Zeit/Geschichte: Amerikanische Alternate Histories Nach 9/11

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Zeit/Geschichte: Amerikanische Alternate Histories Nach 9/11 Birte Otten Zeit/Geschichte Amerikanische Alternate Histories nach 9/11 Dissertation zur Erlangung des philosophischen Doktorgrades an der Philosophischen Fakultät der Georg-August-Universität Göttingen 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Frank Kelleter 2. Gutachterin: Prof. Dr. Barbara Buchenau Göttingen 2012 Inhalt Inhalt 1. Einleitung: Disparitäten und Konvergenzen....................................................... 1 2. Alternate History ................................................................................................... 23 2.1 Entwicklungsgeschichte und Begriffsverständnis ............................................ 24 2.2 Zwischen Fakt und Fiktion: Historiographie und Dichtung ............................. 32 2.3 Kontrafaktische Geschichte: Ziele und Funktionen.......................................... 42 2.4 Alternate History als Science-Fiction............................................................... 50 2.5 Kontrafaktische Literatur und der postmoderne historische Roman ................ 57 2.6 Korpus und Methodik: Alternate History in Zeit und Raum............................ 66 3. Der 11. September 2001 im öffentlichen Diskurs.............................................. 71 3.1 9/11 als historisches und mediales Ereignis ..................................................... 72 3.2 Konstruktion eines politischen Diskurses......................................................... 83 3.3 9/11 als kulturelle und literarische Zäsur? Kontinuität und Bruch................... 93 3.4 Traumatische Geschichte(n) und geschichtliches Trauma ............................. 103 4. Amerikanische Alternate Histories im 9/11-Diskurs ....................................... 115 4.1 „The unfolding of the unforeseen“: Philip Roths The Plot Against America ........................................................................................................... 118 4.1.1 Sicherheit und Unsicherheiten ............................................................... 124 4.1.2 Erlebte und erzählte Geschichte ............................................................ 131 4.1.3 Komplotte in Text und Wirklichkeit...................................................... 140 4.2 „They call that Zugzwang “: Michael Chabons The Yiddish Policemen’s Union .............................................................................................................. 157 4.2.1 Individualisierung von Geschichte ........................................................ 159 4.2.2 Authentizität, Realität und Wirklichkeit................................................ 171 4.2.3 Geordnetes Chaos .................................................................................. 182 4.3 „What shall the history books read?“: Quentin Tarantinos Inglourious Basterds .......................................................................................................... 198 4.3.1 Mit Terror gegen den Krieg................................................................... 202 4.3.2 Trauma, Rache und Macht..................................................................... 213 4.3.3 Zeit/Geschichtliche Kontrolle................................................................ 224 5. Versuchte Ordnung ........................................................................................... 239 6. Literaturverzeichnis .......................................................................................... 254 1. Einleitung: Disparitäten und Konvergenzen 1 1. Einleitung: Disparitäten und Konvergenzen Im März 2011 erschien bei Putnam, einem Imprint des Penguin Verlags, Jeff Greenfields Then Everything Changed: Stunning Alternate Histories of American Politics. Greenfields Buch, das als Bestseller der New York Times gelistet wurde, enthält drei Novellen, die auf der Grundlage wahrer Ereignisse einen alternativen Verlauf der amerikanischen Geschichte des 20. Jahrhunderts beschreiben. Obwohl Greenfields geschichtliche Spekulationen nichts mit den historischen Ereignissen des 11. September 2001 zu tun haben, greift der Titel seines Buches – Then Everything Changed – doch eine Empfindung auf, die unmittelbar nach den Terroranschlägen von New York, Washington und Pennsylvania allgegenwärtig schien und die in den Jahren danach Ausdruck einer breiteren diskursiven Praxis wurde. Der Titel knüpft nicht nur an die zeitgenössischen Erfahrungen seiner Leserinnen und Leser an, sondern folgt auch einem besonders von der Bush-Regierung vertretenen Verständnis von Geschichte als einem durch Zäsuren geprägten Prozess. Damit veranschaulicht er auf prägnante Weise, womit sich die vorliegende Dissertation beschäftigt: mit der Interaktion zwischen dem Genre alternate history und dem öffentlichen Diskurs in den USA nach 9/11. Es ist kein Zufall, dass Greenfields Titel für eine Sammlung kontrafaktischer Spekulationen ausgewählt wurde. Alternate histories, oder auch „Was wäre geschehen, wenn…?“-Erzählungen, setzen in der Regel einen Bruch in der Geschichte voraus, indem sie ein Ereignis der Vergangenheit anders ausgehen lassen, als es sich zugetragen hat. Tatsächlich sind sowohl Terminologie als auch Definition dieser Textform alles andere als klar. So sind neben alternate history auch die Begriffe alternative history, Uchronie, allohistory, parahistorischer Roman, counterfeit world und deviierende historische Romane in Gebrauch.1 An die unterschiedlichen Begrifflichkeiten knüpfen 1 Karen Hellekson, die mit The Alternate History: Refiguring Historical Time (2001) eine der fundiertesten Studien zum Genre geschrieben hat, und Catherine Gallagher, die das kontrafaktische Erzählen in den letzten Jahren zu einem ihrer Forschungsschwerpunkte gemacht hat, verwenden beide den Begriff alternate history. Darko Suvin und Edgar V. McKnight bevorzugen stattdessen den Ausdruck alternative history, der, wie Hellekson feststellt, den Vorteil grammatischer Korrektheit hat (Hellekson „Toward a Taxonomy 249), sich aber nicht durchsetzen konnte. Gordon B. Chamberlain und Gavriel Rosenfeld favorisieren den Begriff allohistory, der von Rosenfeld synonym zu alternate history gebraucht wird und Science-Fiction-Autor Kingsley Amis und Science-Fiction-Forscher Brian W. Aldiss bevorzugen counterfeit world. Im deutschen Sprachraum existieren eine Anzahl unterschiedlicher Begrifflichkeiten für das kontrafaktische Erzählen. Christoph Rodiek verwendet den Begriff Uchronie, Wilhelm Füger und Jörg Helbig sprechen vom parahistorischen Roman und Andreas Martin Widmann 2 1. Einleitung: Disparitäten und Konvergenzen sich teilweise voneinander abweichende Definitionen, die nicht zuletzt auch Fragen nach der Genrezugehörigkeit dieser Texte mit einbeziehen, was im zweiten Kapitel der vorliegenden Studie genauer erläutert wird. An dieser Stelle soll zunächst nur erwähnt werden, dass sich für den englischen und deutschen Sprachraum der Begriff alternate history sowohl bei Autorinnen und Autoren kontrafaktischer Literatur als auch bei Literaturwissenschaftlerinnen und Literaturwissenschaftlern weitestgehend durchgesetzt hat 2 und daher auch in vorliegender Dissertation verwendet werden soll. 3 In der Annahme eines allgegenwärtigen historischen Bruchs liegt also ein wesentliches Merkmal, das das Genre alternate history mit dem 9/11-Diskurs teilt. Greenfields Buchtitel Then Everything Changed illustriert dabei zumindest oberflächlich eine Entwicklung, die bereits vor der Publikation des Buches begonnen hatte: die Aneignung des Genres durch bekannte und renommierte amerikanische Autoren des bildungskulturellen Mainstream. Zu den erfolgreichen literarischen Publikationen zählen im Besonderen Philip Roths The Plot Against America (2004), Michael Chabons The Yiddish Policemen’s Union (2007) und Stephen Kings 11.22.63 (2011). Zur Veröffentlichung von Kings Roman und mit Blick auf die sich verändernde Position kontrafaktischer Texte stellte zuletzt auch Kathleen Singles fest: „That alternate history has achieved a degree of respect among readers outside a specialised fan base is evidenced, for example, by the fact that Stephen King’s newest novel 11/22/63 . is even marketed as an alternate history“ (180-181). Alternate history , ein eher unbekanntes und häufig der Science-Fiction zugeordnetes Subgenre, ist, so deutet diese Entwicklung an, salonfähig geworden. Aber auch Filme über kontrafaktische Geschichte sind in den letzten Jahren immer mehr in den Vordergrund getreten. Neben Kevin Wilmotts C.S.A.: Confederate States of America (2004), Death of a President von Gabriel Range (2006) und Virtual JFK: Vietnam If Kennedy Had Lived von Koji Masutani (2008) hat besonders Quentin Tarantinos Inglourious Basterds (2009) dazu beigetragen, dass das alternate history - Genre ein stetig wachsendes und nicht nur literarisches Publikum erreicht. Ein weiteres Zeichen für die größere Akzeptanz kontrafaktischer Texte ist die Verleihung des hat in der jüngsten deutschsprachigen Studie zur kontrafaktischen Geschichtsdarstellung den Begriff deviierende historische Romane eingeführt. 2 Siehe Hellekson, „Towards a Taxonomy“ 249, Korthals, „Spekulation“ 157-158; Gallagher, „The Way It Wasn’t“. 3 Alle Zitate und Paraphrasierungen, die im vorliegenden Text ohne Seitenzahlen angegeben werden, stammen aus nicht paginierten Internet- bzw. Filmquellen. 1. Einleitung: Disparitäten und Konvergenzen 3 „Sidewise Award“, mit dem seit 1996 die besten kontrafaktischen Publikationen eines Jahres ausgezeichnet werden. Geehrt werden einerseits Texte, die dem Bereich der Science-Fiction- und Fantasy-Literatur zuzuordnen sind, wie beispielsweise Charles Stross’
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