits, anxiety makes waits feel longer, uncertain waits seem longer than certain waits, unexplained waits seem longer than explained waits, and unfair waits seem longer than equitable waits.

5.1 Conclusions Based on the aforementioned research findings, the following conclusions can be made. First, service convenience is a critical success factor in retail banking. Second, transaction convenience is the most important factor towards customer loyalty. That is, if customers find it easy to complete their service purchase with this bank and are able to complete the purchase of their service quickly, they are more likely to become satisfied. Satisfied customers become loyal to the bank. Indeed, if customers feel they put little effort to deal with the bank during a service purchase, the more they will become loyal to the bank and its services. Last but not the least, decision, access, benefit, transaction, and post-benefit conveniences have significant positive correlation with customer loyalty. From the research findings, it is likely that, if a bank offers all these conveniences to customers when they are buying its products and services, customers are more likely to be satisfied and eventually will become loyal. Loyal customers stay with the bank even in leaner times and are free to advice on any improvements whenever possible. They are also a good avenue for word of mouth advertising.

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141 References [1] Aagja, J., Mammen, T., & Saraswat, A. (2011). Validating service convenience scale and profiling customers: A study in the Indian retail context. Vikalpa, 36(4), 25–49. [2] Bedi, M. (2010). An integrated framework for service quality, customer satisfaction and behavioral responses in Indian banking industry: A comparison of public and private sector banks. Journal of Services Research, 10(1), 157–172. [3] Berry, L., Seiders, K., & Grewal, D. (2002). Understanding service convenience. Journal of Marketing, 66(3), 1–17. [4] Caroline, M., & Elizabeth, M. (2014). Determinants of Customer Retention in Commercial Banks in Tanzania. Journal of Finance and Bank Management, 2(1), 09–30. [5] Chandrashekaran, M., Rotte, M., Tax, S., & Grewal, R. (2007). Satisfaction strength and customer loyalty. Journal of Marketing Research, 44(1), 153– 155. [6] Colwell, S., Aung, M., Kanetkar, V., & Holden, A. (2008). Toward a measure of service convenience: Multiple-item scale development and empirical test. Journal of Services Marketing, 22(2), 160–169. [7] Garbarino, E., & Johnson, M. (1999). The different roles of satisfaction, trust and commitment in customer relationships. Journal of Marketing, 63(2), 70– 87. [8] Hunt, S., Arnett, D., & Madhavaram, S. (2006). The explanatory foundations of relationship marketing theory. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 21(2), 72–87. [9] Kaura, V. (2013). Antecedents of customer satisfaction: a study of Indian public and private sector banks. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 31(3), 167–186. [10] Kothari, C. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd Ed.). New Delhi: New Age International. [11] Lenka, U., Suar, D., & Mohapatra, P. (2009). Service quality, customer satisfaction, and customer loyalty in Indian commercial banks. Journal of Entrepreneurship, 18(1), 47–64. [12] Mandhachitara, R., & Poolthong, Y. (2012). A model of customer loyalty and corporate social responsibility. Journal of Services Marketing, 25(2), 122–133. [13] Manickavasakam, T. (2012). A Study of Banking Customer Retention through Customer Satisfaction in Dharmapuri. Namex International Journal of Management Research, 2(2), 8–15. [14] Oberseder, M., Schlegelmilch, B., & Murphy, P. (2013). CSR practices and consumer perceptions. Journal of Business Research, 66(10), 1839–1851.

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142 [15] Seiders, K., Berry, L., & Gresham, L. (2000). Attention retailers: How convenient is your convenience strategy? Sloan Management Review, 49(3), 79–90. [16] Seiders, K., Voss, G., Godfrey, A., & Grewal, D. (2007). SERVCON: Developing and validation of a multidimensional service convenience scale. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 35(1), 144–156. [17] Zahra, M., Ahmad, R., & Ismail, H. (2016). Predictors of customer loyalty in the Pakistani banking industry: a moderated-mediation study. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 34(3), 411–430.

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143 Sub-Theme 3: Innovations in Education, Humanities and Social Sciences for Community Sustainable CLUSTER Development 3 & Sub-Theme 4: Innovations in Preventive Health Care for Community Sustainable development

Moderators: 1. Dr. Mary Mugwe, Mount Kenya University 2. Prof. Wabuke Bibi, Gretsa University Rapporteurs: 1. Peter Gakwa, Gretsa University 2. Alex Oduli, Gretsa University

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144 Staphyloccoccal Enterotoxins in Boiled Milk: Determination of Health Risk in Informally Marketed Milk in Kenya. By: W. Bibi Gretsa University - Email: [email protected]: Phone: +254 722 68 77 95 Abstract A study was conducted to determine the fate of Staphylococcus aureus and its enterotoxin in milk. The milk was spiked with a known inoculum of S. aureus and handled under temperature and duration conditions which simulated the practice of itinerant milk traders (hawkers), and household conditions by consumers. The survival of the organism was monitored by surface plate count and its toxin by an ELISA technique. Raw milk spiked with 4.5x105cfu/ml increased 10-fold to 42x105 cfu/ml and to 25x105 cfu/ml at the end of 6h when held at a mean temperature of 37oC and 22oC respectively. The household boiling was determined to have a lethal effect equivalent to 3800x the effect of conventional batch pasteurization. After boiling this milk under simulated household conditions, no viable cells of S. aureus could be isolated. However, using the TECRAR immunoassay kit (sensitivity 1ng/ml), the milk was positive for the enterotoxin. It is concluded that conventional household boiling renders milk free of S. aureus. However, milk initially heavily contaminated with the organism would contain toxin and therefore be a potential health hazard, if it were to be consumed after 6hr, regardless of whether it was boiled or not. Key words: Staphylococcal enterotoxin, food safety, milk pasteurization, milk boiling, 1. Introduction.

Due to historical reasons, the structure of the dairy industry in Kenya, until independence and up to about 1984, was structured to favour large scale farmers. The production, marketing and processing infrastructure, as well as the policy and legal environment, were all designed to benefit basically the large-scale producer and processor. The traffic of milk and milk products in the country was closely regulated by statutory agents. This model impacted negatively on the small-scale farmer. For one, it created the ―milk hawker‖. The hawker produced or collected small quantities of milk and sold it directly in its raw state to household or small commercial consumers. This informal trafficking of milk was branded illegal, and was a constant source of conflict between the regulatory agents and the farmers and petty traders, but was understandably not supported by the ―formal‖ i.e. large-scale producers and processors. Secondly, these strictures stifled growth in the dairy industry and for a long time the contribution of the small-scale producer and trader was marginal. But the practice did not entirely eliminate hawking. In response to government policy to liberalize the market place from about 1984, the informal milk marketing sector took on an increasingly important place in the economy. Competition with the formal sector increased, until the sector became dominant. In fact, changes in societal economic realities and eating habits favoured it until, by the early 2000s, it was realized that the

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145 informal marketing of milk was absorbing more than 86% of the milk produced in the country, (Waruhiu, 2007). In fact, these authors produced data which showed that informal milk trade was far more important to the economy and therefore health of the country, than that via the formal sector. It could therefore no longer be ignored, but in fact needed to be encouraged as a matter of policy (Markus and Silverman, 1970). The scenario of the interplay between commodity prices, cultural influences and skewed policy structures and technology has been reported to be common among developing countries with a similar history, (Nduma et al., 2007), e.g. Uganda, Rwanda and Tanzania (Jay, 1978) as well as Ethiopia (Gilbert, 1972; ICMSF, 1978).

Among the reasons advanced to discourage the informal trafficking of raw milk by hawkers was alleged concerns for consumer safety. Several studies attempted to show that such milk was particularly prone to contamination with dangerous food borne microorganisms. The lobby groups holding this view argued that the common habit by consumers, who boil milk routinely, did not remove the health hazards, apart from reducing the nutritional value of the milk. A scientific article in the Kenya Veterinary Journal, which had earlier reported that calves suffered ill-health after being fed on stale milk, was apparently misinterpreted by some to imply that milk was uniquely prone to transmission of staphylococcal food intoxication. Some controversy arose as to whether consuming milk which had been boiled, either directly or mixed with tea as is common practice exposed the consumer to staphylococcal health hazard. The efficacy of boiling milk, as opposed to conventional pasteurization, was questioned by some, (Markus and Silverman, 1970).

It is well established (ILRI 2008, Kaitibie et al., 2008), that staphylococcal toxin is heat stable. Conventional pasteurization would not inactivate it. However, it has not been determined whether boiling milk would be effective. The boiling process, as herein understood, has not been scientifically compared to pasteurization. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the fate of staphylococcal toxin in milk under conditions of handling and usage typical of the majority of Kenyan consumers. The findings are expected to scientifically document the value or otherwise of this practice to consumers of over 90% of the amount of milk produced in Kenya. The results should also provide a scientific basis for contemplated policy changes to accommodate this predominant food processing habit in national regulations.

2. Research Methodology

2.1 Milk harvesting, handling and processing The milk was collected from the farm of a small-scale farmer in Imenti Central in Meru County. Raw milk was harvested at 6.00 am from five healthy cows. The milk was obtained by hand milking into a 10-l milk grade aluminium bucket. The milk was pooled and a 2-l sample collected into a clean plastic bottle and capped. It was transported at ambient temperature to the laboratory and held in a room at the same temperature until examined. The milk was then subjected to two regimes of heat

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146 treatment: a 1-l portion was batch pasteurized in a domestic aluminium saucepan in an improvised water bath. The temperature was monitored until it reached 62.50C and maintained at this level for 30 min. The water bath was replaced with running cold water and the milk stirred until it cooled to 30oC. The other 1-l portion of milk was poured into a similar domestic aluminium sauce pan and heated over a direct flame until the milk boiled over by foaming. The saucepan was removed and left on a table to cool to 30oC at ambient temperature. The boiling temperature and the cooling times were recorded. This is a simulation of the common household treatment of milk.

2.2 Determination of Staphylococcus aureus in boiled milk A culture of a pure strain of S. aureus ATCC 14990 was obtained from the collection of the Institute of Food Science and Technology (ETH) Zurich, Switzerland. It was maintained in the laboratory on plates of Tryptone soya agar (TSA, OXOID). When required for use, 6 (six) colonies were picked by a wire loop and emulsified in 0.5 ml of sterile skim milk to form an inoculum. This inoculum was added to 1000 ml of the freshly harvested raw milk in a 5-l domestic aluminium sauce pan. The milk was gently but thoroughly stirred to ensure uniform dispersion of the culture. A 1-ml sample was withdrawn and the initial count of the S. aureus in the milk, (N0) determined on Baird Parker medium (OXOID) by the surface plating technique (17). The sample was divided into two 500 ml portions. One was left on the table at room temperature (220C) and the other in an incubator (370C), for 6 hr. This simulated the conditions under which milk is handled by the hawkers during distribution to customers. The count of S. aureus was determined at the end of the 6-hr. period using the same procedure, (N622, N637). The sauce pan was then put on a direct flame and the milk boiled until it foamed over. The boiling temperature was recorded. The milk was then allowed to cool to room temperature. The count of S. aureus in the boiled milk was again determined. Parallel series using sterile skim milk samples were treated in the same manner. Un-inoculated raw milk served as a control.

2.3 Detection of enterotoxin in the milk serum At the end of the 6 hr. all samples of milk were acidified to pH 4.3 by drop wise addition of 0.1n Hcl to precipitate the milk proteins. The serum was separated by centrifuging (3500 rpm, 10 min.) using clean standard glass centrifuge vials. The serum was used to detect the presence of staphylococcal enterotoxin. The detection was done using the TECRAR SET ID VIA system (TECRA International Pty, Australia). It is an Enzyme- linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), which can specifically identify toxins A, B, C, D and E to a sensitivity of 1 ng/ml for each toxin in a so-called ―sandwich‖ configuration. It consists of a set of wells to whose surface high affinity capture antibodies have been adsorbed. SET antigens in the sample are captured by these antibodies to form a ―sandwich‖. The rest of the materials in the sample are washed away and an enzyme labelled conjugate specific to SET added to complete the sandwich. The presence of SET is indicated when the substrate is converted to a green colour in a positive case. This kit was used according to the manufacturer‘s instructions.

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147 3. Findings and Discussions 3.1 Heat treatment The temperature-time profile for pasteurization and boiling procedures is presented in Fig. 1. The boiling point of milk at the site of experiment was 960C, and it took on average 5 min. for the 500 ml milk to boil. The unassisted cooling of boiled milk at room temperature proceeds in keeping with the Arrhenius dynamics, and therefore required at least 50 min. to attain a temperature just below 620C.The area under this curve is cumulatively lethal to microorganisms. The lethal effect of the conventional batch pasteurization (630C/30 min.) is taken as the minimum safe treatment as represented by the pasteurization line. The curve for milk boiling extends from onset of the 62.50C to the point when the milk cools to just below 62oC, and represents the total lethal effect of boiling.

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 0 12 24 36 48

Fig. 1. Heat treatment profile

The area under the curve was determined by a mathematical model; in which 11 possible models, including linear, quadratic, cubic, compound, growth and exponential models were superimposed on the curve to determine which best fitted the observed data. The cubic model (Fig. 2) was shown to represent the best fit.

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148

Fig. 2. Area under boiling curve. Axes: x -Time in min; y- Temperature in 0C

The resultant area was calculated to be 3,800 square units. If the pasteurization curve is considered equivalent to one square unit, boiling is thus 3800 times as severe as the conventional batch pasteurization of milk.

3.2 Survival of Staphylococcus aureus in boiled milk The number of S. aureus which survived the various treatments of milk is shown in Table 1. The observations are means of two determinations in each case. The samples of raw and sterile milk were spiked initially (N0) with S. aureus inocula at the levels of 4.5 x 105 cfu/ml and 6x 105 cfu/ml, respectively. This increased ten-fold to 42 x 105cfu/ml when held at 370C. Samples held at room temperature (220C), increased to

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149 21 x 105 cfu/ml. Corresponding counts for sterile milk are 247 x 105 cfu/ml and 130 x 105cfu/ml respectively. No growth was observed in raw milk which was inoculated and immediately boiled. Un-inoculated raw milk showed negligible natural contamination and growth of the organism.

Table 1: Survival of S. aureus in milk and enterotoxin production.

N622 N637 Enterotoxin Enterotoxin 0 0 Sample Treatment N0 cfu/ml cfu/ml 22 C 37 C cfu/ml

Control Un inoculated 0.3 x 101 0.4 x102 0.7 x 102 -ve -ve

Inoculated, Raw boiled 0.3 x101 ng* ng -ve -ve

Inoculated, Raw boiled 4.5 x105 21 x105 42 x105 +ve +ve

Sterile, Inoculated 6 x 105 130 x105 247 x 105 +ve +ve

*ng = no growth detected; -ve =: negative: enterotoxin not detected, +ve= positive: enterotoxin detected 3.3 Determination of staphylococcal enterotoxin Staphylococcal enterotoxin antigens (A, B, C, D or E) in the sample are indicated by change in colour of the test serum to deep or light green, as shown in Fig. 3 below. None of the samples of untreated (controls) raw milk tested positive for any of the staphylococcal enterotoxins. However, enterotoxin was detected in all samples which were spiked with S. aureus and incubated for 6h regardless of temperature of incubation (Table 1.).

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150

Fig. 3. Positive reaction of enterotoxin in the TECRAR kit

4. Conclusion

Milk handled by informal small scale traders (hawkers) is normally obtained from multiple sources, pooled and dispensed into a variety of (commonly) plastic containers for transportation to widely dispersed customers. Depending on the level of awareness of the producers and/or traders about hygiene measures, the milk is exposed to contamination to different levels. The samples used in this study originated from a single source, and was of relatively good quality, with an initial contamination of 100 cfu of S. aureus/ml. Although this population increased 100-fold during incubation at 220C and 370C, this end density was apparently not sufficient to elaborate enterotoxin. Indeed, as demonstrated in a nationwide study, (Markus and Silverman, 1970) in fact the conclusion is that on the average the quality of raw milk hawked is not signigficanly inferior to the commercially pasteurized product. In recent years, sustained education has significantly enhanced awareness about hygiene amongst producers, traders and consumers.

It is well known that Staphylococcus aureus can grow and multiply exponentially over a temperature range of 6.70C to 45.50C, (Angelotti, et al. 1961), and that toxin secretion begins shortly after the cell multiplication (Omore, 2004). However, a critical population of over 106cfu/ml is necessary to trigger toxin secretion (Hayami and Herdt, 1977). Even so, the quantity of toxin must exceed 1 µg before the food can cause illness, (Cochrane, 1958). These classical reports among numerous others indicate that results of the current study were favourable for secretion of enterotoxin in the milk. The immunoassay kit employed had a sensitivity of 1 µg, and although the actual concentration of toxin was not determined, it can be concluded that the milk was

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151 potentially hazardous. The duration and temperatures of exposure vary greatly. The conditions used in this study (220C – 370C for 6 h) are a realistic simulation of usage, beyond which the milk would go sauer, and be unsuitable for traditional use in tea or other hot beverage.

However, where there is possibility of contamination of the milk with S. aureus, the conditions under which milk is trafficked would pose a health hazard. Our findings indicate that boiling milk does indeed eliminate practically all viable cells of S. aureus. Boiling is without doubt microbiologically much more effective than commercial pasteurization of milk. In this study, the raw milk was spiked with about 106cfu/ml, which is a large but not unrealistic inoculum of S. aureus. Under the conditions of handling herein described, such a product would accumulate enterotoxin. Boiling would not eliminate this hazard.

The positive control using sterile milk confirmed the well documented phenomenon of the effect of removal of competing microflora on the proliferation of S. aureus. At 370C, growth increased from 0.6 x 106 cfu/ml to 24.7 x 106 cfu/ml, a 40-fold increase in the 6h. Clearly, contaminating UHT milk which is available in the market would be potentially much more hazardous than raw milk.

This study has provided evidence that raw milk handled by informal milk traders and eventually boiled by users before consumption would not pose a staphylococcal health hazard unless it was massively contaminated at some stage during the harvesting and subsequent handling. Education and awareness campaigns should therefore focus on eliminating contamination. There would appear to be no sufficient scientific basis for legislative or trade restrictions against this practice.

5. Acknowledgements

Titus Mutuiri and Antony Wekesa assisted in the enumeration of Staphylococcus aureus in the milk samples and detection of enterotoxin. Dr. Oleche of mathematically determined the area under the curve for the boiling process.

References [1] Angelotti, R., Foter, M.J., and Lewis, K.H. Angelotti, et al. (1961). Time- temperature effects on salmonellae and staphylococci in foods. Am. J. Public Health 51:76 [2] Bergdoll, M.S. (1970). Enterotoxins. In Microbial toxins. Vol III, Bacterial protein toxins, ed. T.C. Montie, S. Kadis, and S.J. Ajl. New Yolk and London: Academic Press. [3] Cochrane, Williard W. (1958). Farm Prices: Myth and Reality. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press [4] Eleni Gabre-Madhin, Christopher Barret, and Paul Dorosh, (2002). Technological change and Price effects in Agriculture. Conceptual and

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152 Comparative Perspective. Proceedings of a Policy Forum Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. [5] Gilbert, R.J., Wieneke, A.A., Lanser, J., and Simkovicova, M. (1972). Serological detection of enterotoxin in foods implicated in staphylococcal food poisoning. J. Hyg. 70:755 [6] Hayami, Fujiro and Robert W. Herdt, (1977): Market price effect on technological change on income distribution in semi-subsistence agriculture. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 59 (2) 245-256; [7] ICMSF: Microorganisms in Foods 1: Their significance and methods of enumeration. 2nd Edition, University of Toronto Press, 1978 [8] Jay, J.M., Modern Food Microbiology, 2nd Edition, D. Van Nostrand Coy, 1978, [9] Kaitibie, S., Omore, A., Rich, K., Salanya, B., Hooton, N., Mwero, D., and Patti Kristjanson (2008). Policy Change in Dairy marketing in Kenya: economic impact and pathways to influence from research, ILRI: [10] Markus, Z.H., and Silverman, G.J. (1970). Factors affecting the secretion of staphylococcal enterotoxin A. Appl. Microbiol., 20:492 [11] Agricultural Technology and Information Response Initiative (ATIRI) in Kenya: Influence of Farmer-Group characteristics on Household Adoption of Demand-Led Improved Agricultural Technologies. Tropentag, Witzenhausen, Omore, A. Why Hawked Milk can save Your Baby – Urban Agriculture Notes, City Farmer, Canada‘s Office of Urban Agriculture. [12] Omore, A., Staal, S. and T. Randolf, (2004). Overcoming Barriers to Informal Milk Trade in Kenya - EGDI and UNU-WIDER Conference, Helsinki, Finland [13] Waruhiu, (2007). JKUAT Scientific, Technological and Industrialization Conference, Nairobi.

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153 Factors Enhancing Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation Among the People of Mosocho Division, Kisii County, Kenya By: Ongeri S. N.

1: Gretsa University - Email: [email protected]

Abstract Female Genital mutilation among the Abagusii people of western Kenya is a culture that has resisted change for a long time. The practice is deeply rooted such that its condemnation has only come from the outside with very few people from the community daring to castigate it. The study was guided by four specific objectives: To find out the justification for the persistence of FGM among the Kisii community; To establish the efforts towards eliminating the practice of FGM among the Kisii; To establish the level of knowledge on health effects of the practice and To identify key knowledge gaps that may require research to improve understanding of the practice. A descriptive survey research design was adopted employing qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection. The study used simple random sampling techniques to choose willing participants. The study revealed that 99% of the female respondents involved in the study had undergone FGM, 97% confirmed that they will circumcise their daughters and 98% of the married respondents said all their daughters were circumcised. The persistence of FGM was attributed to cultural beliefs enhanced through socialization within the community that reinforces the stereotypes against uncircumcised ladies. The study recommended for emphasis on awareness on the dangers associated with FGM which should be integrated into the education of the girl child and also the boys and young men who are the future husbands and fathers of girls likely to be cut; Effective partnership between stakeholders and beneficiaries in the design, implementation and evaluation of programs in order to develop culture – specific approaches that are acceptable. The study concluded that FGM/C is a belief which cannot stand against reason, particularly in the contemporary unpredictable and competitive world in which massive intellectual revolutions is taking place and survival calls only for the fittest. Though there are fears based on superstitions and traditions, they have no effect on human anatomy and physiology and can no longer dictate procreation and productively.

Keywords: Female Genital Mutilation

1. Introduction

Circumcision is sacred and a mystery to many of the Abagusii people including the oldest persons and the circumcisers alike. Nobody remembers how and when it started but all agree that the practice was handed over by ‗Chisokoro‘ (Ancestors). They also agree that to be a circumciser in Gusii, one had to have a call by the ancestral spirits. Strange happenings occurred in such people's normal life. Fortune tellers were then to be contracted who revealed that such a person was required to perform circumcision in the community. Rituals and sacrifice were done and later a knife ordered from a famous

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154 blacksmith. It is believed that circumcision for both boys and girls among the Abagusii is a tradition that was carried on from ‗Misiri‘ where they originated as indicated in William Robert Ochieng‘s Book- A pre – colonial History of the Gusii of Western Kenya.

WHO estimates that about 130 million women throughout the world have undergone FGM/C and that a further 2 million girls are at risk annually. FGM/C is practiced primarily in 28 countries of sub-Saharan Africa with National prevalence rates ranging from 5% in the DRC to 98% in Somalia. The practice is also found in small groups in Asia and the Middle East and among migrant communities in Europe, Australia, Canada, Canada and USA(UNICEF,1998).

The practice has been condemned internationally and within Kenya as a violation of girls and women rights. In 1979, WHO identified FGM/C as a serious threat to women especially in the sub-Saharan Africa region. By 1982 WHO had issued a statement on FGM/C stating is commitment to support government efforts aimed at eradicating the practice

The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) and the 4th world conference on women in 1995 gave further impetus to international campaigns against FGM/C. In April 1997, WHO, UNICEF and UNFPA issued a joint statement of their commitment to supporting National organizations, Governments and communities to support abandonment of FGM/C. Within Kenya the ministry of Gender, sports, culture and social services (MGSCSS) has been mandated to be the co- coordinating body, or National focal point for all ministries within the government as well as NGOs and Donors working towards abandonment of FGM/C in Kenya

2. Literature Review Out of the 50 countries in Africa 27 of them practice FGM/C thus 54%. Countries with prevalence of less than 50% include Uganda, Zaire, Tanzania, Senegal, Niger, Cameroon, Mauritania and Ghana. Countries with prevalence of 50% include Kenya, Togo, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, CAR and Benin. Countries with prevalence of between 51% and 70% in ascending order include Chad, cote d‘ ivoire, Liberia, Nigeria and Burkina Faso. Countries with the highest prevalence of between 71% and 81% include Egypt, Gambia, Mali, Sudan, Sierra Leone, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia and Djibouti. In some countries outside Africa continent as Australia, female circumcision has come with immigrants who have fled their countries of origin as a result of war, famine or political turmoil. In the Middle East countries, only Yemen is reported to have some clitoridectomy. In India a small population of less than half a million practice it that is believed to have been borrowed from Egyptian Muslims. Among the Abagusii people of Kenya FGM/C is a culture that has resisted change since the entry of Christian missionaries into Gusiiland in the early 1900. The practice is deeply rooted such that condemnation of this practice has come from the outside with

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155 very few people from the community daring to castigate it despite the physical, social and psychological dangers implicated by medical researchers. Knowledge on FGM/C is basically limited to the awareness in the few areas in which research and interventions have been carried out. The factors that support FGM/C continuation or its resurgence in areas where it has previously almost died off are generally socio-cultural valued of identity, control of women sexuality, political, religious and financial gains by the circumciser (NPAG FGM JUNE, 1999 – 2019) The process demonstrates the power of traditional knowledge and legitimizes continuity in social orders as manhood and feminity are defined. The social solidarity that emerges when people share traditions makes even those who are in doubt, to do it without questioning (By Leight foot – KLEM pg 105) Education seems not to play any major role in FGM practice as Ndamobissi and Mboup et al,1995, reported that girls have little choice as their age and lack of resources make them depend on their parents for basic necessities of life.

Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female genital cutting and female circumcision involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons. The practice involves one or more of several procedures, which vary according to the ethnic group. They include removal of all or part of the clitoris and clitoral hood; all or part of the clitoris and inner labia; and in its most severe form (infibulation) all or part of the inner and outer labia and the fusion of the wound. In this last procedure, which the WHO calls Type III FGM, a small hole is left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood, and the wound is opened up for intercourse and childbirth.

The classification of FGM/C provides ethnical description of the types of procedures which the definition covers. The definition of FGM/C encompasses the diversity of procedures performed by different cultural groups. The classification of FGM/C provides ethnical description of the types of procedures which the definition covers.

Amputation of the clitoris involves cutting across the clitoral artery which supplies blood to the erectile, spongy tissue of the clitoris and its surroundings. This artery has a strong flow and high pressure. Haemorrhage may also occur after the first week due to sloughing of the clot over the artery, usually because of infection. Majority of operations are done without anesthetic even when local anaesthesia is used, pain in the highly sensitive area of the clitoris returns within 2 - 3 hrs of operation. Also, the clitoris is a highly vascular organ with a dense concentration of nerve endings thus requires huge amount of anaestasia to anaesthetize the area completely. Pain, swelling and inflammation of the front of the vulva usually result in an inability to pass urine for hours or even days. Formation of scars that cannot stretch making childbirth difficult, painful sexual intercourse and sometimes unnecessary bleedings during penetration. Obstetrical related complications which may necessitate anterior episiotomy of each delivery and

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156 perinea laceration due to scarred tissue and puerperal infection due to frequent episiotomy complications. Less response to sexual stimulation due to reduced vulva tissue and nerve endings being replaced by fibrous tissue and thus subject to marital problems (JHPEGO, 2004). Psychological and sexual problems which include frigidity due to dyspareunia injuries sustained during early intercourse and pelvic infections. The pharonic type of FGM/C could hide a lot of disease which include prolepses and tumours proper diagnosis of such women is difficult because it is impossible to introduce instruments to examine them (HEALTH DIGEST APRIL/MAY,2001).

3. Research Methodology The study was conducted within Mosocho Division, Kisii County. A descriptive cross- sectional study design utilizing both qualitative and quantitative data was used. The study targeted women within the age bracket of 15 and 49. A simple random sampling procedure was employed. Data was collected from the field mainly using questionnaires. Questionnaires were administered to respondents while those unable to read and write were assisted by the researcher by reading and translating the questions Primary data was transcribed and processed using SPSS computer software for analyzing data. An index coding system was developed to summarize themes to address key research questions. Data was presented in form for of text, figures and graphs

4. Findings and Discussions

The results indicated that 99% of the respondents had undergone FGM and out of these 93% of the cases were undertaken by either a nurse or midwife 98% of the respondents denied of ever experiencing any complications after the practice and 90% of those who experienced complications bought medicines from medicine shops as advised by the operating nurse/ midwife. 98% of the respondents valued FGM/C and were strongly against its abolition because they believed uncircumcised girls are sexy, uncultured, unmanageable and bound to be prostitutes (52% believed uncircumcised girls are sexy and bound to be prostitutes; 40% believed uncircumcised women were uncultured). However, a small proportion of 8% of the respondents believed uncircumcised women were just like their circumcised counterparts. 97% of the unmarried respondents said they will have to circumcise their daughters and 98% of the married one‘s respondents said all their daughters were circumcised. 2% of the educated women (secondary and above) ,9% of the catholic and 11% of the Protestants were against the practice. From the findings it was evident that there is a huge involvement of health workers in this practice for commercial gains. Those health workers practicing FGM/C not only exploit poor parents but also act unethically because they become bush surgeons who operates in bushes and huts in secrecy. Involvement of health workers in performing this practice seem to have reduced the number of immediate and readily observable complications such as bleeding and pain making people forget the long-term side effects which are mostly permanent.

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157 The biggest huddles in eradicating FGM/C are the women themselves especially the older generation. 98% of the respondents said they value FGM/C and are strongly against its abolition because they believed uncircumcised women were bound to be prostitutes and unmanageable besides reducing the probability of being married. 97% of the unmarried respondents said they will have to circumcise their daughters while 98% of the married said all their daughters were already circumcised. Some of them challenged me to explain why HIV prevalence was high in Luo Nyanza. According to them it was so because uncircumcised Luo girls are easily aroused sexual. Educated women also seem not to help in this struggle as only 2% were against the practice. EMMAH KEMUNTO (not actual name), a primary school teacher said they as women are unable to stand against the practice because the side effects and complications cited are not applicable in the clitodectomy type of circumcision practiced by the Kisii because according to her the tissue cut is negligible and almost symbolic and this cannot be associated with the several complications narrated by ‗ignorant‘ medics who just read books but don‘t know what is actually being done at the ground. The Abagusii practice clitoridectomy type of female circumcision which is undertaken between ages 6 – 12 because they believe at this age bleeding is minimal, the tissue is easy to cut, the wound heals faster and also young girls are easier to handle during the process as they are keen to be socially accepted and do not always understand the implications. Among the community the significance of female circumcision was to welcome females into housewifery, womanhood in readiness to handle many demands from the community such as marriage and procreation, raising a family and become a full- fledged member of the community. Circumcision was also meant to make the initiates tougher, brave and more industrious. Reasons for Supporting the Continuation of FGM/C a) Rite of passage: - FGM/C is considered a rite of passage through which important cultural values and adult expectations are transmitted to the youth. Girls who have not undergone the process are often ridiculed and addressed as ‗EGESAGANE‘ which is a derogatory title and provoking to Gusii women. b) Ensure marriageability: - families of girls or women support FGM/C because it makes their daughters not only marriageable but also a factor to attract high bride price. Men feel honoured, if they marry a circumcised girl. Women also believe that a marriage is not complete unless the mother cuts her daughter and prepare her for marriage, uncut girls are considered as children. There is an inner feeling within the Gusii men to accept uncircumcised women from elsewhere than from Gusii itself. c) Controlling sexuality: - cutting a girl‘s clitoris is thought to suppress her sexual desires as a way of keeping her from having sex for pleasure before or outside marriage. The Abagusii believe that a circumcised woman will not have pre-

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158 marital or extra-marital sex because she will not have a strong sexual drive thought to be possessed by uncut women and which is culturally unacceptable. d) Cultural and Ethnic identity: - FGM/C among the Abagusii is a deeply rooted cultural practice which conifers cultural identity and respect among the Kisii Women. Many participants in the research indicated that the reason for mother to circumcise their daughters was because their grandmothers did so and thus their daughters have to undergo the same. Any uncircumcised woman was to be cut during childbirth, if she died before being cut, a cow was to be given to someone to cut the corpse before burial. ‗EGESAGANE‘ is a derogatory title and provoking used to refer to uncircumcised women. Anti – FGM/C Approaches in Place a) Health Risk / Harmful Traditional practice Approach. This intervention involves using messages that emphasize the harmful physical effects that the practice can have on women such as haemorrhage, infection, pain, fever, and shock during the procedure and subsequent complication such as difficulty in urinating, painful sexual intercourse and the risk to mother and child during delivery. b) Educating Traditional circumcisers on alternative income generating Activities. Involves educating traditional circumcisers on the risks associated with the practice and providing them with viable income generating alternatives so as to motivate them not to undertake the practice. c) Alternative Rites of Passage (ARP) Approach. As society attributes great importance to circumcision ceremonies and abandoning them can be associated with abandoning the rites of passages themselves which may create considerable social conflict alternatives where there is change of the contents, stopping the mutilations while preserving the positive idea. Alternative rituals to marks initiation have been developed to substitute for the traditional cutting ceremonies, comprising traditional education on the role of adolescent girls including aspects of sexuality and motherhood. Girls are separated from the rest of the community for days or weeks and receive their educations in specially designated places. This approach is used mostly by catholic secretariat and world vision. d) Legal Approach: Kenya has passed a law that declares FGM/C illegal in section 14 of the children act which states ―No person shall subject a child to female circumcision, early marriage or other cultural rites, customs or traditional practices likely to negatively affect children‘s life, health, social welfare, dignity, physical or psychological development‖. e) Intergenerational Dialogue Approach: This approach seeks to create a two- way dialogue between the community and facilitators to encourage discussion around the ambivalence and dilemmas which accompany the process of adapting new attitudes and behaviours. This is intergenerational as it facilitates

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159 dialogue between different generations in communities where the young and the old do not conventionally dialogue especially on sensitive issues such as sexuality. f) Promotion of Girls education: This approach seeks to build and strengthen education for girls so as to encourage them questions the practice and to actively oppose it within their own families and communities. Challenges in Current Anti-FGM/C Approaches a) Cultural sensitivities and entry points for community discussion. The cultural significance associated with the practice makes it a very sensitive subject to tackle. Many families and communities are not ready to confront an old – age tradition like FGM/C and opt to continue with the practice, even if they understand that it is harmful. Most approaches find it hard to identify appropriate community entry points given the sensitive nature of the practice. b) Entrenched Traditional and cultural Beliefs: Being deeply rooted, much advocacy for ending the practice is viewed as a way of destroying the community‘s culture, especially by the older generation, which greatly hampers the spread of information to the target groups. Girls especially, do not want to abandon the practice because the rite gives them a chance to receive gifts, feast and gain social status in the community. c) High levels of illiteracy: These posses a great challenge in dissemination of information. Many people may not understand why a practice that has been ongoing for decades is now being discarded, irrespective of the better options being presented. Some traditional Birth Attendants (TBA) still threaten uncircumcised women with being cut at delivery, while others refuse to assist uncircumcised women during delivery. Many people in rural areas are ignorant of the policies and laws on FGM/C. ―Many will remain very stubborn even when facts have been laid bare to them. Some are ignorant of its dangers, children are the most hurt, because they are forced into it and they don‘t participate in the decision making. Some people have never perceived that children have rights. Communities have created values and respect the value more than they respect children‖ (DOUGLAS AREGE, KISII). d) Inadequate Rescue Homes: ncreased cases of ―runway girls‖ with no structures to receive them are particularly problematic during the circumcision months. In some cases, religious institutions provide sanctuary but usually for a limited time. Existing centres have inadequate staff and rely on volunteers with high turnover rates. In some cases, some women are willing to support daughters who opt to abandon the practice, but they often lack access to resources that can be used for support. e) Shift in the practice, including medicalization: The community has responded to anti-FGM/C campaigns by lowering the age of cutting to avoid resistance by the practices by doctors, nurses and midwives being asked to

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160 perform the practice as a logical response by parents who want to sustain the practice but to reduce harmful effects on their daughters. f) Political support or lack of opposition: Politicians looking for support in the community are either unwilling to publicly oppose the practice or may use support for FGM/C to persuade their electorate to vote them in. g) Gaps in laws and lack of enforcement of policies and laws: There is no clear strategy for implementation of the limited legal provisions that do exist on FGM/C. Also, there is reluctance among many community leaders and provincial administration staff to denounce FGM/C publicly and to apprehend and prosecute FGM/C offenders and corruption has led to the release of culprits. 5. Conclusions

During this study several salient conclusions could be drawn:

Female Genital Mutilation is a deeply rooted cultural practice among the Abagusii community.

FGM/C is a belief which cannot stand against reason, particularly in the contemporary unpredictable and competitive world in which massive intellectual revolutions is taking place and survival calls only for the fittest. Though there are fears based on superstitions and traditions, they have no effect on human anatomy and physiology and can no longer dictate procreation and productively.

That female circumcision is an instrument in the preparation of an ‗idea‘ mother and wife and thus we can see the reason behind the enormous value placed on this practice. In conclusion we view the practice of FGM/C as a mere belief which cannot stand against reason, particularly in the contemporary changing unpredictable and competitive world in which massive intellectual revolutions is taking place and survival calls only for the fittest. Though there are fears based on superstitions and traditions, they have no effect on human anatomy and physiology and can no longer dictate procreation and productively. This process is limiting to both men and women and we thus conclude that whether suggested solution to women problems in relation to the prevalence of FGM/C must also consider liberating men. Otherwise men remain as victim even though they feel they are superior to women Another premise was that indigenous religion gave the practice a religious meaning and accounts for the persistence of the practice. The religion aspect reveals that some of them threatened the novices and women thus enhancing it. Due to fear of supernatural punishment the practice continued with its values unchallenged or unquestioned. In Abagusii proverb, ―Makoro magoti nande achicha,‖ which means ―culture is not static‖ they agree that culture changes with time. The changes are likely to have great impact if conducted and facilitated by indigenous because Anti FGM/C seminars conducted by outsiders make the community feel that a foreign tradition and culture is being imposed on them.

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161 Female circumcision has no backing in the bible or Koran. There is no major Islamic citation or ‗Hadithi‘ which are the collections of the sayings of prophet Mohammed recorded from oral histories after his death that makes female circumcision a religious requirement. Besides that, the practice is uncommon in predominantly Islamic countries such as Iraq, Kuwait, Pakistan, Algeria and Saudi Arabia. As per the bible in Genesis 17: 10 – 15, God instructed Abraham on how to circumcise men, but for Sarah his wife only the name was to change. According to Pastor Tom Miyienda of Kisii Central SDA Church, the stand of the Adventist church is that all Adventists are advised not to practice it.

6. Recommendations On the basis of the conclusions of this study, the following recommendations are made: The government should prohibit medicalization of female circumcision and take stern measures against health personnels who practice this operation. Dealing with contradictions and lack of clarity within the existing legal provisions so as to be exploited in developing appropriate testing and evaluating procedures that could become standard practices if proven effective. Kenya has passed a law that declares FGM/C illegal in section 14 of the children act. However, the law only protects girls up to the age of 17 years and does not protect woman being forcefully circumcised, thus there is need to include all age women and support for enforcement of the children Act via education and encouraging chiefs to apprehend child rights violators. Even within its limitations, the existing legal framework for restricting FGM/C could be more rigorously enforced. Opportunities for community courts that hold credibility and legitimacy such as the ‗Njuri Njeke‘ among the Meru should be explored as a means for encouraging greater community participation in monitoring and reporting and cases of FGM/C. Focus on Behaviour change and appropriateness of local language IEC materials. Many implementers often conduct IEC activities with a focus on awareness raising as the expected outcome rather than on behaviour change. Once awareness is raised there is no clear strategy for moving the community along the behaviour change continuum. There should be effective partnership and co- ordication between stakeholders and beneficiaries in the design, implementation and evaluation of programs in order to develop culture–specific approaches that target communities to ensure that the expected outcomes are clear and activities acceptable and therefore feasible.

Advocacy for girls‘ education is a long-term strategy but more efforts should be focused on boys and young men who are the future husbands and fathers of girls likely to be cut. In the past Gusii girls have feared that they may not get married if not circumcised. The new strategy is to discourage boys and men from marrying circumcised women and instead go for uncircumcised ones (Pastor Tom Miyienda SDA, Station Pastor Kisii Central Church)

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162 Creating a change in the social norms is the most crucial step for a successful behavior change strategy thus anti-FGM/C organizations should focus on sustaining these changes and reaching others once the foundations of community support against the practice is established.

Encouraging mixed marriages whereby Abagusii men and women should be encouraged to marry and to be married to other tribes especially those who do not circumcise their daughters. This will raise different opinions when they have children on under which tradition to follow and whether to circumcise their female or not.

References

[1] Chege, J. N., Askew, I., & Liku, J. (2001). An assessment of the alternative rites approach for encouraging abandonment of female genital mutilation in Kenya. Washington: Frontiers. [2] Family Planning Association of Kenya. (1997). Prevalence of practice of female circumcision in Kenya. Nairobi: FPAK. [3] Finke, J. (2003). Teenage marriages a most foul custom. Kenya: Africa news. [4] Gay, L. R. (1996). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application (5th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. [5] Ikamari, L. D. E. (2005). The effect of education on the timing of marriage in Kenya. Demographic research (Vol. 12) Doc 10.4054/Demres.2005.12.1 [6] Kahoro, H. W. (2007). Impact of female genital mutilation on education of public primary school girls in Kinale and Kamae Kiambu District. (Unpublished Master‘s Thesis). Nairobi University. [7] Gennep V.A (1960). The rites of passage London; University of Chicago press [8] Mackie, G. (1996). Ending footbinding and infibulation: A Convention Account. American sociological review: Dec, 1996, p.996-1017 [9] Mackie, G. (2000). Female genital cutting: The beginning of the end. in Bettina Shell- [10] Maendeleo ya Wanawake Organization (MYWO). (2007). Female genital mutilation-advocacy strategy for the eradication of female genital mutilation in Kenya. Retrieved on 10th April 2012 from http://mywokenya.org/research.html [11] Miroslava, P. (2007). Introducing alternative rites of passage. Africa today, 53.4 (2007): v-xi. Indiana University Press. [12] Mayor P. (1949). Gusii Bride wealth, law and custom, London; Oxford University press [13] Monyenye S. (1993) ―Culture and social identity‖ paper presented at Abagusii consultation symposium, safari Park Nairobi. [14] Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (1999). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Nairobi: Acts Press

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163 [15] Muteshi, J., & Sass, J. (2005). Female genital mutilation in Africa: An analysis of current abandonment approaches. Nairobi: PATH. [16] Nyangweso, M.W. (2007). Female circumcision: The interplay of religion, culture and in kenya. New York. Orbis. Maryknoll. [17] Obermeyer, C. M. (1999). Female surgeries: The known, the unknown and the unknowable. Medical anthropology quarterly 13 p79-106. [18] Oloo, H., Wanjiru, M., & Newell-Jones, K. (2010). Female genital mutilation practices in Kenya: The role of alternative rites of passage. A case study of Kisii and Kuria districts. Retrieved from http://www.feedtheminds.org/downloads/fgm%20Report.pdf 94 [19] Ongong‘a, J. J. (1990). Re-evaluation of African traditional women education: Eastern southern Africa. Nairobi: Kenyatta University. Berce basic resource. [20] Republic of Kenya. (2001). Children‘s Act. Nairobi. Government Press. [21] UNICEF. (2004). Conference on female genital mutilation Nairobi. Florence: Innocenti Research Centre. [22] UNICEF. (2005). Early marriage a harmful traditional practice. Florence: Innocenti Research Centre.

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164 Enhancement of Effective Academic Performance in Public Day Secondary Schools in Thika Constituency, Kiambu County, Kenya. By: Kigera C. W. 1 and Wanyela L.2

1. Gretsa University - Email: [email protected]: Phone: +254706642637 2. Gretsa University – Email: [email protected] : Phone: +254726351160

Abstract In the early years of independence, demand for secondary education was very high the government had to craft policies in education to act as a guide and tool for economic development. The policies led to rapid expansion of education and many harambee schools were opened which are now public day secondary schools. The purpose of this study was to establish ways of enhancing effective academic performance of students in public day secondary schools in Thika Constituency Kiambu County, Kenya. The objectives focused on determining the deficiencies present in public day secondary schools and how they inhibit the enhancement of effective academic performance in public day secondary schools, how different stakeholders in the education sector can assist in enhancing effective academic performance in public day secondary schools and also improvement academic lessons that can be applied to enhance effective academic performance in public day secondary schools. The study adopted descriptive survey research design and focused on 12 public day secondary schools. A sample of 3 schools participated in the study. From the findings it was realized that inadequate teaching and learning resources, teachers job dissatisfaction, lack of parental involvement are among the challenges affecting the academic performance of pubic day secondary schools in Thika Constituency. In conlusion the study provide insight to teachers, parents, students, the Ministry of Education as reference they can depend on in improving performance in public day secondary schools.

Keywords: Public Day Secondary Schools, Academic Perfomance, Thika Constituency

1. Introduction

Education reform efforts in less industrialized countries have aimed at making education an effective vehicle for national development. Governments, policy makers and the society have emphasized that developing countries need to invest more in education and ensure that systems of education are effectively managed ,that limited funds allocated to the sector have maximum impact, and that cost-recovery measures are adopted (MOE, 2007).According to UNESCO (2007) education was formally recognized as human rights since the adoption of Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.The Dakar Framework for Action (2000) declared that access to quality education was the right of every child . According to Samoff (2007, cited in Ogawa,2010) the mastery of curriculum is measured by national examination and the best indicator of high-quality education is a high score on the national examination.

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165 In Kenya, the means to judge academic achievement is through examinations. Kyalo and Kuthuka (1992) argued that a certificate must not only certify that a candidate has fulfilled the set requirements but has also attained results that would compare favorably with similar cohorts elsewhere. People who perform well in education are known to get better paying jobs and to have a proportionately high productivity. Examinations are used to decide the course one pursues in the institutions of higher learning.

Researchers have shown that academic performance is affected by a number of factors including school related factors, parental level of formal education, social economic background (Magiri,1997); school- related factors like adequacy of resources and facilities (Musoko,1983); teacher morale, teaching methods also affect academic performance. The school leadership also influences academic performance.

The school leadership involves chiefly the Principal, who is the chief executive of a school. His mandate is to ensure that all member in the school community are moving in the right direction. Sullivan& Glanz (2000) have proposed that the school heads should adopt school improvement as their center of gravity. Meaning that the principal, in making school-relate decisions should have school improvement in mind.

After independence in 1963, the Kenyan government recognized education as a basis to improve the lot of Africans who had been neglected by colonial education policies. It was also recognized as a human right and as a powerful tool for fostering economic, social and political development. The government laid more emphasis on education so as to produce human resources for the purpose of developing the nation’s economy and laying foundation for the newly independent country (Sifuna & Otiende, 1994).

In order to succeed, the government had to craft policies in education to act as a guide and tool for economic development (GOK, 1965). Therefore, the government appointed Kenya education commission chaired by Ominde popularly referred to as Ominde commission. The commission was to introduce changes in education that would reflect the nation’s sovereignty.

In the early years of independence, demand for secondary education was very high as Court (1974) noted that perhaps the outstanding factor about education in Kenya has been that everyone has wanted it than any other thing. The provision of free primary education and high demand for human resource led to high school enrolment at primary level and increased need for secondary education. As a result (The Gachathi Report 1976) was set to redefine Kenya’s education policies and objectives. The report resulted in government support for Harambee schools which started as mixed day schools. The policies led to rapid expansion of education and many Harambee schools were opened by parents. The government supplied teachers and parents subsidized provision of school‘s necessary facilities. The report further paid a substantial attention to gender issues and it noted that majority of female lacked access to education.

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166 According to Sessional paper No. 6 of (1988), development and maintenance of physical facilities in secondary schools by communities, parents and sponsors was to continue to be encouraged. Their contribution was important as one of the means of expanding and maintaining the quality and relevance of secondary education. The report also noted that mixed day public secondary schools were cheaper to develop and maintain. Therefore, establishment of such secondary schools was seen to be a cost- effective way of providing and expanding secondary education.

The recent government policy on free and universal education and subsidizing of secondary school fees has occasioned opening of more mixed day public secondary schools. There is also mushrooming of day secondary schools through the Constituency Development Fund (CDF). The schools play a very crucial role of absorbing primary school graduates but, it is important to address the performance of mixed day public secondary schools since education has been given emphasis in recent years.

1.1 Statement of the problem

Some schools in Thika have consistently performed well in the KCSE while others seem to perform poorly. Yet all schools set their academic goals aimed at improving academic performance. In accordance to the Ministry of Education, year after year results of Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) in Thika Constituency revealed that students in public day secondary schools perform poorly in KCSE. Poor performance of students in public day secondary schools in Thika has been attributed to lack of learning materials like the libraries, laboratories, the size of classroom is too large, lack of competent teachers because of poor pay and other problems that will be discussed in the research project. Therefore, this was a problem which needed investigation and possible solutions sought. The researcher therefore aimed at finding out the strategies that public day secondary schools should employ to improve their academic performance and attain their schools' academic goals.

1.2 Objectives

1. To evaluate the deficiencies of public day secondary schools and how they inhibit the enhancement of effective academic performance in public day secondary schools.

2. To determine how different stakeholders in the education sector can assist in enhancing effective academic performance in public day secondary schools.

3. To identify improvement academic lessons that can be applied to enhance effective academic performance in public day secondary schools.

2. Literature Review

The literature is related to the enhancement of effective academic performance in public day secondary schools. It covers literature on factors influencing academic performance

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167 including school-related factors, parental involvement in education and social economic status and student related factors.

2.1 School related factors influencing academic performance

A research exploring school related factors explain why some students achieve high academic performance than others. The study revealed three important determinants of school related factors. They include: school plant, leadership behaviour of the principal, teacher and characteristics. Eshiwani (1983) identified the following policy-related factors that may cause poor academic performance School plant and resources (Textbooks, library and laboratory facilities) Leadership behavior of the principal. (School management and administration)

Teacher Characteristics (teacher certification, professional commitment, experience and transfer index) Unicef (2000) in Latin America, a study that included 50000 students in grades three and four found that children whose schools lacked classroom materials and had an inadequate library were significantly more likely to show lower test scores than those whose schools are well equipped (Willms, 2000).

Good teachers are skilled not only in instructional methods, but also in evaluation and assessment practices that allow them to gauge individual students needs. Observations in Guinea and India found that teachers trained poorly in evaluation techniques and the reality is far from the procedures recommended by official programmes (Carron & Chau,1996). Monitoring and evaluation of learning should be a continuous process to ensure schools meet their targets.

Application of traditional or more current methods of instruction is not much of a concern, efficient use of school time has significant impact on student learning. Many teachers face transportation and housing obstacles that hinder them from getting to school on time (Ohba 2009).When teachers are present, learning occurs when teachers engage students in instructional activities, rather than attending to administrative r other non-instructional processes(Waweru & Orodho 2010).The quality of a school and the quality of teaching of the individual teacher is higher in schools that are able and willing to make efficient use of the available time of its teachers and students (Verwimp,1999) .According to Ngando (2011) in his study on time management behavior among secondary school personnel in Kinango District, Coast Province, majority of teachers and students do not report to school on the first day of opening, most teachers write their schemes of work when schools opened, went to class without lesson plans, assemblies took longer and consumed classroom time.

World bank (2008) posits that much research has demonstrated that retention and the quality of education depends primarily on the way schools are managed, more than the abundance of available resources, the capacity of schools to improve teaching and learning is strongly influenced by the quality of the leadership provided by the principal. In South Africa leadership training for secondary school heads was to improve quality of education. In Kenya all heads of schools are currently undergoing a

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168 management course at the Kenya Management Institute (KEMI) to improve on their management skills (Republic of Kenya, 2012a). Eshiwani (1983) identifies that schools which consistently perform well tend to have sound and efficient leadership. He further stresses that school leadership is a crucial factor in the success of a school. The qualities that are expected of a school principal include setting a climate of high expectations for staff and students, encouraging collegial and collaborative leadership and building commitment.

2.2 Parental involvement in education and socio-economic status According to Hammer (2003) the home environment is as important as what goes on in the school. Important factors include parental involvement in their children’s education, how much parents read to their children, how much Tv children are allowed to watch. Parental influence has been identified as an important factor affecting student achievement. Results indicate that parent education and encouragement are strongly related to improved student achievement (Odhiambo, 2005).

Parental involvement in student‘s work has been identified as a factor influencing school attendance and academic achievement. Parents can have a powerful effect on children‘s performance such as ensuring that pupils arrive at school on time, have suitable clothing, necessary books or equipment and ensuring that homework is done and completed on time. They also ensure school fees is paid in good time to avoid disrupting the children‘s learning (Griffin, 1996).

Cullen (1968) noted the importance of parental encouragement on academic performance. Parents of high achieving children seem to take more interest in the child’s schooling than those of low achieving children. Muola (1990) found that children whose parents encourage them to do well in school have interest in their schooling, are actively involved in their school work and perform better in the national examination.

A study by Corner and Haynes (1991) found out that parental participation in a child’s education is essential for effective teaching and learning. Parental participation has also been stressed by Griffin (1996). He pointed out that parent’s involvement is an important element in the learner’s academic achievement and that this is consistently correlated with learner’s test performance. This relationship was observed even when school level variables like class size, school student population, teacher qualification and experience were controlled.

One of the most important factors that bear on academic achievement is the system of social stratification in a given country. Society is characterized by inequalities of wealth and other aspects. Such economic differences are accompanied by different material conditions, lifestyles, social prestige, ideas and attitudes, language and even patterns of infant and child care all of which have a bearing on academic performance (Holloway, 1990). According to Gillborn and Mirza (2000), one way in which family‘s‘ socio- economical background affected school performance was through the type of school attended. Children from low socio-economic status, despite their mental potential,

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169 tended to go to cheaper schools which performed poorly while their counterparts whose ability could be average went to well performing schools because their parents had ability to pay. Ndiritu (1998) noted that children from well to-do social backgrounds tend to do better. This is as a result of high incomes of parents which enable them to buy supplementary text books and other study materials.

2.3 Student-related factors

The prevalence of Drug and substance abuse among secondary school students. According to National Baseline survey carried out by the National Agency for the campaign against Drug Abuse. (NACADA) and the Ministry of Education (MOE, 2012), drugs and substances used for the first time by students in both primary and secondary schools across the country include: cigarettes and bhang (4-20%), miraa/ khat (7-30%), kuber (6%), cocaine and heroine (2-3%).

NACADA (2012) further indicates that Nairobi and Central Kenya leads in majority of callers seeking help through the toll number 1192 for alcohol and drug users. Cognitive and behavioural problems experienced by alcohol and drug using youth interfere with their academic performance and also present obstacles to learning for their classmate.Hawkings,Calatano and Miller (1992) had research findings that declining grades,absenteeism from school and other activities,increased potential for dropping out of school are problems associated with substance abuse.Bratti and Staffolani (2002)Admission points and the different entry qualifications, which are the results of prior or previous academic performance likely to affect the students‘ future academic performance; have been considered in this study, as this research concerns the academic performance of students admitted with different entry certificates. Tertiary institutions all over the world, including Nigeria, use prior academic performance in terms of admission points or different entry qualifications/certificates as a basis for selecting students for admission into the colleges of education, polytechnic schools and universities.

These admission points or entry certificates are always of equivalent rating or value, even though they may be awarded by different examination bodies. Thus, Bratti and Staffolani (2002) observed that the measurement of the students‘ prior educational outcomes or performance is the most important indicator or determinant of the students‘ future academic performance.

3. Research Methodology

3.1 Research design This study was carried out using descriptive survey research design. Orodho (2004) defines descriptive survey as a method of collecting information by interviewing or administering a questionnaire to a sample of individuals. Descriptive survey design was appropriate for this study because it enabled the researcher to collect information concerning the current academic performance of students in public day secondary

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170 schools in Thika Constituency. The researcher drew conclusions from the findings of the study which were crucial in narrowing the knowledge gap by providing information on Thika Constituency Schools.

3.2 Scope of the study The study was carried out in Thika Constituency, Kiambu County, in Kenya.It is located north east of Nairobi near the confluence of the Thika and Chania rivers. The Constituency has five administrative wards. Kiambu County has a total of 303 secondary schools, 227 public secondary schools, 76 private secondary schools. Thika Constituency has 12 public day secondary schools. The sample for the study was drawn from 3 public day secondary schools. Proportional Stratified sampling was used to select the 3 sampled schools. The method was chosen because it guaranteed desired representation of the entire population.

3.3 Data collection and Analysis The study employed questionnaires and interviews as the research instruments for data collection. Questionnaires were administered directly to the respondents and drop and pick method was employed. The interviews were conducted through face to face method. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. The researcher examined completed questionnaires, processed each item and reported through descriptive narrative. This was done using frequency means, calculating percentages and tabulating them appropriately.

4. Results and Discussions

The students interviewed observed that some school related factors affected their academic performance. The respondents felt that school leadership was a contributory factor in their performance, their opinions were that there is need for schools to re- examine the best leadership style to adopt. On the teaching methodology the respondents felt that the teaching Methodologies applied by some teachers are unsatisfactory hence, leading to their poor academic performance.

The research established that most of the common challenges facing students in preparation for KCSE include: time constraints, teachers failure to guide students well because of lack of exposure and lack of in- service courses , lack of balance between theory and practical aspects of the subjects, limited materials like textbooks , laboratories etc, limited support from the school administration, uncooperative and unsupportive parents, lacked educational trips, inadequate syllabus coverage, inadequate revision and knowledge on exam techniques and negative attitudes by some students towards some subjects. Respondents also suggested that teachers research widely on content and share ideas with colleagues in order to cope with emerging issues in the subject that the students are weak in. Students are also encouraged to put more effort through extensive revision and practice to improve on skills, parents to be encouraged to support their children, the school administration to support a holistic

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171 education and its activities such as allocating bigger rooms for lessons and equipping it with basic facilities for working.

The students suggested that the schools term activities should be reduced to allow more time for studies, assignments and random assessment tests. Also, more revision and discussions on exam techniques, more student commitment and seriousness in their work. Other suggestions made by students include; schools to provide some materials for students who are unable to purchase their own, teachers to organize for interaction and exposure of students through educational trips, students to carry out constant practice to develop learnt skills, students to work in groups to share ideas, and to be disciplined in order to improve their academic performance. To establish the performance improvement lessons, responses from principals and teachers were analyzed together. The principals suggested that there was need to put in place strategies like guidance and counseling to students, discussing students‘ discipline with parents, making sure that the school has all necessary physical and material resources, ensuring that school climate is conducive for teaching and learning and involving teachers to identify ways of improving discipline in the school. Further lessons included inviting parents to discuss academic progress of their children, reminding parents of their duty in ensuring students are disciplined and encouraging parents to offer moral support to teachers. Also, the respondents indicated that alcohol was frequently used in the schools and also bhang, miraa was fairly frequently used. This affected the academic performance of the students.

5. Conclusion and Reccommendations From the study, though most of the Principals and Deputy Principals have the required academic qualifications and have undergone some management training in the past, their leadership skills are not well demonstrated on the ground. There was poor supervision by school principals and uncoordinated guidance and counseling services in the sampled public day secondary schools. It was realized that teachers applied lecture and demonstration method during lesson delivery, students sat for less lessons than two or three internal examinations every term. These strategies were not effective in enhancing student‘s academic performance. Guidance and counseling also lacked in the sampled schools. Although some of the schools had started internal income generating projects to supplement the government grants, these projects were not very effective in supporting the schools programmes. From the study all principals had experienced cases of drugs and substance abuse by their students. Drug abuse among the students caused dropping out of school, lack of interest in studying, low concentration span and declining grades.

From the research findings the researcher wishes to make the following recommendations:

1. The government should support schools in terms of increasing resources such as core subjects‘ books, models in order to consolidate and broaden the scope

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172 of baseline ideas, knowledge, skills and principles acquired and developed at the primary education level. 2. Since schooling is a cost sharing between parent and government, parents must contribute all contributions so as to enable government and school‘s management to construct laboratory with full equipment and chemicals, libraries and other equipment for learning. 3. Through contribution from parent and government school‘s management may construct hostels and dormitories to help students who are coming far from schools. 4. Since qualified teachers are many; the government may employ more teachers and provide satisfactory salary to them with little tax and increase seminars and allowances in order for teachers to be committed to their work. 5. Parents should assist their children financially academically and socially so as to help children to have morals in studying. 6. Teachers should employ teaching techniques which influence the students to study hard like discussions, role-play and observation by using overhead projectors at school level to enhance positive attitude to students to like subjects. 7. Schools should set up guidance and counseling offices facilitated by professionals to counsel students who indulge in drug abuse. This will help take care of the students with emotional needs that they wish to share in confidence but lack the platform to do so and in return end up turning to drug abuse. Principals also should invite specialists often to talk to students on dangers of drug abuse. References

[1] Carron, G. & Chau, T.N. (1996). The quality of primary schools in different development contexts. Paris: UNESCO.

[2] Cheo, R. (2002) Re-examining the Effort-Grade Debate: Children in Singapore Schools, British Journal of Educational Psychology, 66 (4).

[3] Cheo, R. (2003) Making the grade through class effort alone. Economic Society of Australia.

[4] Court, D and Ghai (1974): Education Society and Development: Oxford University press, London.

[5] Eshiwani, G.S. (1983). The Education of Women in Kenya, Kenyatta University, Bureau of Educational Research.

[6] Ferris, S. (2002). Education Vouchers, the Peer Group Problem, and the Question of Dropouts, Southern Economic Journal,68, pp.774-793.

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173 [7] Gillborn, D & Mirza, H (2000). Educational Inequality. Mapping Race Class and Gender; London, Ofsted.

[8] Griffin, G. (1996). Relation of Parental Involvement and Social Traits to students‟ academic performance. The Journal of Educational Research

[9] Hawkings, J. D. & Calatano, R.F. (1992). Communities that care: Action for Drug Abuse

[10] Prevention, San Francisco: CA: Jossey- Bass.

[11] Hollaway, S. (1990): Family Structure, Parental Practice and High School Completion; America sociological review.

[12] Johnson, K. (2002). The Peer Effect on Academic Achievement among Public Elementary School Students, A Report of the Heritage Centre for Data Analysis. CDA00-06.

[13] Magiri, B. J. (1997) A study of Relationship between Attitude and Achievement in Top Quartile and Lower Quartile in Physics among Form Four Students in Imenti Division of Meru District. Unpublished M. ED Thesis, Kenyatta University Nairobi.

[14] Ministry of Education -MOE, (2007) Master Plan on Education and Training. Nairobi Government Press.

[15] Muola, R. (1990). Performance in KCPE. A Case Study of Central Imenti Division, Meru District; Unpublished Masters Thesis. Kenyatta University, Nairobi.

[16] Ndiritu, A. W. (1998). A study of Factors Which Influence Performance in KCSE Examination in Selected Public Secondary Schools in Nairobi and Central

[17] Ngando, N. (2011) Time management and behaviour among secondary school personnel in Kinango District. Unpublished M. ED Project Kenyatta University.

[18] NACADA (2012). A National Survey on the Magnitude of Alcohol and Drug Abuse in Kenya Nairobi

[19] Obha, A. (2009). Does free secondary education enable the poor to gain access? A study from Kenya. CREATE pathways to Access. Research Monograph No.21.

[20] Orodho, J. A. (2004) Elements of Education and Social Science: Research Methods: Bureau of Educational Research: Kenyatta University.

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174 [21] Orodho, A. J (2003). Techniques of Writing Research Project and Reports. Nairobi, Masalo publishers.

[22] Republic of Kenya (1976). The Gachathi Report. The report of the National Committee on Educational objectives and Policies; Government Printers, Nairobi.

[23] Republic of Kenya (1988). The Kamunge Report. Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower Training for The Next Decade and Beyond; Government Printers, Nairobi.

[24] Sifuna. D & Otiendes. (1994). An Introductory History of Education; University of Nairobi Press, Nairobi. Province, Unpublished Masters Thesis, Nairobi University

[25] UNICEF (2000). Curriculum report card. Working Paper Series, Education Section, Program Division. New York, NY: Author.

[26] Erwimp, P. (1999). Measuring the quality of education at Two levels. A case study of primary Schools in rural Ethiopia. International Review of Education, 45 (2): 167-196.

[27] Waweru, P, N & Orodho, A. J. (2013). Management practices and student‘s academic performance in national examinations in public secondary schools in Kiambu County. International Journal ofScientific Research.Vol.5, Issue 2, pp. 472-479.

[28] Willms, J.D. (2000). Standards of Care: Investments to improve children‘s educational outcomes in Latin America. Paper presented at the year 2000 Conference of Early Childhood Development Sponsored by the World Bank, Washington D.C., April, 2000.

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175 Resource Curse in Kenya: A Case of Turkana County By: Oduli A. Gretsa university-Email: [email protected] Phone: +254713295408 Abstract: Kenya is known to have an abundance of natural resources namely, limestone, soda ash, salt, gemstones, fluorspar, zinc, diatomite, oil, gas, gypsum, wildlife and hydropower. Well endowed with all these resources, it‘s astonishing that Kenya has not developed all its regions successfully, the purpose of this research was to investigate the factors hindering equitable resource allocation. Questionnaires was the tool of data collection in selected areas of Turkana County, indeed with the current political situation in Kenya resource curse is likely to be much more felt than ever before, Political alignments are purely on tribal basis a scenario that will hugely have a serious impact on the next generation, this study was purposely designed to critically examine the underlying factors that have triggered such an imbalance in resource allocation. Kenya as a nation is characterized by corruption, slow economic growth, damage to the environment, ethnic clashes and armed conflict. This paper therefore evaluates the extent to which the abundance of natural resources has affected equitable resource allocation to regions of Kenya by looking at geographical factors such as; location, climate and resources availability in different regions of Kenya and also the political atmosphere that has been amplified by tribal considerations. By establishing the relationship between natural resources, development and concentration of political power, this paper sought to expand the resource curse hypothesis to incorporate these additional geographic factors while cognisant of Kenya‘s political environment and therefore offered suggestions for reversing the curse. The results of this study are beneficial to policy makers, County governments and central government, further research should be carried out on other marginalized areas like North Eastern and the Coast region. Keywords: Resource Curse, Geographic Factors, Conflict

1. Introduction Turkana is Kenya‘s second largest county with an area of 77,000 Km2 situated in North west Kenya bordering Uganda, Southern Sudan and Ethiopia. It has a desert to arid/semi-arid climate and fragile ecosystem best suited for pastoralism. Most of the population is pastoralist.

Turkana‘s who are closely related to the Jie and Karamajong of Uganda whose number is around 900,000 (GOK, 2011) and are widely dispersed and mobile according to seasonal availability of grazing grounds and water sources. Turkana values livestock, though Camels and goats are mostly suited for their environment.

Drought combined with policy failures has made Turkana perennially dependent upon relief food. In a recent government survey, Turkana was ranked the poorest county with 94.3 percent of its people living in poverty. Both colonial and postcolonial governments have marginalized Turkana.

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176 The discovery of oil is a new dimension in which few are experienced, existing and potential oil reserves are largely across the northern and eastern parts of Kenya as well as the Kenyan coasts, some of these areas like Turkana are among the poorest, least developed and most marginalized despite the presence of mineral wealth. It‘s sad to note that up to now there are no attempts by either the central government or county government to establish value addition plants in Turkana, that would in turn, employ a substantial number of the indigenous people, but rather, Turkana‘s resources are transported to well to do counties like TransNzoia, Nairobi, Kiambu, Kisumu for processing, a factor that has made resource availability in Turkana a perennial curse since time immemorial.

Residents in Turkana are ever in conflict over water, pasture and livestock resources; these conflicts have also affected Turkana‘s internal and external borders. In the North there is conflict between the Merille from Ethiopia, the Tondenyang massacre of 2011 in which 40 or more Turkana‘s were killed is the most memorable incident, but several killings and revenge attacks have occurred since that time. Armed raids between the Turkana and Toposa are frequent every 1-2 weeks there is an incident which may result into deaths and injuries. In the south, conflict between Pokot and Turkana is severe taking the form of raiding and road banditry, besieging and burning villages. This study therefore documents factors that have turned resource availability in Turkana a blessing in disguise.

Table 1 gives an indication of the severity of resource curse on Turkana‘s international borders; however, the numbers are likely to under represent the true picture due to remoteness and poor communication.

Table 1: Resource curse on Turkana Incidents Deaths Injuries Livestock lost Comments Turkana-South 21 4 7 1586 Toposa or Sudan Border Dodoth Turkana-Uganda 13 2 1 325 Dodoth Border Source: Research data

Results of Table 1 indicate that although Turkana has resources, but the struggle over their use has caused a lot of misery on the population

In figure 2, the political context is vital in bringing a new angle of conflict in addition to the challenge of an emerging extractive industry Kenya has since 2013 been enacting a devolved system of government as laid out in the new 2010 constitution of Kenya, 47 counties are now under the leadership of county governments, headed by governors responsible for distribution of resources and provision of many services therein.

There were high expectations that devolution of both power and resources would assist rectify inequalities and marginalization of peripheral parts of Kenya, however there is

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177 evidence of power struggles, ethnic tensions, accusations of corruption and other teething problems for new county governments (Mkutu et al., 2014)

Pastoral Conflict, water and raids

Armed conflict Commercialization

and

Tensions within state security

Oil and gas. Local tensions over land, environment, jobs

New border conflicts, triggered by oil and gas and political incitement

Tension with refugees

Figure 2: Layer of conflict in Turkana

Source: Research data

2. Statement of the Problem Resources conflict in Turkana region has been there since the colonial era. Therefore, this study sought to establish factors that contribute to the resource curse in Turkana county Kenya.

3. Objectives of the Study The objective of the study on the resource curse in Turkana County, Kenya was to investigate the community-based factors contributing to conflict in Trkana.

4. Research Methodology Descriptive survey design was used in conducting the study, the participants were, six sub-county commissioners, 10 district officers and 50 community leaders. Questionnaires were used to provide the needed data. Data obtained was analysed using descriptive statistics Kothari (2004) citing Selltiz, et al. (1962) defines research design as the pre-organization of state of affairs for both analysis of data and data collection in a way that it targets combining the significance of the purpose of research with

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178 frugality in routine. Research design is also the theoretical procedure in which the study is done systematically; it comprises of the proposal for measurement, collection and analysis of data.

Cooper and Schindler (2003), asserts that the communication dimension uses the survey of people and response recording for onward analysis. It‘s a reliable method for getting to know on expectations, attitudes and intentions. All the aforementioned characteristics can effectively be measured by a questionnaire. The questionnaire is the most considered when collecting survey data. The communication approach was deemed fit for collecting survey data for this study (Cooper and Schindler, 2003). The study used descriptive survey approach to collect data. Descriptive survey is preferred because it assures description of the situation in totality without bias in data collection (Kothari, 2008)

4.1 Target Population Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) define a population as an entire set of individuals groups or objects which have some common observable characteristics

4.2 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure The number of respondents was 111 and questionnaires were administered randomly to selected individuals. The study applied simple random sampling in picking the respondents. Simple random sampling provides a fair way of selecting objects of analysis from the population ensuring representativeness (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003).

4.3 Data Collection Instruments The research employed questionnaire as data collection instrument. 4.4 Data Collection Procedures and Instruments Owens (2002) argues out that questionnaires are the foremost data gathering device that were used in the research assignment. Questionnaires were used for the purpose of gathering primary quantitative data.

4.4 Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments The data collection was done through questionnaire administration. This calls for validity and reliability test. A pilot study was done which was used in pre-testing the data collection instrument. 4.5 Pilot Study Cooper and Schindler (2011) argue that for detection of design and instrumentation a pilot test is warranted. The pilot test provides priori data for determination of sample for the study. The steps used in questionnaire pre-testing were the same used in the actual study. In the pre-test 10% of the entire sample size was used (Mugenda &Mugenda, 2003) which translated to eleven respondents.

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179 4.6 Validity Validity according to Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) is the precision and faithfulness of inferences referred based on the research findings. Representation of the variables is done in tandem with what the data analysis actually portrays from the study. Also, validity may imply the extent through which theory and evidence support the clarification of the outcome gotten by use of tests. What an instrument measures and the degree of what it measures determine the strength of a research tool. This tool can be verified in its content and validity. The content methodology measures the depth to which items on questions are made and the areas they cover.

4.7 Reliability Reliability is defined as the ability of a research instrument to obtain similar results when used in similar settings over time. A research instrument is therefore said to be reliable if and only if repeated use gives similar outcome (Mugenda & Mugenda, 1999). An instrument which is reliable is consistent and dependable and yields results which agree with the first application when used twice (Nachmias, 1996). In this study reliability was measured to test the whether there is consistency in the research instrument. A test retest technique was applied. It involves testing the research instrument using a smaller sample and then retesting using a relatively bigger sample. In this study a sample of 5 respondents was used in the testing and another sample of 10 respondents was used in the retesting. A correlation coefficient of 0.876 was achieved which is a positive strong correlation implying reliability.

4.8 Data Analysis Technique Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze data from the questionnaires by use of descriptive statistics. This software enhances vast data handling and various statistical analyses (Muijis, 2004). Tables, means and frequencies were generated and used to analyze and draw conclusions from the data. These enabled findings to be interpreted.

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180 5. Findings and Discussions

5.1 Response rate A total of 111 questionnaires were issued out to the respondents 19 of them were invalid had incomplete data and could therefore not be used in data analysis. A total of 92 questionnaires were properly filled and used for data analysis representing a response rate of 83.6 %.

5.1.1 Gender

Of the total respondents 77 (83.7%) were males and 15(16.3%) were females. These findings indicate that the majority of respondents were Males. This can be attributed to cultural practices of the community where females are not allowed to interact with strangers. 5.1.2 Community based factors contributing to conflict in Turkana

72(78%) of the respondents agree that civil wars have characterized Turkana region, especially with neighbouring Sudan/South Sudan, Uganda, Ethiopia and Somalia; this has greatly affected human life which has often resulted in loss of life and property

The research also established that new findings of oil, gas and water have also created further enmity with 81(88%) of respondents citing it as a source of conflict. There is also a challenge of interaction between the community and investors in terms of expectations, opportunities, communications and participation and community demonstrations. The environment has also been degraded due to numerous oil explorations and the effect of overgrazing. Displacement of people in areas with minerals potential. Environmental concerns, oil spills release dangerous and sometimes carcinogenic hydrocarbons into the soil and water reducing plant growth and threatening animal and plant health. This is a particular concern given the community‘s dependence upon water holes and pans. Environment impact assessments in Turkana have been inadequate and consultants carrying them out are paid by companies which may prejudice their findings (Constantarois 2014).

Majority of respondents 65(70%) identified job opportunities as a source of conflict. In oil companies many jobs especially driving and tenders have been given to non- Turkana, for instance one company has only two local drivers out of 32. Participating communities feel they are not fully involved. Cordaid (2015) notes that participation featured as one of the most common themes in community grievances that they are being poorly represented in job opportunities within the region.

Research established that some conflicts within and between pastoralist communities, such as raiding and cattle rustling have a long history and have to some extent become an aspect of traditional pastoralist culture with only 32(94) respondents citing cattle rustling as a source of conflict. They are considered somewhat tolerable, regardless of its scale and damage in terms of who got killed, maimed, size of livestock raided,

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181 dwellings burned down, displacement of people among other effects, as long as it does not spread to regions inhabited by communities whose economic mainstay is different from pastoralism.

6. Conclusion

This paper has highlighted that resources may not always benefit nations or local communities and negative impacts predominate in developing countries with weak governance institutions, it‘s critical that Kenya learns from good and bad practises in other countries. This work stresses the need for better laws, better policies, strong institutions, better contracts and effective security. Turkana has a long history of a fragile security situation with frequent and lethal inter-communal conflict and a high number of arms in the community therefore the national and county governments, investors, civil society and communities are required to engage constructively with each other for conflict prevention

7. Key recommendations Local benefits

The government of Kenya and county government have a responsibility to ensure that revenues benefit the marginalized people; this work argues that the county government should possibly in partnership with civil society and investors train local people to make them employable.

Community participation and civic education. This research recommends that civil society should assist communities to engage effectively with investors particularly in knowledge and valueing pastoralism and protecting pastoralists instead of doing away with pastoralism, the county could invest in veterinary services and mobile clinics, abattoirs, cattle transportation and markets, introduction of better varieties of animals and secure water sources such as water pans and water catchments.

Security for all the paper recommends that the police need to be better resourced and supported and that chains of command need to be clarified.

Capacity building for administrators this paper recommends that since oil is a new area for Kenya, administrators need to be aware of the opportunities and pitfalls in the area and complex and legacy policy aspects.

Averting and diffusing conflict by government. The paper recommends that the government of Kenya should equip its local administrators to take a conflict sensitive approach which includes consultation and listening to local communities in keeping with the constitution, elected officials and other community leaders must ensure they are well informed and provide balanced information to those they represent.

Institutional framework, a clear coordination framework that includes all the actors is important to reduce suspicion and tension.

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182 References [1] Amnesty international (2009) ‗Nigeria: Petroleum, pollution and poverty in the Niger delta‘, Amnesty international, London [2] Baumuller, H., Donney, E., Vines, A., and Wimer, M (2011)‘ The effects of oil companies‘ activities on the environment, health and development in sub- saharan Africa‘. Policy Department; Directorate-General for external policies of the European union, Brussels [3] Bevoin, D., Collier, P. and Gunning, J.W (1991) The political economy of poverty equity and growth: Nigeria and Indonesia (Oxford and New york: Oxford university press) [4] Brainard, L., and Chollet, D. (eds) (2007) Too poor for peace? Global poverty conflict and security in the 21st century (Washington DC; Brookings institution press) [5] Carmody, P. (2011) The new scramble for Africa, Cambridge: polity press). [6] Collier, P. and Hoeffer, A. (2004) ‗Greed and grievance in civil war‘, Oxford economic paper, 56(4), pp 563-95 [7] Constantaras, E.(2014) ‗After oil drilling started, environmental impact is still a mystery‘ http://landquest.internewskenya.org/environmental-impact-of-oil- drilling-a-mystery-to-citizens-and-civil-society. [8] Cordaid (2015) ‗oil exploration in Kenya: Success requires consultation, assessment of community, perceptions of oil explorations in Turkana Kenya, Cordaid, and Nairobi/Netherlands [9] Davies, G. and Tilton, J (2005) ―The resource curse‖ Natural resources forum, PP 233-242

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183 Proactive Management Measures, Rehabilitation Centres and Behavioural Change to Alcohol and Tobacco Usage Among Youth in the Slums of Nairobi County, Kenya By: Murigi E.M1, Muathe S.M.A.2, Kuria T.J.3 and Gikonyo N.K.4 1. Kenyatta University - Email: [email protected] 2. Kenyatta University – Email: [email protected] 3. Gretsa University – Email: [email protected] 4. Kenyatta University – Email: [email protected]

Abstract Exposure to alcohol and tobacco is rampant among the youth. This is propelled by, peer pressure, breakdown of cultural ties and high levels of unemployment leading to a state of hopelessness. The youth therefore seek refuge in these substances. The study sought to establish the effect of proactive management measures and rehabilitation centres on behavioural change. The study adopted a positivist view as it aimed at testing hypotheses derived from a predetermined conceptual framework. It adopted a mixed design mode of descriptive and explanatory research design and used cluster and simple random sampling techniques. The target population was 158,624 youth group members of which 384 were selected using the Saunders and Saunders tables and a statistical formula. Secondary and Primary data was used. Descriptive statistics such as percentages, mean,frequency distribution and standard deviation was computed to describe the characteristics of the variables of interest while in inferential statistics corelation, multiple regression analysis was used to establish the nature and magnitude of the relationships between the variables and to test the hypothesized relationships. R2 was used to measure the amount of variation in the dependent variable explained by the independent variable. The findings indicate that the proactive management measures and rehabilitation centres should be customized to the needs of the target beneficiaries. The study recommended that the Ministry of Education should consider mainstreaming the concept of responsible alcohol and tobacco usage in the curriculum of universities and colleges to strengthen education forums on alcohol and tobacco usage among the youth. Further services provided by counselors, peer educators, family-centered support groups, and toll-free telephone lines should be delivered at high levels of customer service to ensure effective management and rehabilitation.

Key Words: Alcohol ND Tobacco usage, Addiction Behavioral Change, Rehabilatation Cetres, Schools of Nairobi County

1. Introduction Alcoholic beverages, namely beer, wine and spirits, are second to tea as the most popular beverages consumed across the world (Barrows & Room, 1991). According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), the mass production of alcoholic beverages and tobacco products began in the eighteenth century with the industrial revolution and

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184 presently over 100 billion litres of alcoholic beverages are produced annually (WHO, 2011).

According to Wanyonyi (2014), individuals in the traditional set-up, particularly the youth, did not make personal choices about alcohol and tobacco usage, especially the local brews, since these were available only during ceremonies or communal activities. In the present day, access to these substances is no longer restricted due to factors such as breakdown of the African communal culture and the increasing adoption of the Western individualistic culture which have influenced exposure by the youth to alcoholic beverages and tobacco (Hader, 2011). Individuals make their own choices about when and how to consume the substances (Birech, Kabiru, Misaro, & Kariu, 2013). The breakdown in family ties and change in social attitude towards alcohol and tobacco usage have only served to increase the magnitude of this problem.

Globally, the behaviour of alcohol and tobacco usage is continuing to spread among young people. Currently, some of the problems experienced by young people cover ‗‗a range of health issues, including drug usage, smoking, unsafe sex, physical inactivity, binge drinking, and unhealthy eating‖‘ (Peattie & Peattie 2003, p.366). This group also seeks to gain acceptance from peers, often through the use of tobacco, alcohol, and drugs, as a means of passage into adulthood (Jackson Hastings, Wheeler, Eadie & MacKintosh 2000). Additionally, young people seek pleasure and fun from alcohol and tobacco usage Thus, individuals consume tobacco products and take alcoholic beverages to belong, to rebel, to express their individuality, to take risks, to appear more grown up, and to be ‗cool‘ (Morris, Silk, Steinberg, Myers & Robinson 2007. Successful behavioural change, and subsequent maintenance of the new behaviour, is not easy and often requires a strategic approach (Stephen et al., 2005). Memery, Megicks and Williams (2005) assert that social marketing which is a proactive tool can be used to influence behavioural change, and maintain sustainable behaviour. Despite numerous efforts by the government, private institutions, and NGOs in executing behavioural change programmes, Kenyans continue to die due to irresponsible alcohol consumption (Githinji, 2015). In 2014, for instance, about 137 people died, 500 were hospitalised, and 20 were blinded after drinking chang‟aa laced with methanol in Nairobi (WHO, 2014). Sessional Paper No. 3 of 2007 outlines the numerous and complex issues facing the youth in Kenya, which include alcohol and tobacco usage, unwanted pregnancies, and HIV and AIDS among others (GoK, 2007). Another report has revealed that about 50% of young people in Kenya smoke bhang, 69% smoke cigarretes, and 66% consume miraa, and 66% take alcohol (NACADA, 2014). In developing countries, the rapid changes in the structure of society, and urbanisation in particular, which have resulted in the breakdown of the traditional social and religious controls over drinking, are happening at a time when economic forces are supporting the establishment of breweries within countries (Birech et al., 2013). The risks posed by these changes, especially among the youth, make it vital to seek ways of ensuring responsible alcohol and tobacco usage.

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185 1.1 Proactive Management Measures and Rehabilitation The Government of Kenya and donor agencies like the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the German Foundation, and private organisations have been in the forefront in executing various aspects of the social marketing mix to influence responsible alcohol and tobacco usage in Kenya. These institutions utilise broad service strategies to influence behaviour change by individuals (Nguzo, 2012). In the process of facilitating the behavioural change process, NACADA has established over seventy-five rehabilitation centres in Kenya. The purpose of the rehabilitation centres is to educate young people about the prevention of HIV&AIDS, abortion, and unwanted pregnancies because alcohol and tobacco users tend to be sexually irresponsible when under the influence of alcohol and illicit drugs. NACADA also operates a toll-free 24-hour hotline for Kenyans struggling with alcohol and tobacco usage (NACADA, 2014).

2. Literature Review

2.1 Theoretical Framework This study was informed principally by the theories of planned behavior and tras theoretical model of social change.

2.1.1 Theory of Planned Behaviour

This theory was considered relevant to the current study as it explains and predicts change in volitional and non-volitional behaviour due to the influence of society. Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) is suited to predicting behaviour and retrospective analysis of behaviour and has been used extensively in relation to health because it presupposes that individuals are members of a society. The theory looks at intentions, rather than attitudes, as the main predictors of behaviour. Mbuthia (2013) used this theory in her study on perceived factors influencing deviant behaviour among the youth in Njathaini community, Nairobi, Kenya. According to Ajzen and Madden (1986), the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TBP) evolved from the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Fishbein & Ajzen 1975). Figure 2.3 outlines the various belief structures that influence the attitude and consequent intention to change behaviour. Perception is further influenced by the social factors of an individual, mainly the economic factors.

An important determinant of a person‘s behaviour is a combination of attitude towards performing the behaviour and subjective norm. If a person perceives that the outcome of performing a certain behaviour is positive, he or she will have a positive attitude towards performing that behaviour. Additionally, people normally consider the implications of their actions before they decide to engage in a given behaviour or ignore it altogether (Ajzen, 1991).

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186

Behavioural belief- Attitudinal based structure component

Normative belief Social norm Behaviour component Intention

based structure

Perceived Control belief behavioural

control based structure

Figure 2.3: Theory of Planned Behaviour Source: (Ajzen, 1991 p. 191)

2.1.2. Trans theoretical model of social change or Stage of Change Model

Prochaska and DiClemente (1984) initially proposed the stages of change model as a general model of intentional behavioural change. The theory depicts that people do not change their attitude all at once; rather it is a stepwise process based on one‘s readiness to adopt change. There are five stages of change. They are: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action and maintenance.

A human being does not change his perception all of a sudden rather it is a stepwise process and identifies various categories of people on the basis of their readiness to adopt a change (Lefebvre, 2000). Based on their willingness to change, the target population can be fit into five stages. They are: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance and termination. The appropriate strategy needs to be linked with each group in order to motivate each group to move to the next stage. For example, in the pre-contemplation stage people are not aware of the issue and need awareness for pushing them forward to the next stage, called the contemplation phase. In the contemplation phase, people need different strategies, as here people are more concerned about the problem and interested in changing their behavior. This model has become one of the more often used models in change management programs. (Velicer et.al., 1992) Further its incorporation by Andreasen (1995) recommended the use of this model on for social change and this has influenced its adoption by many social marketing practitioners. This theory helps in understanding how change process proceeds phase by phase over a timely fashion and informs the dependent variable of behavioural change.

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187 2.2 Empirical Literature

2.2.1 Proactive Management Measures, Rehabilitation Centreand Behavioural Change

The behavioural pathway and change of behaviour has been associated with the social networks that an individual belongs to. Davis et al. (2012) found that social reference groups can trigger both positive and negative behaviour. In issues to do with alcohol and tobacco usage, reference groups trigger riskier behaviours. Tappin et al. (2010), however, found that smoking cessation was facilitated by social support. In this regard, perceived support by family and friends can help develop the intention for the desired behavioural change. Similarly, long-term participation in educational forums and belonging to a social group working towards the same goal is highly instrumental to change in behaviour (Sallis, Haskell, Fortmann &Vranizan, 2012). Moreover, O‘Connell, Hosein, Schwartz, and Leibowitz, (2007) observed that coping mechanisms, like exercise, assisted people during lapses in alcohol and drug consumption. At the same time, Merrith et al. (2009) advises that nicotine is a very addictive alcohol and tobacco and therefore difficult to give up without support. Based on this awareness, National Health Services (NHS) and Stop Smoking Services (SSS) were introduced in in U.S.A in 2000. The SSS, which is a free service, offers a range of alternatives for smokers, including six weeks of support by trained specialists with knowledge about behavioural change approaches, pharmacological product suitability, and prescription drugs to help with smoking cessation. Additionally, Kang and Bloom (2005) found that social marketing campaigns can change health behaviours, especially if the individual is in a social group that offers support. In their research, Stead, et al. (2007) determine that community readiness for change influences individuals to change. Further, Zhakerina and Kubacki (2015) found that social support was very important when developing social marketing programmes aimed at influencing behavioural change. 2.2.2 Rehabilitation Centres and Behavioural Change According to Kotler and Lee (2007) behavioural change should be driven by non- monetary incentives like recognition and appreciation and also monetary incentives like discounts on rehabilitation programmes. Further, Smith (2007) and McKenzie (2009) have argued that behavioural change is effective if there is a support system in place to act as a buffer. In order to reduce the levels of alcohol and drug abuse, NACADA executes social marketing by coordinating education and mass media campaigns against and have set up over seventy-five rehabilitation centres in Kenya. Rehabilitation centres also educate young people on prevention of HIV&AIDS, abortions and unwanted pregnancies because when substance users are under the influence of alcohol and illicit drugs they tend to be sexually irresponsible. (NACADA, 2014) Rehabilitation centres enhance the aspect of social marketing which is considered intangible because the change process is a service which is provided by people who

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188 present the various aspects of the service. The inseparability aspect of social marketing results from the fact that the service is provided by professionals, namely doctors, social workers and counselors. The heterogeneity of the social marketing product is mainly attributed to the unique combination of the needs of the individual consumer and the skills of the provider. (Sallis, Haskell, Fortmann &Vranizan, 2012). On the other hand, the perishability element of social marketing campaigns exposes the most difficult aspect of social marketing as an agent of social change. In particular, this refers to long-term change in the behaviour of alcohol and tobacco usage where the existing behavioural patterns are deeply rooted and may have a genetic component; for example, alcoholism in some population groups (Cohen, 2008).

3. Research Methodology

3.1 Research Philosophy

The philosophical perspective grounds the methodological logic and criteria for a research (Crotty, 2003). For this study, the philosophical foundation is logical positivism, also known as logical empiricism. Positivism sees social science as an organized method for combining deductive logic with precise empirical observations of individual behavior in order to discover and confirm a set of probabilistic causal laws that can be used to predict general patterns of human activity (Neuman, 2003). Positivist philosophy premises that knowledge is based on facts and that no abstractions or subjective status of individuals is considered. Positivism thus derives a quantitative perspective which holds that there is an objective reality that can be expressed numerically, with explanatory and predictive power (Neuman, 2006). Under this paradigm, knowledge is valid only if it is based on values of reason and facts, gathered through direct observations and experience, measured empirically using quantitative methods and statistical analysis. Theoretical models can be developed that are generalisable to explain cause-and– effect relationships (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2009).

3.2 Research Design

This research used a descriptive and explanatory research designs. According to Sekaran and Bougie (2009) a researcher should use more than one design to enhance the study, hence these two designs were used to achieve the optimal results as recommended by Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2009). Descriptive design affords the researcher an opportunity to capture a population‘s characteristic and test hypothesis. (Cooper & Schindler 2008). Further, the researcher has no control of the variables in the sense of being able to manipulate them hence guarding against bias. Explanatory research is done when there is already a hypothesis as to why something is happening (Mugenda and Mugenda, 2003). This design was more appropriate as it would be able to show the effect of social marketing mix on behavioural change. It was anticipated that this design supported the study‘s desired objectivity and supported the data

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189 collection and data analysis required for this study (Yegon 2013). The research design selected for this particular study was able to provide information about the behavior, attitudes of youths as a result of social marketing.

3.3 Empirical Model

An empirical model was used to test the statistical significance of the relationship involving the price variable and behavioural change. The study was guided by the following regression model.

Y= β0 + β1X1+ ε… ...... (3.1)

Y= Behavioural change on alcohol and tobacco usage X1 = Price β0 = constant ε = Error term

3.4 Target Population and Sampling

The study area was in the Republic of Kenya and the population for this study were the youth group members in the ten motherland slums which was one hundred and fifty- eight thousand, six hundred and twenty-four (158,624) (KENSUP 2013). This study adopted cluster and simple random sampling design. The Nairobi slums form the clusters which hold the youth group members. Within each cluster, the youth were selected from each youth group. Simple random sampling was then applied to access the respondents of the study. Yegon (2013) used this sampling technique in his study on status of sexual and reproductive health among youth, in Kenya. Sample size determination tables by Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2009) was used for the determination of the sample size since it is relevant to studies where a probability sampling is used. At 95% confidence level, a sample size of 384 respondents out of the targeted population of 158,624 was selected.

3.5 Validity and Reliabilty

Content and face validity were conducted to measure the extent to which the instrument measures what it purports to measure (Cooper & Schindler, 2003). Reliability of the research instrument was also conducted to assess the extent to which a questionnaire tests observation or any measurement procedure produces the same results. Internal consistency of the research instrument was measured using Cronbach‘s Alpha. Cronbach‘s Alpha is a reliability coefficient that indicates how well items in a set are positively correlated to one another (Sekaran, 2003). As rule of thumb, reliability value of 0.7 and above is recommended for most researches to denote the research instrument as reliable (Sekaran, 2003, Robert, 2006). The study therefore used a cutoff point coefficient of 0.7 and above as a strong measure of reliability. The cronbach‘s alpha for price was 0.762.

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190 3.7 Data Analysis

3.7.1 Quantitative Data Analysis

Quantitavie data were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 22.0 software. Descriptive statistics specifically measures central tendency and dispersion and were calculated to profile the respondents and study variables. Pearson‘s Product Moment Correlation (r) was derived to show the nature and strength of the relationships. Adjusted R2 was used to measure the amount of variation in the dependent variable of behavioural change explained by the independent variable of social marketing mix. Simple and multiple regression analyses were conducted to establish the effect of each independent variable on the dependent variable. Before performing regression analysis, the researcher conducted various diagnostic tests as recommended by Malhotra and Dash (2011) and Njuguna (2013) to assess the model‘s underlying statistical assumptions.

4. Results and Discussions

4.1 Descriptive Statistics

The respondents were asked to rate product characteristics on a scale of 1-5, where 1 represents ‗strongly disagree‘ and 5 represents ‗strongly agree‘. The percentage means and standard deviations for the variable were computed and presented as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Response on Proactive Management Measures and Rehabilitation Centres Statement SD D N A SA Mean SD I visit alcohol and tobacco free- 26.9 31.0 12.9 10.0 19.2 2.63 1.459 recreation centre I visit rehabilitation centres on alcohol 31.0 32.8 15.9 6.6 13.7 2.39 1.348 and tobacco usage I seek the help of counselors on alcohol 18.5 18.5 28.0 21.0 14.0 2.94 1.302 and tobacco usage I have friends and family members who understand responsible alcohol and 17.0 12.5 5.5 21.0 43.9 3.62 1.546 tobacco usage Due to my day-to-day activities, I observe responsible alcohol and 11.1 26.2 12.5 24.0 26.2 3.28 1.386 tobacco usage I have used toll-free help lines on 29.9 33.9 20.3 1.5 14.4 2.37 1.315 alcohol and tobacco usage I have attended an educative forum on 36.2 18.5 12.5 19.2 13.7 2.56 1.477 alcohol and tobacco usage Aggregate 2.82 1.405 Source: (Survey Data, 2015)

Results in Table 1 indicates that most respondents (43.92%, M=3.62) stated they had friends and relatives who understood responsible alcohol and tobacco usage. This finding implies a high influence of family and relatives with regard to responsible

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191 alcohol and tobacco usage. 36.2% of the respondents with a mean of (M=2.56) indicated they had never attended educational forums forums. Further, the results gave an indication of poor accessibility to rehabilitation centres as can be deduced from the responses of 31% (M=2.39) of the respondents. The findings also show low percentages and mean values when it comes to using toll-free lines and visiting substance-free recreation facilities. The product variable had an aggregate mean of 2.82 (SD=1.405) suggesting minimal influence of product on behavioural change. These findings collaborate those of Reynolds (2012) that when developing change management measures for a specific social marketing programme, the change agent must adopt consumer orientation and audience segmentation in order to specifically develop a product that will influence behavioural change.

4.2 Inferential Statistics Analysis

The section describes the diagnostic tests performed by the study for accurate estimation of the regression models as well as results of the hypotheses tests conducted to determine effect of proactive management measures, rehabilitation centres on behavioural change to alcohol and tobacco usage among the youth living in the slums of Nairobi County, Kenya.

4.3 Diagnostic Tests

Gupta (2005) has argued that regression can be accurately estimated only if the basic assumptions of multiple linear regression are observed. The current study, therefore, performed the following tests to fulfil this requirement: confirmatory factor analysis, outliers test, tests of normality of variables, linearity test, homogeneity of variance or homoscedasticity test, multi-collinearity test, and auto-correlation test.

Sample Adequacy Test

The reliability of factor analysis is dependent on sample size, therefore making it necessary to determine the adequacy of the sample size before proceeding to conduct factor analysis (Field 2009). The current study applied the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy to determine sample size adequacy. The KMO is an index which is used to examine and justify the appropriateness of application of factor analysis where a value greater than 0.5 is recommended (Malhotra & Dash, 2011). (Refer to Table 2). Results in table 2 indicate that the KMO test on all the factors in the study generated values greater than 0.5, implying that the sample size was adequate for further analysis.

(b) Confirmatory Factor Analysis The study applied confirmatory factor analysis using communalities and Eigen values to establish the specific elements that measure the variables of the study (while also avoiding highly correlated variables) to increase the research instrument‘s reliability. The communalities are shown in Table 3. As recommended by Rahim and Magna,

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192 (2005), the study extracted only the items with Eigen values greater than 1.0 and loadings greater than 0.5. Subsequently, each study variable was subjected to factor analysis (results presented in Table 3. All the factors in the study exceeded the criterion of 0.5, and hence no variable was removed. (Refer to Table 3)

Additionally, the study used Eigen values to extract the significant factors. All the factors with Eigen values exceeding one were retained as significant (Kaiser, 1974). The price variable was assessed using three elements from which factor analysis produced one critical factor of the price component of the social marketing mix, which accounted for 59.74% of the total variance of the social marketing mix construct (Refer to Table 4).

Behavioural change was also assessed using eighteen elements. Factor analysis on this item produced four critical factors that drive behavioural change on alcohol and tobacco usage, accounting for 72.48% of the total variance of the social marketing mix construct (Refer to Table 5).

(c) Outliers Test An outlier is an observation which is far removed from the rest of the observations (Gujarat & Porter, 2009). The presence of outliers may be misleading and can compromise the quality of research output. The current study identified outliers four outliers for price while behavioural change had no outliers. According to Cook and Weisberg (1982), Cook‘s Distance is used to measure the overall effect of outliers on the multivariate analysis, and when Cook‘s Distance >1, then multivariate outliers may affect the inferential results. The results of Cook‘s Distance obtained for the variables in the current study are indicated in Table 6. In this study, Cook‘s Distance < 1 for all variables and hence it was not necessary to remove the outliers when analysing the data obtained in this study. (Refer to Table 6)

(d) Normality of variables

The study applied the Shapiro-Wilk Test to check for normality. When p >0.05, then the data is said to be normally distributed. The results for the normality test in the study are shown in Table 7 (Refer to Table 7). Table 7 indicates that all variables were normally distributed with p-values obtained as follows: price (0.942 > 0.05); behavioural change (0.514 > 0.05. Since all the p-values are greater than .05, the study arrived at the conclusion that the data was normally distributed and, therefore, suitable for conducting further tests (Sekaran, 2003).

(e) Linearity Test

The study ascertained the assumption of linearity by testing the linear relationship of the independent variables on the dependent variables using the correlation coefficients (Dancey & Reidy, 2004). The results indicate that all independent variables had a linear relationship with behavioural change. Price had a strong with behavioural change

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193 (r=0.503, P =0.001). The results therefore indicated a linear relationship of the independent variable with the dependent variable. The linear regression was thus suitable for estimation in this study, and hence the proposed regression models could be accurately estimated according to Gupta (2005). (Refer to Table 8).

(f) Homoscedasticity Test

Homogeneity of variance assumes that the variance of the dependent variable is roughly the same at all levels of the independent variable. The results of the homoscedasiticity test conducted for the current study are given. The results show that the variances for price were not significantly different (p=0.447 >0.05). Since the p-values for product, place, price, and promotion were greater than the level of significance at .05 as recommended by Dansey and Reidy (2004), the homoscedasticity assumption was ascertained and hence the regression model for this study was suitable for analysis. (Refer to Table 9). g) Multicollinearity Test

The study conducted regression analysis to obtain tolerance and variance inflation factors (VIF) for use in determining whether multicollinearity would pose a problem in analysis. The results show that the VIF for the social marketing price (VIF = 1.000) where the VIF is less than 10 and a tolerance value greater than 0.1, ruling out the possibility of multi-collinearity (Field, 2009). The results, therefore, implied non- existence of a multicollinearity problem and hence the level of multicollinearity in the model could be tolerated. (Refer to Table 10). 4.4 Hypotheses Testing In order to test for the influence of price on behavioural change on alcohol and tobacco users the following hypothesis was tested. There is no relationship between proactive management measures, rehabilitation centres and behavioural change on alcohol and tobacco usage among youth in the slums of Nairobi County in Kenya. The hypothesis was fitted in the model to determine the influence proactive management measures, rehabilitation centres on the independent variable of behavioural change the regression results are shown Tables 11-13.

(a) Goodness-of-fit for proactive management measures, rehabilitation centres on Behavioural Change The results in Table 11 indicate an adjusted R2 of 0.037. This implies that the product variables had low explanatory power on behavioural change since only 3.7% of behavioural change to alcohol and tobacco usage was explained by the product variables. (Refer to Table 11).

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194 (b) ANOVA for Price on Behavioural Change

Table 12 gives ANOVA summary the analysis of variance summary reveals an Fstatistic value = 11.328, p=0.001 where p < 0.05. This implies that there was significant influence of proactive management measures, rehabilitation centres on behavioural change to alcohol and tobacco usage and that the independent variable of proactive management measures, rehabilitation centres contributes significantly to changes in the dependent variable (Refer to Table 12)

(c) Significance of the Regression of Proactive management measures, Rehabilitation centres on Behavioural Change

Table 13 clearly indicates (β=0.121 & 0.09, p = 0.001, < 0.05) are statistically significant. Hence the study rejects Ho1 at α=0.05 and conclude that proactive management measures, rehabilitation centres influences behavioural change to alcohol and tobacco usage. Based on the analysis in tables 13, the following model was formulated. (Refer to Table 13)

Behavioural Change = 3.088 +0.121*Proactive Management Measures + 0.09* rehabilitation centres +e. Where

3.088 = y-intercept; constant 0.121 = An estimate of the expected increase in Behavioural Change corresponding to an increase in proactive management measures

0.09 = An estimate of the expected increase in Behavioural Change corresponding to an increase in rehabilitation centres

The regression coefficient of 3.088 under constant indicates the value of behavioural change when product is zero. The regression coefficient of 0.121 obtained in this case implies that a unit increase of the proactive management measures variable would lead to 0.201 increase in behavioural change while a coefficient of 0.09 implies that a unit increase of rehabilitation centres leads 0.09 increase in bahavioural change. The findings in Table 13 are consistent with empirical study by Merrith et al. (2009) who determined that change agents should develop management programs that are specific to the target market.

Further, Lowry et al. (2009) have argued that a social marketing product must embrace botht the tangible and intangible aspects for the desired behaviour change to be achieved. However, the current programmes designed by the government on behavioural change relating to alcohol and tobacco usage have a mass market approach and hence have little influence on behavioural change with regard to alcohol and tobacco usage.

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195 5. Conclusions

This study contributes to empirical literature by revealing that proactive management measures, rehabilitation centres have a relationship with behavioural change Secondly, this study justifies the investment of the government and various change management practitioners on behavioural change programs. The significant findings of price on behavioural change justify the development of social marketing programs for various social issues. Therefore, various institutions have a justification for investing in various social marketing programs that contribute to the well being of the society. This study contributes to theory of planned behaviour and trans-theoretical model of social change.

6. Suggestions for Further Research

A similar study should be carried out by expanding the scope to include other slums in Kenya to see whether the findings hold true as well. A study can also be conducted among the youth in high class estates in Kenya. Lastly, the study also suggests a further study to establish the direct effect of perception and behavioural change.

References

[1] Andreasen, A.R. (2006). Social marketing in the 21st century. London: Sage. [2] Andreasen, A.R. (2006). Marketing Social Marketing in The Social Change Marketplace. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 21(1) 3-13. [3] Atwoli. L, Mofunyla, P.A, Ndungu, M.N, Kinoti, K.C and Ogot E.M (2011), Prevelence of Alcohol and tobacco Abuse Among College Students in Eldoret, Western Kenya, International Journal of humanities and social sciences, Vol 1, No.14. [4] Dancey, C., & Reidy, J. (2004). Statistics without maths for psychology using SPSS. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. [5] DiClemente, C. (2009) Motivation for change: implications for alcohol and tobacco abuse treatment. Psychological Science, 10, 209-213. [6] Donovan, R. & Henley, N. (2009). Unintended consequences of arousing fear in social. [7] Elliot, Huizionga and Menard (1989), Multiple problem youth delinquency, alcohol and tobacco us and mental health problems, Springer-Verlag, New York Inc. [8] Field, A. P. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS, (2nd ed.). London: Sage. [9] Granger, M.D and Price G.N (2009) Does religion constrain the risky sex behaviour associated with HIV/AIDS? Applied Economics Journal ,41 791- 802.

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196 [10] Gupta, S. P. (2005). Statistical Methods, New Delhi: Sultan Chand and Sons Educational Publishers. [11] Levine, D. M., Fustephan, D., Krehbiel, T. C., & Berenson, M. L. (2004). Statistics for managers using Microsoft Excel (6th ed.). London: Pearson Education. [12] Malhotra, N. K., & Dash, S. (2011). Marketing Research an Applied Orientation. New Delhi: Pearson. [13] Morris, S. A., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, C., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16(2), 361-383. [14] Mugenda, O.M., & Mugenda A.G. (2003). Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches, 2nd ed. Nairobi, Acts Press. [15] Mulama, A.S.M (2008), Addressing Sexuality in Kenya‘s population policy; contending discoveries of fertility change, Unpublished MA Project, UON. [16] National Youth Council Act, No.10 (2012). National Council for Law Reporting. Retrieved from www.kenyalaw.org. [17] Peattie, S., & Peattie, K.J. (2003). Ready to fly solo? Reducing social marketing‘s dependence oncommercial marketing theory. Marketing Theory, 3(3), 365–385. [18] Prochaska, J. O., Norcross, J. C., & DiClemente, C. C. (2010). Changing for Good. A revolutionary six-stage program for overcoming bad habits and moving your life positively forward. Harper Collins Publishers. New York. [19] Reynolds L (2012). ―No Decision About Me, Without Me': A place for social marketing within the new public health architecture, Sage Publication within the new Public Health Architecture, Sage publication, perspectives in Public Health. [20] Rothschild, M. L., Mastin, B., & Miller, T. W. (2006). Reducing alcohol- impaired driving crashes through the use of social marketing. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 38, 1218-123. [21] Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thorn hill, A. (2007). Research Methods for Business Students (5th ed.). Harlow: Prentice Hall Financial Times. [22] Sekaran, (2003). Research Methods for Business. A Skill Building Approach.NewYork: John Westly & sons. [23] Shenoy, P., & Madan, P. (1994). Statistical methods in business and social sciences. New Delhi: Macmillan India. [24] Stead, M., Gordon, R., Angus, K., & McDermott, L. (2007). A systematic review of social marketing effectiveness. Health Education, 107 (2) 126 - 191 Studies, 30 (5). [25] Wanyonyi, H. S. (2014), Youth Sexual Behaviour and sex education, International Journal of Education Research, l2, (3). [26] Yegon E. (2013), Status of sexual and reproductive health among youth; Perspective of students in Nairobi and Masinde Muliro Universties in

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197 Kenya. Published in the proceedings of International Conference of Family Planning held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Appendices

Table 2 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Test

Price Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy .683 Approx. Chi Square 135.186 Behavoiur Change Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy .806 Approx. Chi-Square 4256.040 Source: (Survey Data, 2015)

Table 3: Communalities

Statements Initial Extrac tion There are regular visits made toalcohol and tobacco free recreation centre 1.000 .694 There are regular visits made to rehabilitation centers on alcohol and tobacco 1.000 .762 usage There are counselors on alcohol and tobacco usage 1.000 .728 There are friends and family members who understand responsible alcohol and 1.000 .409 tobacco usage There are daily activities, to enable responsible alcohol and tobacco usage 1.000 .711

There are toll free help lines on alcohol and tobacco usage 1.000 .669

There is educative forum on alcohol and tobacco usage 1.000 .614

Table 4: Product Eigen Values

Total variance of Preventive Measures and Rehabilitation Programs explained

Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Cumulative % of Component Total % of Variance % Total Variance Cumulative % 1 2.217 31.676 31.676 2.217 31.676 31.676 2 1.265 18.065 49.741 1.265 18.065 49.741 3 1.105 15.791 65.532 1.105 15.791 65.532 4 .892 12.736 78.268 5 .671 9.592 87.861 6 .554 7.907 95.768 7 .296 4.232 100.000 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

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198 Table 5: Behavioral Change Eigen Values

Total Variance of Behavioural Change explained

Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Cumulative Component Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance % 1 8.136 45.200 45.200 8.136 45.200 45.200 2 2.662 14.792 59.992 2.662 14.792 59.992 3 1.224 6.797 66.789 1.224 6.797 66.789 4 1.025 5.697 72.487 1.025 5.697 72.487 5 .879 4.886 77.372 6 .838 4.656 82.028 7 .606 3.365 85.394 8 .539 2.995 88.389 9 .485 2.693 91.082 10 .385 2.140 93.221 11 .314 1.745 94.966 12 .231 1.286 96.252 13 .186 1.035 97.287 14 .159 .881 98.168 15 .126 .702 98.870 16 .092 .509 99.379 17 .058 .324 99.703 18 .054 .297 100.000 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Table 6: Cook’s Distance

Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Sample Size Cook's Distance .000 .168 .004 .013 271 Source: (Survey Data, 2015)

Table 7: Test for Normality

Shapiro-Wilk Statistic Df Sig. Price .997 271 .942 Behavioural Change .995 271 .514 Source: (Survey Data, 2015)

Table 8: Results of Linearity test

Behavioural Change Price Pearson Correlation 0.503** Sig. (2-tailed) 0.001 N 271 Source (Survey Data, 2015)

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199 Table 9: Results of Homogeneity of Variance

Levene Statistic Df1 Df2 Significance Price 0.580 19 251 0.447 Source: (Survey Data, 2015)

Table 10: Results for Multicollinearity Test

Coefficients Collinearity Statistics Tolerance VIF Remarks (Constant) Price 0.476 1.000 No Multicollinerality Dependent Variable: Behaviuoral Change Source: (Survey Data, 2015)

Table 11: Goodness-of-fit for Proactive Management Measures, Rehabilitation on Behavioural Change

Adjusted R Std. Error of Sample Size R R Square Square the Estimate 271 0.201 0.040 0.037 .7326614 Predictors (Constant), Product Source (Survey Data, 2015)

Table 12: ANOVA for Proactive Management Measures, Rehabilitation on Behavioural Change

Sum of Degrees of Significance Squares Freedom Mean Square F (P-value). Regression 6.081 1 6.081 11.328 0.001 Residual 144.397 269 .537 Total 150.478 270 Predictors: (Constant), product Dependent Variable: Behavioural Change Source (Survey Data, 2015)

Table 13: Significance of the Regression of Proactive Management Measures, Rehabilitation Centres on Behavioural Change

Unstandardised Standardised Coefficients Coefficients Significance Beta Standard Error Beta t-value (p-value) (Constant) 3.088 0.174 17.751 0.001 PMM .197 0.058 0.12 3.366 0.001 RC .168 0.042 0.09 2.255 0.001 Dependent Variable: Behavioural change Source (Survey Data, 2015)

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200 Factors Influencing Anti-Social Behaviour Among School Going Students in Kiambaa Constituency of Kiambu County: The Role of Parental Guidance By: Njendu P.G.

Gretsa University – Email: [email protected]: Phone: +254722365894

Abstract This study focused on factors influencing anti-social behavior among school going students in Kiambaa constituency of Kiambu County.The study targeted the secondary school children in Kiambaa Constituency. All the 8 Public secondary schools in Kiambaa Constituency were considered for the study. Simple random sampling to select students from each of the 8 schools was selected. The study found that remarriage and step-parents have effects on delinquency as shown by 89% of the respondents. The study concluded that presence of both parents contributes greatly to the development of parent-child relationship, that children who come from families where both parents are presents were happy and reported having good relationship with their parents unlike for those children who come from families with only one of the parents. The study recommends that in order to control the delinquency development in children, school variables such as the role played by the teachers should be mended to provide wellbeing of the school children.

Key words: Behavioral Development, Parent-Child Relationship, Delinquency Development, Anti-Social Behaviour

1. Introduction

A study by Farrington, (2006) revealed that most people are of the opinion that the main cause of delinquency among young adults is poor parenting methods, and especially poor parental discipline or control of children. Academic research confirms the importance of family factors as predictors of offending. Smith and Stern (2007) in their review concluded that: We know that children who grow up in homes characterized by lack of warmth and support, whose parents lack behavior management skills, and whose lives are characterized by conflict or maltreatment will more likely be delinquent, whereas a supportive family can protect children even in a very hostile and damaging external environment.

It is clear that some family factors are at least as important in the prediction of offending as are gender and race. Reviewing these kinds of results reveals the bewildering variety of family constructs that have been studied, and also the variety of methods used to classify them into categories. In this study, family factors are grouped into six categories: (a) criminal and antisocial parents and siblings; (b) large family size; (c) child-rearing methods (poor supervision, poor discipline, coldness and rejection, low parental involvement with the child); (d) abuse (physical or sexual) or neglect; (e) parental conflict and disrupted families; and (f) other parental features (young age,

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201 substance abuse, stress or depression, working mothers). The objective of the study was to assess the role of parental guidance in influencing anti-social behavior among school going students.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Presence of both parents in the family on children’s behaviour Availability of both of the parents in the family is one aspect of the parent-child relationship which is likely to influence children behaviors (Bronstein, 2003) parent involvement refers to a parent‘s ability to seek out his or her children and manifest an interest in their behaviors‘.

Parental involvement is one of the important concepts developed within the social support discipline. Cullen (2004) contends that it is less likely for a person to be involved in crime if this person has received family support. Wright (2003) referred to the term Parental Support as parental actions that provide love, nurturance, empathy, acceptance, guidance, information, and material resources to their children, the involvement of both parents supports greatly influence the development of behaviors‘ in the child.

2.2 The influence of single parenthood on children’s antisocial behaviour Parents experience emotional and adjustment problems as a result of divorce such as low selfworth, depression, and alienation, they may spend less time with their children and be less focused on their activities at home and school (Bigner, 2003). It is likely that divorce will have some impact and introduce some change in the way parents and children interact and spend time together

2.3 The influence of economic status of the family on Child’s antisocial behaviour According to (Herrenkohl, 2000) socio-economic status refer to the social and economic position occupied by parents in the society, Herrenkohl further adds that a level made up of individuals who deem themselves equal due to similarities in family background, level of education, occupation, race and attitude towards social issues. Brennan (2009) reported that the social status of individuals is an indication of their economic status and he further explain that socioeconomic status is usually a measure of the income and occupation of the individuals, irrespective of his or her educational or social standing. According to him this has a tremendous influence on students‘ anti- social behaviour.

2.4 The role of school on child anti-social behaviour Antisocial behaviour can be a manifestation associated with individual improvement that is certainly socially bothersome and also unwelcome with unique amounts of interpersonal lifetime. Inside look at association with criminology, interpersonal ecology versions contemplate individual relationships bought into unique amounts of group in the individual via linkages to more substantial social support systems (Collins, & Russell 2001); In accordance with that viewpoint, individuals tend to be set within

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202 areas and also interpersonal establishments which indicate the particular national prices associated with contemporary society (Fergusson, 2002).

2.5 Parental Conflict and disruption in the family John Bowlby (2001) popularized the theory that broken homes cause delinquency. He argued that mother love in infancy and childhood was just as important for mental health as were vitamins and proteins for physical health. He thought that it was essential that a child should experience a warm, loving, and continuous relationship with a mother figure. If a child suffered a prolonged period of maternal deprivation during the first 5 years of life, this would have irreversible negative effects, including becoming a cold affectionless character and a delinquent.

3. Research Methodology

In collecting quantitative data, the researcher used a questionnaire to solicit information from the selected students. The questionnaire consisted of both open-ended and closed- ended questions. The questionnaire was closely administered. The questionnaire was the preferred instrument of data collection because it helped the researcher reach a large sample within a limited time, and confidentiality was upheld (Creswell, 2003). The questionnaire was in two parts. Part one aimed at collecting data on (demographic information) personal and general details and part two consisted of open ended and structured questions. The questions were based on the research objectives. The questionnaires for the teachers required them to tick responses that are relevant to their schools on the issues underlying factors influencing antisocial behaviour among school children of Kiambaa Constituency.

4. Findings and Discussions

4.1 Response rate

Out of the 80 Questionnaires that were issued to the students, 72 of the Questionnaires were correctly filled and returned. This represented a response rate of 90%, only 8 of the Questionnaires returned were not correctly filled and therefore these were disqualified which represented 10% of the total Questionnaires which were issued.

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203 5.2 School variables and the degree of importance on influencing anti-social behavior

Table 1: School variables and the degree of Importance on Influencing Anti-socialbehavior School variables and their role in Antisocial Very important Moderate less Not Mean behavior School is part of meso-system that influence on children behavior 35 12 6 8 11 3.43 Peer social support system inside the institution contribute to behavior development 36 11 8 6 11 3.47 Parental help acquired with the manifestation of the family methods 34 13 10 6 9 3.5 Mastering of the natural environment provides an opportunity to understand social behavior 10 6 9 9 5 3.55 Developmental adjustments happening among the youth [produces a level associated with transition by parental influence and peer influence 38 9 6 10 7 3.5

The study sought to establish the respondents school variables and their development of antisocial behaviour. From the findings majority of the respondents strongly agreed that School is part of meso-system that has influence on children behaviour. This was shown by a mean score of 3.43; other respondents agreed that Peer social support systems inside the institution contribute to the behavioral development this was shown by a mean score of 3.47. Parents help are acquired with the manifestation of the family methods this was shown by a mean score of 3.55. Consequently, particular mastering of the natural environment provides an opportunity to understand pro social behavior this was shown by a mean score of 3.50. Developmental adjustments happening among the youth produces a level associated with transition by parental influence and peer influence this was shown by a mean score of 3.56. Finally, school was found to be part of meso system that influence on students‘ behaviour.

By implication school is considered to be part of meso system that influence children behaviors, moreover Peer social support systems inside the school contributes to the behavioral development among the children, Parental help acquired with the manifestation of the family methods are pertinent to the determination of children behaviors, mastering of the natural environment provides an opportunity to understand anti social behavior in children and therefore appropriate remedies can be taken with immediate effect.

Developmental adjustments happening among the youth produces a level associated with transition due to parental influence and peer influence from the other children, racial minority groups tend to be a sign associated with interpersonal conditions relevant to the caliber of family interpersonal capital inside the school meso system.

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204 4.3 Importance of types of parental support

Table 2 Degree of importance of types of parental support on behavioral development School variables and Very Important Moderate Less Not Mean their role in Antisocial Important Important Important

Love 35 12 6 8 11 3.55 Nurturance 36 11 8 6 11 3.62 Empathy 34 13 10 6 9 3.68 Acceptance 37 10 9 9 5 3.62 Guidance 38 9 6 10 7 3.51 Information 39 8 6 8 11 3.55 Material resources 8 3 9 8 11 3.54 Source: research data

Further the respondents were also asked to rate the importance of some of the aspects of the parental support on child behavioral development. From the findings majority of the respondents revealed that Love was very important in the child behavioral development and this was shown by a mean score of 3.55, other respondents reported that Nurturance, empathy and acceptance were equally important in the child behavioral development and these were shown by a mean score of 3.62, 3.68, 3.62 respectively.

5. Conclusions

The aim of the study was to to assess the role of parental guidance in influencing anti- social behavior among school going studentsFrom the findings the study concludes that presence of both parents contributes greatly to the development of parent-child relationship. Tthe study concludes that love, empathy and acceptance from the parents, guidance, information and material resources contribute considerably to the behavior development in children. Therefore, parental behavioral characters are bound to contribute consistently on influencing the behavior of the child

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205 [5] Brennan, P. A., Grekin, E. R., &Mednick, S. A. (2009). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and adult male criminal outcomes. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 215–219. [6] Bigner, P. A., Mednick, B. R., &Mednick, S. A. (1993). Parental psychopathology, congenital factors, and violence. In S. Hodgins (Ed.), mental disorder and crime (pp. 244–261). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. [7] Bronstein, P., Clauson, J., Frankel Stoll, M., & Abrams, C. L. (2003). Parenting behaviour and children‘s social, psychological, and academic adjustment in diverse family structures. Family Relations, 42, 268-276. [8] Brownfield, D., & Sorenson, A. M. (1994). Sibling size and sibling delinquency. Deviant Behavior, 15, 45–61.72 [9] Collins, & Russell, G. R. (1991). Relation of parental transitions to boys‘ adjustment problems. Developmental Psychology, 27, 489–504. [10] Carlson, E. A., &Sroufe, L. A. (2005). Contribution of attachment theory to developmental psycho- pathology. [11] Darling, N., & Steinberg, L. (2003). Parenting style in context: An integrative model. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 487–496. 73 [12] Eron, L. D., Huesman, L. R., &Zelli, A. (1991). The role of parental variables in the learning of aggression. In D. J. Pepler& K. J. Rubin (Eds.), the development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 169–188). [13] Farrington, D. P. (2006). Childhood, adolescent and adult features of violent males. In L. R. [14] Huesmann (Ed.), Aggressive behaviour: Current perspectives (pp. 215– 240). New York: Plenum. [15] Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., &Lynskey, M. T. (1992). Family change, parental discord and early offending. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33.1059–1075. [16] Fischer, D. G. (2004). Family size and delinquency. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 58, 527–534. [17] Forehand, R., Biggar, H., &Kotchick, B. A. (1998). Cumulative risk across family stressors: Short- and long-term effects for adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 119–128. [18] Frick, P. J., Christian, R. E., &Wootton, J. M. (2001). Age trends in the association between parenting practices and conduct problems. Behavior Modification, 23, 106–128. [19] Herrenkohl, T. I., Maguin, E., Hill, K. G., Hawkins, J. D., Abbott, R. D., & Catalano, R. F. (2000). Developmental risk factors for youth violence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 26, 176–186. [20] Demuth & Brown leafy (2004) D. P. (1992). Juvenile delinquency. In J. C. Coleman (Ed.), the school years (2nd ed., pp. 123–163). London, UK: [21] Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Farrington, D. P. (1991). Childhood aggression and adult violence: Early precursors and later life outcomes. In

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206 D. J. Pepler& K. H. Rubin (Eds.), the development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 5–29). [22] Hunter, A. G., &Ensminger, M. E. (1992). Diversity and fluidity in children‘s living arrangements: Family transitions in an urban Afro- American community. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 54, 418–426. [23] Kolvin, I., Miller, F. J. W., Fleeting, M., &Kolvin, P. A. (2007). Social and parenting factors affecting criminal-offence rates: Findings from the Newcastle Thousand Family Study (1947–1980). British Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 80–90. [24] Lipsey, M. W. &Derzon, J. H. (1998). Predictors of violent or serious delinquency in adolescence and early adulthood: A synthesis of longitudinal research. In R. Loeber& D. [25] P. Farrington (Eds.) Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions (pp. 86–105). Thou- sand Oaks, CA: Sage. [26] Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & White, H. R. (2008). Violence and serious theft: Development and prediction from childhood to adulthood.

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207 A Preliminary Study of Aflatoxin Levels in Peanut Butter in Local Market in Kenya By: W. Bibi1 and Kimathi, J.2 1: Gretsa University: Email: [email protected]: Phone: +254722 68 77 95 2: Gretsa University: Email: [email protected]: Phone: +254713 67 77 01 Abstract Contamination of foods with toxigenic aflatoxins, (AF), poses a national health hazard in Kenya. Cereals and nuts are often contaminated, but peanut products, widely used in parts of the country, have not attracted national attention as yet. This study attempted to provide preliminary data as a basis for a possible national surveillance programme. Peanut butter bought off the shelves of local provision stores was examined for the content of toxigenic aflatoxin. Ten samples, representing 10 different manufacturers, were obtained from random supermarkets in Nairobi, Nakuru and Kisumu. Each sample was obtained by pooling 3 x 250 gm retail packets, from which 100g was then used. The samples were extracted with organic solvents to remove lipid impurities according to standard procedure. The aqueous extracts were examined for aflatoxins B and G by means of thin layer chromatography, (TLC). Results revealed AF concentration varying from 0.3-5.10 ug/gm. Two of the samples had AF contamination of 4.95±0.09, and 5.10±0.09 µg/gm respectively, indicating that some peanut butter products could pose a health hazard. It is recommended that further work should seek to confirm these toxins and contamination levels. The results suggest a need to set AF limits for peanut products, and other foods in Kenya. Key words: Peanut butter, Aflatoxins, toxigenicity, food safety 1. Introduction Mycotoxin is fungal toxic metabolites which naturally adulterate food and feed. According to Alcaide-Molina et al., (2009), Aflatoxins (AFs) are the main noxious metabolites of some Aspergillus moulds like Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus. Alcaide-Molina et al., (2009) showed that Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus omius also produce B aflatoxins and G aflatoxins respectively. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), an estimate of 25% of the world‘s crops is affected by mycotoxins, and the majority is aflatoxins. Aflatoxin is produced on different nuts and grains, such as pistachio nuts, cotton seed, dried fruits sorghum, peanuts, cereals, copra, cocoa, spices fruits, oilseeds, in the field and during storage. AFs mostly occur in regions with hot and humid conditions where there is high temperature and humidity is optimum for growth of moulds and toxin production (Zollner & Mayer-Helm, 2006; Ventura et al., 2004). A study by Anwar- Ul_Haq & Iqbal, 2004, showed that aflatoxins, when ingested, inhaled or adsorbed through the skin, have carcinogenic, hepatotoxic, teratogenic and mutagenic effects in human beings and animals such as rats, ferrets, ducks, trout, dogs, turkeys, cattle and pigs even at very low concentrations.

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208 According to Cucci et al., (2007), aflatoxin levels are regulated in over 80 countries although their legislation is not properly harmonized to be at per with internationally recommended levels. The European Union (EU) has the most rigorous regulations relating to mycotoxins in human food. The limits of aflatoxins B1 and total aflatoxins in foods are 5µg/kg and 10µg/kg, respectively in over 76 countries around the world, whilst in EU it is 2 µg/kg and 4 µg/kg respectively (Herzallah, 2009). The maximum remnant levels for total aflatoxins and also for the most toxic of them, the aflatoxin B1, according to the European Union Commission Regulations are indicated as 2 g/kg and 4 g/kg respectively. According to Ricci et al., (2007), the European Committee Regulations (ECR) has established the maximum acceptable level of Aflatoxin B1 in peanuts, dried and cereals fruits for direct human consumption as 4ng/g for total aflatoxins i.e. AFG2, AFB2, AFG1 and AFB1 and 2ng/g for AFB1 alone. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies aflatoxins in Group 1 of human carcinogens (Alcaide-Molina et al., 2009). According to International Research Livestock Institute (ILRI), acute exposure to high levels of aflatoxins may result in liver failure and rapid death. Chronic exposure, particularly humans aggravate infectious diseases and may result to myriad problems such as weakened immune systems, liver cirrhosis, cancer, and stunted growth in children. This appears to be caused by the ability of Aflatoxin B and G to generate cyclobutane type dimers, usually thymine dimers, between adjacent pyrimidines. The bases are so severely damaged that hydrogen bonding between base pairs is impaired or prevented, and the damaged DNA can no longer act as a template, (Klein, 1984). To protect consumers against the harmful effects of aflatoxins, countries need to specify maximum limit levels of these values. Food exceeding these maximum permitted levels should not be allowed in the market or availed for consumption. Kenya does not appear to have published tolerable or permitted AF levels as yet. This investigation is a preliminary survey to establish whether the pea nut butter commonly available on the local supermarkets may have AF levels that could cause health concerns. Peanuts are generally rarely controlled for quality. 2. Quantification and Detection Part of the challenges when dealing with AFs is the low critical concentrations for toxicity. Several methodologies for detection and quantification of Aflatoxins have been developed. Among these are: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA); electrochemical techniques, (Rameil et al., 2010; Tan et al., 2009; Neagu et al., 2009; Piermarini et al., 2007); various modifications of chromatography (Vosough et al., 2010; Cavaliere et al., 2006); spectrometry, (Tripathi & Mishra,2009); Biosensors, (Nayak et al., 2009) and Adsorptive stripping voltammetry, (Hajian & Ensafi (2009). This investigation used the thin layer chromatography, (TLC) due to its comparative simplicity and relative accuracy.

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209 3. Research Methodology Ten samples of peanut butter were purchased from various local provision stores. They were coded randomly to preserve the identity of the manufacturer and submitted to the laboratory for analysis. A measured quantity of each was extracted with organic solvents, according to standard methods, (Sherma, 2000; Fuchs et al, 2010), as described below. 100g of each sample was ground in a mixer and 250 ml of methanol and 25 ml water added. The mixture was thoroughly shaken in a vortex mixer for 3 minutes, and 75 ml of water added, and the mixing continued for a further 3 minutes. An aliquot of 70 ml was transferred into a separatory funnel and 50 ml of low-boiling point petroleum ether added, plus a further 55 ml water and 5g sodium Chloride. The mixture was shaken for further 2 minutes. The organic phase was discarded and 20 ml of water was added to the aqueous phase and extracted with 90 ml of chloroform by shaking for 2 minutes. The chloroform extracts were collected together and dried with anhydrous Sodium sulphate. The filtered extracts were then dried at 30oC under reduced pressure in a rotary evaporator. The residue in the flask was picked up with 1 ml of chloroform and 10 microliters was applied onto a TLC plate. Calibration of standards Standard were prepared from commercially available aflatoxins by making stock solutions containing 1 mg/ml each of aflatoxin B1 and G1 and 0.5 mg/ml B2 and G2 in benzene: acetonitrile (98:2). From this stock solution, the actual calibrated standard was prepared by diluting with chloroform 1:50, so that 1 ml contained 20 µg each of B1 and G1 and 10 pg. each of B2 and G2. Chromatography Both sample and standards were subjected to thin layer chromatography, (TLC), using Kiesel G of 0.5 mm thickness. The adsorbent was prepared in 0.1N Oxalic acid. A two- step developing technique was used. After applying 2-10ml of sample and standards, the chromatogram was equilibrated in a tank containing chloroform: acetone (88:12). The first separation step was carried out with freshly dried ethyl ether and removed residual lipids impurities. After the portion of the TLC sheet on which the impurities were contained was cut off, the sheet was turned through 180oC and the chromatogram run in chloroform: acetone (88:12). Aflatoxin chromatograms were compared with the standards for identification. They were scrapped off the TLC and eluted with chloroform and evaporated to dryness using a rotary evaporator at 300oC. The weights were determined by an analytical balance.

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210 4. Findings and Discussions Sample Aflatoxin, (µg/gm.) 695 0.45±0.03 055 0.45± 0.04 707 4.95±0.09

595 5.10±0.90 471 0.50±0.06 337 0.45±0.02

716 0.60±0.03 089 0.30±0.04 088 0.30±0.04

931 0.90±0.01 832 0.35±0.07 362 0.90±0.01

The aflatoxin concentration varies from 0.3-5.10 ug/gm. The results show that two of the samples (707 and 595) had remarkably high levels of AF contamination, (4.95±0.09, and 5.10±0.09 µg/gm respectively). Masaokis (1970), working with A. flavus, found compounds which gave blue and green fluorescence on TLC, and which were similar to B1 and G1. But these were proved to be pyrazine compounds and were not toxic to mice. Further work is required to confirm the identity of the compounds detected in this study. If confirmed, this could be a real cause for concern, and might necessitate closer monitoring of peanut products in the local market.

This study can be collaborated with another study in from the 2007 Kenya AIDS Indicator survey — a nationally representative, cross-sectional survey- in which aflatoxin B1 was detected in 78% of the specimens. Exposure varied by geographical region, with the highest levels recorded at the Coast and Eastern part of Kenya and the least in Rift Valley and Nyanza.

It would appear that human exposure to aflatoxin in Kenya can be considered to be a public health problem, in light of the widespread exposure. The researchers did not identify any data in Kenya that currently shows specifications for tolerable levels of aflatoxins of foods. References

[1] Anwar-ul-Haq & M.M Iqbal (2004): Determination of aflatoxin-B1 in poultry feed and its components employing enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA); Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry, Volume 86, (4).

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211 [2] Cucci, C., Mignani, A.G., Dall‘Asta, C., Pela, and Dossena, R. A. (2007): A portable fluorometer for the rapid screening of M1 aflatoxin. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical Volume 126, (2) 467-472. [3] Cavaliere, C., Foglia, P., Pastorini, E., Samperi R., and Aldo Laganà, A. (2006): Liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometric confirmatory method for determining aflatoxin M1 in cow milk: Comparison between electrospray and atmospheric pressure photoionization sources: Journal of Chromatography A: Volume 1101, (1–2), Pages 69-78. [4] Neagu, D., Perrino, S., Micheli, L., Palleschi, G., and Moscone, D. (2009): Aflatoxin M1 determination and stability study in milk samples using a screen-printed 96-well electrochemical microplate: International Dairy Journal, Volume 19, (12), Pages 753-758. [5] Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), Worldwide Regulations on Aflatoxins—The Situation in 2002, Journal of Toxicology: Toxin Reviews Volume 23, (2-3). [6] International Research Livestock Institute (ILRI) 2015: Reducing human exposure to aflatoxins in poor countries: Towards new technologies and practices. [7] Herzallah, (2009): Determination of aflatoxins in eggs, milk, meat and meat products using HPLC fluorescent and UV detectors, Food Chemistry, Volume 114, (3), Pages 1141-1146. [8] Hajian and Ensafi (2009); Determination of aflatoxins B1 and B2 by adsorptive cathodic stripping voltammetry in groundnut. Food Chemistry, Volume 115, (3), Pages 1034-1037. [9] J. Mehrzad, J., G. Klein, G., J. Kamphues, J., P. Wolf, P., N. Grabowski, N., and Schuberth, H.J., (2011): In vitro effects of very low levels of aflatoxin B1 on free radicals‘ production and bactericidal activity of bovine blood neutrophils; Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology, Volume 141, (1–2), Pages 16-25. [10] Klein, H. (1984): Mycotoxins: Production, Isolation, And Separation: In: Microbiology, Prescott, 4th Ed. Betina, V. (Ed.) [11] Alcaide-Molina, M., Ruiz-Jiménez, J., Mata-Granados, J.M., and Luque de Castro, M.D. (2009): High through-put aflatoxin determination in plant material by automated solid-phase extraction on-line coupled to laser- induced fluorescence screening and determination by liquid chromatography–triple quadrupole mass spectrometry; Journal of Chromatography A Volume 1216, (7), Pages 1115-1125. [12] Vosough, M., Bayat, M., Salemi, (2010): Matrix-free analysis of aflatoxins in pistachio nuts using parallel factor modeling of liquid chromatography diode-array detection data: Analytica Chimica Acta, Volume 663, (1), Pages 11-18. [13] Sasaki, M., Kaneko Y., Oshita, K., Hiroshi Takamatsu1, Yasuo Asao, and Tamotsu Masaokis Yokotsuka (1970): Studies on the Compounds Produced by Molds Part VII. AgriBiol. Chem. Vol. 24 (9), pg. 1296 – 1300.

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212 [14] Ventura, M., Gómez, A., Anaya, A., Díaz, J., Broto, F., Agut, M., and Comellas, L., (2004): Determination of aflatoxins B1, G1, B2 and G2 in medicinal herbs by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry: Journal of Chromatography A Volume 1048, (1), Pages 25-29. [15] Nayak S. N, Agarwal G, Pandey, M.K, Sudini H.K, Jayale A.S., Purohit S., Desai, A., Guo, L., Liao, B., Varshney R.K., (2007), Aspergillus flavus infection triggered immune responses and host-pathogen cross-talks in groundnut during in-vitro seed colonization. [16] Piermarini, S., Micheli., L., Ammida, N.H., Palleschi, G, and Moscone, D. (2007); Electrochemical immunosensor array using a 96-well screen-printed microplate for aflatoxin B1 detection. Biosensors and Bioelectronics: Volume 22, (7), Pages 1434-1440. [17] Sophia M., Evangelia, F., Dimitris, I. and Spyridon, K. (2017) Development of a cellular biosensor for the detection of aflatoxin B1, based on the interaction of membrane engineered Vero cells with anti-AFB1 antibodies on the surface of gold nanoparticle screen printed electrodes. Food Control 73, pages 64-70. [18] Rameil, S., Schubert, P., Grundmann, P., Dietrich, R., and Märtlbauer, E. (2010). Use of 3- (4-hydroxyphenyl) propionic acid as electron donating compound in a potentiometric aflatoxin M1-immunosensor. Analytica Chimica Acta, 661(1):122– 127. [19] Njoroge, S.M.C., Limbikani Matumba, Kanenga, K., Siambi, M., Farid Waliyar, Maruwo, J., and Monyo, E. S., (2016): A Case for Regular Aflatoxin Monitoring in Peanut Butter in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons from a 3-Year Survey in Zambia. Journal of Food Protection: May 2016, Vol. 79, (5), pp. 795-800. [20] Tripathi, S., and Mishra, H.N., (2011): Modeling and Optimization of Enzymatic Degradation of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in Red Chili Powder Using Response Surface Methodology: Food and Bioprocess Technology, Volume 4, (5), pp 770–780. [21] Yun Tan, Xia Chu, Guo-Li Shen, Ru-Qin Yu (2009): A signal-amplified electrochemical immunosensor for aflatoxin B1 determination in rice: Analytical Biochemistry Volume 387, (1), Pages 82-86. [22] Zollner and Mayer-Helm, (2006): Trace mycotoxin analysis in complex biological and food matrices by liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure ionisation mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography, Volume 1136, (2), Pages 123-169.

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213 Factors Affecting the Performance of Madaraka Market Community Project at Kamenu Ward, in Thika Sub-County Kenya By Muthoni E. H1 and Muriuki J.M2 1. Gretsa University, Thika - Email: [email protected]+254 0722667768

2. Gretsa University, Thika- Email [email protected] + 254 0725126473

Abstract

The study sought to establish the various effects of political, social and economic factors on Madaraka market community project in Kamenu Ward Thika Sub-county, Kiambu County. Although the market project has existed since 1999, and received financing from national and county governments, it has performed dismally in economic gains and benefits to members. A descriptive survey method was adopted where self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data from respondents. A simple random sampling was used, a total of 50 questionnaires were filled, coded and keyed in for data analysis. The response rate was 83.33%. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. The study established that the performance of Madaraka market project has been affected by political, social and economic factors, with the most significant effects being of political nature (70%). Congestion is a major social factor affecting its performance and 72.6% of members are dissatisfied with the economic gains from the market. The study recommendations that the local community should be fully involved in the running of the project, the county government and local leaders should develop ways of decongesting the market and the market management should develop ways of adding value to the products and services by adopting innovation and modern technology. The findings will give insights to county government, local leaders and policy makers.

Key Words: Community project, Socio-economic Factors, Project Management, Politics.

1. Introduction In history, human civilizations have undertaken various types of projects in order to promote social transformation and development. Since 1950s, the development agenda has focused on projects and programs which are aimed at improving the quality of life of the target communities physically or qualitatively (Chikati, 2009) Projects have contributed to positive changes that benefit society in general and improved living conditions for many people (Cleland & Ireland, 2007). The nature of projects is that they vary in scale, purpose and duration. Projects represent the commitment of human and physical resources to produce specific outputs in a given time and budget framework. They may be initiated by a community requiring modest inputs and producing tangible outputs within a relatively short timeframe. According to Chikati

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214 (2009), the aspect of sound project implementation and management is vital for the success of any project whether community based or business project.

Before the Second World War in 1945, the main emphasis in the development of tropical countries was on communications and material resources. There was much less emphasis on small-scale development specifically related to the needs and welfare of the people in their local communities. Today the governments of most tropical countries are aware of the need to foster development in local communities as well as nationally and actually have special programs to stimulate and help communities to improve their livelihoods. These are known as community development projects. Such programs are not limited to the national governments but have become the main concern of several intergovernmental agencies such as United Nation Aid for International Development (USAID) and a wide variety of local community-based organizations (CBOs). Thus, the field of community development includes any action by any agency primarily designed to benefit the community.

In Tanzania, the full potential of the CBOs has yet to be tapped due to the existence of a number of constraints such as lack of planning, improper financing and poor management. Poor governance has also been identified as one of the most serious constraints facing CBO projects and hindering their profitability (Oketch, 2000). CBOs have projects that are supposed to generate income to fund their operations and also meet the needs of their beneficiaries. Most do not meet this requirement due to challenges in their financial management practices, governance, project management practices and community participation. Busiinge (2010) through his research on ‗The Impact of Donor Aided Projects through NGOs on the Social and Economic Welfare of the Rural Poor‘ established that that the communities don‘t own the projects that they implement and unless there was money they did not want to participate. This has created wrong perceptions and lack of participation in community projects.

2. Objective of the Study

The objective of the study was to establish the various effects of political, social and economic factors on the performance of Madaraka market community project of Kamenu Ward, Thika, Kiambu County.

3. Literature Review

3.1 Project implementation

Project implementation involves the execution of planned activities which converts human and physical resources into a product or service of value to the customers (Chikati, 2009). The way in which the project is implemented can have a significant impact on its success. Project implementation is a complex process usually comprising of multiple variables which influence implementation including resources management, organizational structure, project leadership and environment. Projects are

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215 often initiated in the context of a turbulent, unpredictable and dynamic environment (Jeffrey and Dennis, 1987). It is an effective means of learning from experience on projects that combines explicit knowledge with tacit knowledge in a way that encourages people to learn and to apply that learning into continuous improvement of project management processes and practices (Kerzner, 2000).

3.2 Political effects on projects

Projects are influenced by multiple factors which can be external or internal to the organization responsible for its management and execution. These include poor project management, inadequate opportunities for potential beneficiaries to participate in project, identification and design, poor linkages between project activities and project purpose, insufficient attention to external environment during project design, among others. It has also been recognized that projects were likely to succeed when account was taken of socio-economic context in which they operated (Batten, 1957). The important thing for the project manager is to recognize what these factors are and how they impact on the project during the various phases from inception to final hand-over, or even disposal.

Poor governance has also been identified as one of the most serious constraints facing community projects and hindering their profitability (Oketch, 2000). Politics manifests itself in all organizations as opinions and attitudes of the different stakeholders in these organizations. In addition, the stakeholders relied upon by the project may also have their own agenda and preferences for participating in the project. The relationships to the project by these stakeholders can vary from very supportive to antagonistic, but depending on their field of influence, must be considered and managed. However, neither the sponsor nor the project manager has control over external politics such as political turmoil which may disrupt the management of the project.

3.3 Social effects on projects

The effect of the community attitudes and its leadership on implementation of projects is clearly captured by Busiinge C. (2010) in his research publication ‗The Impact of Donor Aided Projects through NGOs on the Social and Economic Welfare of the Rural Poor‘. He reports that interviews with the NGO staff revealed that the communities don‘t own the projects that they implement and unless there was money they did not want to participate. Some of local leaders complained that people no longer attend their meetings because they did not have the allowances. It was also emerging from interviews with communities that projects often undermined what people know and they participate for formality reasons and not because they believed in the project (Busiinge, 2010).

The rationale of addressing socio-economic and gender issues in project implementation is a strategy to achieve sustainable development. Projects managers should identify and understand the different roles and entitlements between men and

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216 women in the target communities, and the special challenges faced by disadvantaged groups (Chikati, 2009 :). On local leadership, Busiinge advises that it has an important role to play and can therefore not afford to sit back and watch as projects crumble. While the NGOs in Uganda have played an active role to monitor the performance of government programs, local leaders need to step up their efforts to monitor the implementation of local projects.

3.4 Economic Effects on community projects

Economic factors involve the internal economics principle relating to the viability of a project holds that unless there is a net gain there is no point in even considering embarking on a project. The external or macroeconomic relate to high interest rates and prices, tariff barriers, embargoes and shipping restrictions, among other influences, of which the project manager have no control over. Many projects, and indeed most construction projects, inevitably affect the communities in whose area they are carried out. Conversely, the opposite holds true that the benefitting communities also affect projects being rolled out their areas. It is vital therefore to inform the residents in the affected areas as early as possible of the intent, purpose and benefits to the community of the project. Some projects cannot be started until after a public inquiry, environmental impact assessment, route survey or lengthy planning procedures. It goes without saying that unless a project is technically sound it will end in failure.

4. Research Methodology The research adopted descriptive survey method and was carried out at Kamenu Ward, Thika Sub-County, Kiambu County, Kenya. The target population was members of the Madaraka market on that particular market day. Simple random sampling was adopted and members of the market were picked at random. Gender factor was also considered in sampling.

Data was collected using a Likert scale and The Statistical Package for Social Sciences was used to generate descriptive statistics such as mean, median and standard deviation. Data was presented inform of figures, tables and text.

4. Findings and Discussions

4.1 Response rate

A total of 60 questionnaires were issued out to the respondents 10 of them were invalid had incomplete data and could therefore not be used in data analysis. Only 50 questionnaires were coded and keyed in for data analysis. The response rate was 83.3%.

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217 4.2 Demographics

4.2.1 Gender

Table 1 reports the descriptive statistics of the respondents in this study. Of the total respondents 19 (38%) were males and 31(68%) were females. These findings indicate that the majority of respondents were females

Table 1: Sample Characteristics Sex Frequency (n) % Male 19 38 Female 31 62

4.2.2 Age of respondents

According to table 2, majority of the respondents 21 (42%) are young people aged between 20-30 years followed by old people over 50 years 13 (26%).

Table 2: Age of Respondents Age range Frequency Percentage Below 20 years 1 2% 20-30 years 21 42 31-40 years 6 12 41-50 years 9 18 Over 50 years 13 26

4.2.3 Level of education of respondents

According to table 3, the majority of respondents 22(43% had attained primary level education while 6 respondents (11.8%) had secondary education, 9 (17.6%) had post tertiary education and 12 (23.4%) had University education.

Table 3: Level of Education Educational level Frequency Percent Non-formal 1 2.0 Primary 22 43.1 Secondary 6 11.8 Tertiary 9 17.6 University 12 23.5 Total 50 98.0 100.0

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218 4.3 Analysis on Study Objectives

4.3.1 The effects of political factors on Madaraka market

According to table 4, regarding the effects of political factors on Madaraka market project, most respondents 34 out of 50 (68%) (Mean=3.74, SD=1.259) agree that politics has negatively impacted on the performance and success of Madaraka market only 11 (21.6%) of respondents disagreed with the statement while only 5(9.8% remained neutral on political effects. Regarding governance, 35 respondents 68.7% (Mean=3.92, SD=1.140) agreed that power struggles between the county and national government also interfered with the smooth operations of the market project. However, 5 (9.8%) of respondents disagreed with the statement while 10 (19.6%) were neutral. Only 18 respondents out of 50 agreed that local leaders are committed in the implementation of Madaraka market project.19 respondents remained neutral (Mean=3.04, SD=.903). Most members were therefore non-committal about the local leaders‘ involvement in the project. Most members 38 respondents out of 50 agree that there is competition for resources amongst the various stakeholders of the market (Mean= 4.0, SD=1.229). This may have an impact on the participation of the local leaders some of whom may have vested interest therefore reducing their level of commitment.

Table 4: Political Effects on Madaraka market There are Conflict of power interests between struggles There is the national and Politics has affecting the competition for county Local leaders are negatively smooth resources governments has committed in affected the running of among various affected smooth implementation of performance of Madaraka stakeholders of running of Madaraka market Madaraka market Madaraka Madaraka market community project market project project market project project. Valid 50 50 50 50 50 N Missing 1 1 1 1 1 Mean 3.04 3.74 3.92 4.00 3.92 Median 3.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 Std. .903 1.259 1.175 1.229 1.140 Deviation Variance .815 1.584 1.381 1.510 1.300 Range 3 4 4 4 4 Minimum 1 1 1 1 1 Maximum 4 5 5 5 5

4.3.2 Effects of Social Factors on Madaraka Market Project

According to the table 5 below, in regard to the effects of social factors, 37 respondents which is 72% agreed that there is overpopulation or congestion in Madaraka market.34 respondents agree that local community is involved in the running of Madaraka market project while 13(25.5%) disagree. Critically, although the local community may be involved in daily activities of the market project, the expected gain could be reversed by political competition and disunity hence the dismal performance of the market

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981

219 project. Regarding the use of modern technology, 76.6% of respondents agree that the management has adopted the use of modern technology in its management. However, this needs caution because technology is a wide concept which needs proper definition in this case. Regarding the impact of the project on local community, 21 respondents which is 41.2% agree that the project is involved in uplifting the livings standards of the local community while 22(43.1%) disagree on the same

Table 5: The effects of social factors on madaraka market There is networking among various Local stakeholders

community of the market There are threats The market is involved which from other is involved The market in the benefits the markets which in uplifting administration There is running of Madaraka interferes with the living has adopted the overpopulation Madaraka market implementation conditions use of modern in Madaraka market community of Makadara of the local technology in Market project project market population its management Valid 50 50 50 50 50 50 N Missing 1 1 1 1 1 1 Mean 4.14 3.70 3.44 3.08 2.92 3.96 Median 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 Std. 1.010 1.389 1.215 1.455 1.510 1.160 Deviation Variance 1.021 1.929 1.476 2.116 2.279 1.345 Range 4 4 4 4 4 4 Minimum 1 1 1 1 1 1 Maximum 5 5 5 5 5 5

4.3.3 Effects of Economic Factors on Madaraka Market

Most respondents expressed satisfaction that the revenue collected from the market is used for its expansion and growth i.e. 43 respondents (84.3%) (Mean=4.04, SD=1.049) Regarding value addition of products, most respondents i.e. 34 out of 50 respondents (66.6%) (Mean=2.42, SD=1.326), disagreed that the market adds value to the products and services; this implied that the members of the market are dissatisfied with value addition of their products. Regarding the economic benefits of the market most members are dissatisfied with the benefits accrued from the market i.e. 28 respondents (54.90%) (Mean 2.42, SD=1.326) The respondents slightly agree that the market has a variety of products to meet their needs 28(54.9%) respondents agreed (Mean= 3.48, SD=1.542) However the members remained neutral or non-committal regarding the existence of corruption on the management of project resources (Mean=2.86, SD=1.246) likewise the respondents were also non-committal about the government support off the project (Mean=2.94, SD=1.542).

Proceedings of Gretsa University International MUltidisciplinary Conference Held on: 6-7 Nov. 2017. ISBN 2521-5981

220 Table 6: Effects of economic factors on Madaraka market project The market The revenue You are The Corruption The market adds value collected satisfied with government exists in the has a variety to your from the the economic supports the management of products products market helps benefits you market of finances to meet the and in its growth. accrue from project and other needs of services Madaraka financially resources of local market. Madaraka community market Valid 50 50 50 50 50 50 N Missing 1 1 1 1 1 1 Mean 2.12 4.04 2.42 2.94 2.86 3.48 Median 1.00 4.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 Std. 1.452 1.049 1.326 1.420 1.246 1.542 Deviation Variance 2.108 1.100 1.759 2.017 1.551 2.377 Range 4 4 4 4 4 4 Minimum 1 1 1 1 1 1 Maximum 5 5 5 5 5 5

Table 7: Value addition of product and services Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent strongly disagree 27 52.9 54.0 54.0 Disagree 7 13.7 14.0 68.0 Neutral 4 7.8 8.0 76.0 Valid Agree 7 13.7 14.0 90.0 strongly agree 5 9.8 10.0 100.0 Total 50 98.0 100.0 Missing System 1 2.0 Total 51 100.0

5. Conclusions The study sought to establish the effects of political, social and economic factors on the performance of Madaraka market community project. Based on the research findings, the study established that the performance of Madaraka market community project has been affected by political, social and economic factors, with the most significant effects being of political nature. Congestion is a major social factor affecting its performance while members are dissatisfied with the current economic gains from the market.

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221 [4] Baccarini, D. (1999). The logical framework method for defining project success. Project Management Journal, 30 (4), 25-32. [5] Beck, G.S. (2004). Human Capital. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research. [6] Berger, P. L., and Neuhaus, R. J. (1977). To Empower People: The Role of Mediating Structures in Public Policy. Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute for Policy Research. [7] Booth, D., L. Hanmer and E. Lovell. (2000). Poverty and transport: A report prepared for the World Bank. [8] Borg, E. (2006). Big Returns on Small Samples: Lessons learned from the Analysis of Small Lunar Samples and Implications for the Future Scientific Exploration of the Moon, Chemie der Edre Geochemistry, Vol 66, pp 163- 185. [9] Busiinge C. (2010), The Impact of Donor Aided Projects through NGOs on the Social and Economic Welfare of the of the rural poor. [10] Chikati, J. (2009), Project Cycle Management, ‗An Integrated Approach and Logical Framework‟. [11] Christenson, J.A. (1989), ‗Themes of Community Development‘. [12] Green, P.G. & Haines, A. (2008), Asset Building& Community Development. [13] Jeffrey K. Pinto & Dennis P. Slevin (1987), Critical Success Factors in Effective Project Implementation. [14] Kothari. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques (2nd Edition) New Delhi: New Age International. [15] Kerzner, H. (2000), Applied Project Management: Best Practices on Implementation.NewYork: John Wiley & Sons. [16] Mugenda O & Mugenda, A. (2003) Research Methods. Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches.Nairobi: ACTS Press. [17] Okumu, C. (2012) Determinants of Sustainability of Women self help groups in Mombasa Island, Mombasa County, Kenya: University of Nairobi, Kenya.

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