AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL DESKTOP STUDY FOR THE PROPOSED OYSTER BAY WIND ENERGY FACILITY, LOCAL KOUGA MUNICIPALITY, HUMANSDORP DISTRICT, EASTERN CAPE PROVINCE

Prepared for: Savannah Environmental (Pty) Ltd Contact person: Ravisha Ajodhapersadh PO Box 148 Sunninghill 2157 Tel: (011) 234 6621 Fax: (086) 684 0547 Email: [email protected]

Compiled by: Dr Johan Binneman On behalf of: Eastern Cape Heritage Consultants P.O. Box 689 Jeffreys Bay 6330 Tel: 042 2960399 Cell: 0728006322 Email: [email protected]

Date: November 2010 1

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL DESKTOP STUDY FOR THE PROPOSED OYSTER BAY WIND ENERGY FACILITY, LOCAL KOUGA MUNICIPALITY, HUMANSDORP DISTRICT, EASTERN CAPE PROVINCE

Compiled by: Dr Johan Binneman On behalf of: Eastern Cape Heritage Consultants P.O. Box 689 Jeffreys Bay 6330 Tel: 042 2960399 Cell: 0728006322 Email: [email protected]

Note: This archaeological desktop impact assessment has been prepared as part of the scoping phase for the proposed project in accordance with the National Heritage Resources Act 25 of 1999.

SUMMARY

The proposed site for development is approximately 23 square kilometres in size and is situated near Oyster Bay, in the Kouga Municipality and Humansdorp District (Maps 1-2). The area comprises a gently undulating plain deeply incised by rivers such as the Tsitsikamma, Kromme, and Klip Rivers and used mainly for agricultural activities.

The archaeology of the coastal zone (5 km inland from the coast) is -known and has been investigated in some detail by the author in the past. Heritage practitioners also conducted surveys along the adjacent coast for the proposed ESKOM Nuclear Power Station at Thyspunt. These studies indicate that the coastal zone from the Klasies River in the west to the Krom River in the east is one of the richest and most important archaeological cultural landscapes in . Little, however, is known about the archaeology of the adjacent inland area, mainly because no systematic research has been conducted within the area proposed for development. However, the wider region is rich in archaeological sites, and similar sites and materials may be found in the proposed site for development. This may include stone tools dating to 1,5 million years old, fossil bone and stone tools from the past 120 000 years, campsites and material from San and people dating from past the 10 000 years and remains. There are steep valleys which may house small shelters/ where possible archaeological deposits and/or rock paintings may be found (see Appendix 1 for a list of possible archaeological sites that maybe found in the area).

It is recommended that a full phase 1 archaeological impact assessment be conducted to establish the range and importance of the exposed and in situ archaeological heritage materials and features, the potential impact of the development and to make recommendations to minimize possible damage to these sites.

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LOCATION OF THE PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT

The proposed Oyster Bay wind energy facility and associated facilities is situated between the Impofu Dam in the Krom River (north) and Oyster Bay (south) (a distance of approximately 10 kilometres), some 15 kilometres south-west of Humansdorp in the Kouga Municipality and Humansdorp District of the Cacadu District Municipality. It is 23 square kilometres in size and will accommodate up to 80 wind turbines. The site comprised of relatively flat high lying agricultural land and the development will take place on the following farm portions (Maps 1-2):

Portion 3 of Farm Klein River 713 Portion 1, 2, 3, 4 and the Remainder of Farm Rebok Rant 715 Portion 1 and 3 of Farm Ou Werf 738 Portion 5 of Farm Klippedrift 732 Portion 10 and Portion 12 of Farm Kruis Fontein 681

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

The coastal foreland comprises a gently undulating coastal plain deeply incised by the Tsitsikamma, Kromme, and Klip Rivers. A striking of the landscape is the gravelled terraces at various contour intervals (200 m, 100 m, 60 m and 30 m) which are related to a descending sequence of high sea levels (Butzer & Helgren 1972). The coastal region is dominated by rocks of the Cape Supergroup, and Table Mountain quartzites and sandstones underlie most of the area. The coast is characterised by a series of halfmoon sandy bays, Slangbaai, Thysbaai, Seal Bay and St Francis Bay, all facing eastward.

Adjacent to the coast are small dune areas, remnants of a far larger system in the past. These include the well-known Geelhoutboom dunes above the Klasies River Caves, Brandewynkop and the large dune field stretching from Oyster Bay to the mouth of the Kromme River. The latter is an extensive dune field of parallel longitudinal dunes which run in the direction of the prevailing winds (west to east), and are referred to as hairpin dunes (Tinley 1985). These large shifting sand dunes are underlain by ferricretes, calcretes and fossilized dune sands which are situated on top of Table Mountain Sandstones. Due to the continuous movement of the dunes, many archaeological and palaeontological sites are exposed all the time while simultaneously others are covered.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL LITERATURE/RESEARCH REVIEW

Except for two small portions, the proposed area for the development is further than 5 kilometres from the coast, and falls outside the maximum distance coastal related archaeological sites/material, such as shell generally would be found. The immediate coastline and adjacent shifting dune system have been investigated previously, and are rich in open archaeological sites, features and material representing Earlier, Middle and Later Stone Ages. Little is known about the archaeology of the adjacent inland area, mainly because no systematic research has been conducted there. Nevertheless, the following archaeological sites and materials are present in the wider study area. 3

Earlier – 1,5 million to 250 000 years ago

The oldest evidence of the early inhabitants in the region are large stone tools, called hand and cleavers and belong to the Acheulian dating between approximately 1,5 million and 250 000 years old. These stone tools can be found scattered throughout the coastal region in the river gravels that cap the hill tops and slopes in the Humansdorp and Kareedouw regions and on the calcrete floors exposed in the dune systems (for example, on the farm Geelhoutboom) (Laidler 1947; Butzer 1978; Deacon & Geleijnse 1988;). Hand axes and cleavers are also common in the dunes east of Thysbaai, but only a few were observed in the dune system between Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay (Binneman 1996, 2001, 2005). These Earlier Stone Age stone tools are in secondary context and most often mixed with Middle and Later Stone Age material.

Middle Stone Age – 250 000 to ca 30 000 years ago

The large Acheulian stone tools were replaced by smaller stone tools called the (MSA) flake and industries. MSA stone tools occur throughout the region and may date between 250 000 and 30 000 years old. The most important occurrence of Middle Stone Age occupation not only of this region, but also in the world comes from the well-known Klasies River Caves 1 and 5, some 20 kilometres west of the study area. The archaeological deposits at the Klasies River Caves (1-5) date to 120 000 years old. The main site also yielded the world's oldest remains of anatomical modern people (Homo sapiens sapiens) dating to approximately 110 000 years old (Singer & Wymer 1982; Rightmire & Deacon 1991; Deacon 1992, 1993, 1995, 2001; Deacon, H. J & Shuurman, R. 1992; Henderson 1992; Deacon & Deacon 1999). Although were already anatomically modern by 110 000 years ago, they were not yet exhibiting 'modern behaviour' and only developed into culturally modern-behaving humans between 80 000 and 70 000 years ago. This occurred during cultural phases known as the Still Bay and Howieson's Poort time periods/ traditions/industries. The Howison's Poort Industry is well represented at Klasies River 2 (Deacon & Wurz 1996; Wurz 1999).

Middle Stone Age stone artefacts are also found in the dune fields in the region. A few kilometres east of Geelhoutboom, in the Brandwynskop dune field, are large numbers of stone tools, but there is no other material associated with them. The Middle Stone Age sites in the dune field between Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay, however, are also associated with faunal remains. One such site is situated some two kilometres east of Oyster Bay. Here a large assemblage of fossilized bone and brown hyena coprolites were found in association with Howieson's Poort stone tools dating between ca 60 – 70 000 years old (Carrión et al. 2000).

At the eastern end of the dune field are most remarkable Middle Stone Age ‘factory’ sites which consisted of large circular piles of flakes and cores. Most of the flake piles represent unique ‘moments in time’ where large numbers of flakes were produced from a single core. 4

Later Stone Age – last 20 000 years

Some 25 000 years ago the MSA gave way to the Later Stone Age (LSA), a time period marked by large scale technological changes. The period between 20 000 and 14 000 years ago experienced extremely cold climatic conditions (Last Glacial Maximum - the last Ice Age). Archaeological and palaeo-environmental evidence from the wider Oyster Bay coast indicate that the cold temperatures created favourable conditions for grassland expansion, which in turn gave rise to large herds of grazing animals. The mammal remains from archaeological sites indicate that there were several large grazing animal species living on the grassland, for example giant buffalo, giant hartebeest and the Cape horse. After 14 000 years ago the temperature started to warm up again and caused the previously exposed grassland to disappear, causing the extinction of many grassland animal species including the giant buffalo, hartebeest and the Cape horse (Klein 1976).

In comparison to previous time periods, the LSA (especially the past 10 000 years) is characterised by several ‘new’ technological innovations while other cultural artefacts and expressions became more common, such as . New microlithic stone tool types (some fixed to handles with mastic) emerged along with bows and , containers (such as tortoise shell bowls and ostrich eggshell flasks which were sometimes decorated), decorative items, bone tools and much more. For the first time people were buried in caves and rock shelters and often these burials are associated with and marked by painted stones. Others became more common, such as rock art, burials associated with grave goods, painted stones, new microlithic stone tool types, some fixed to handles with mastic, bow and , containers, such as tortoise shell bowls and ostrich eggshell flasks (sometimes decorated), decorative items, bone tools and many more (Deacon & Deacon 1999).

Between 10 000 and 8 000 years ago the terrestrial environment became more closed (bushier) giving rise to small browsing territorial animals that lived in small groups or pairs. Recently the remains of an extinct goat-like bovid dating from this time period, was identified from several archaeological sites in the area. This was the last of the remaining Last Glacial grazing animals to disappear from the archaeological deposits in the Kouga region.

Excellent preservation of organic material in some caves and shelters in the nearby Kouga Mountains yielded remarkable botanical artefacts, such as digging sticks (4 500 years old), fire sticks (5 800 years old), decorated wooden sticks (9 200 years old) and almost complete mummified human remains dating to some 2 000 years ago. Other interesting features are 'storage pits' (hollows lined with plant material) which were used to store seeds for later use, and 'postholes' (often with post still in situ). It would appear that shelters were divided, presumably into small family living areas (Binneman 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999a & b, 2000; Binneman & Hall 1993; Steyn et al. 2007).

The majority of the archaeological sites and material were located within a few hundred metres from the high water mark, but a large number of shell middens were also situated 5 some five kilometres from the coast in the shifting dune bypass system between Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay. Later Stone Age sites include:

Large stone features

Circular and irregular stone features were abundant along the coast. These stone features comprised of fire cracked stones and were usually associated with large amounts of charcoal and small quantities of shellfish and fish remains. Although some of these features contained , they were also associated with other cultural identities i.e Kabeljous Industry (see below). They were found in large clusters or as single features and may represent platforms for shellfish. It may be speculated that the shellfish were cooked or smoked on top of the hot stones to prevent the meat from gathering sand. One of these features was dated to 290 + 50 BP (Pta_3908).

Shell middens with pottery and domesticated fauna and those with pottery only

Both types of sites usually yielded few stone tools and apart from pottery, contained little other cultural material. The Khoi pastoralist middens contained or were dominated by shellfish species that yielded relatively high meat mass per individual species, for example, Solen capensis, Perna Perna and Donax Serra. ‘Ceramic’ middens on the other hand, contained high frequencies or were dominated by shellfish species from the upper balanoid zone, notably Oxystele spp. and P. perna. Species from the lower balanoid zone were as a rule not well represented. The oldest radiocarbon date for pottery in the south- eastern Cape was 1770 + 50 BP (Pta_9311), and the oldest date directly associated with sheep and cattle remains was 1560 + 40 BP (Pta_5982).

Shell middens, without pottery, associated with a quartzite stone industry

This quartzite industry is referred to as the Kabeljous (Binneman 2007). The industry contains a number of quartzite cobble stone tools, for example, hammer stones, bored stones, grindstones, rubbers, cores, cobble and scrapers, flakes and large segments. Sites with this industry date from 4700 BP. The large segments seem to be restricted geographically. They have only been found along the coast from Klasies River Mouth in the west to the Fish River Mouth in the east, but they may extend further east. They date between approximately 3000 and 1800 years BP. In general, these sites were also dominated by P. perna (it is the most abundant shellfish species in the research area) and Patella spp. Species of the lower balanoid zone were usually also well represented. The people responsible for this industry are referred to as hunter-collector-fishers (HCF) or Kabeljous groups. These were mobile groups who lived permanently on the coastal foreland.

Shell middens, without pottery, associated with a silcrete or quartz microlithic Wilton Industry

The people responsible for this Wilton Industry are referred to as hunter-gatherers (HG) or Wilton groups. These were mobile groups presumably from the adjacent Cape Fold Belt 6

Mountains who visited the coast occasionally. Wilton deposits in caves and open-air shell middens contained high frequencies of quartz or silcrete microlithic stone tools similar to those found in the adjacent mountains. Segments, however, were absent from the open- air middens that also contained silcrete. The open-air silcrete sites date between 5180 BP and 1900 BP. The shellfish species in these sites are similar to those represented at sites of the Kabeljous Industry.

Last 2 000 years

The first real change in the socio-economic landscape came some 2 000 years ago when KhoiKhoi pastoralists settled in the region. They were the first food producers in this area and introduced domesticated animals (sheep, goats and cattle) and ceramic vessels to the region. Many sites were found along the adjacent Cape St Francis coast, with the oldest dating to 1 500 years old (Binneman 1996).

PLAN OF STUDY FOR PHASE 1 HIA / EIA PHASE

METHODOLOGY: 1st Phase survey (brief summary)

The site will be surveyed and recorded in detail following the methods discussed below.

The survey will be conducted from a vehicle and on foot following the access roads with as many spot checks as possible. Recommendations from this will be that once the above is available an archaeologist visits these areas for a walk through. All sites, features and material will be recorded by GPS coordinates and plotted on maps/air photographs. Site, features, material and general environment will be digitally recorded.

All sites will be evaluated in terms of: * Type of site - e.g. shell , shell scatter, stone feature etc. * Location and environmental surrounds - e.g. dune, grassland, etc. * Site category - e.g. Later Stone Age, Middle Stone Age etc. * Context and condition - e.g. disturbed, primary or secondary, etc. * Estimated size and depth of deposits * Cultural affinities - e.g. hunter-gatherer, pastoralist, etc. * Record site content - e.g. food waste, cultural material, etc. * Record basic information of finds -e.g. types of bone, shellfish species, raw material used for stone tools, type of stone tools, ceramics, describe stone features etc. * Estimate relative age of sites from cultural material and other information. * Record and describe any graves or burial sites. * Make statement on the importance/significance of site, feature etc. * Rate sites - e.g. national, provincial, local etc.

A report will be compiled and recommendations which include an assessment of the potential impact of development on the sites and proposals for mitigation and/or protection.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Most of the proposed study area is situated outside the five kilometres archaeological sensitive coastal zone. It is therefore highly unlikely that shell middens will be found in the adjacent inland areas. Although little archaeological information is available for the inland 7 part of the proposed Oyster Bay wind energy facility site, there is a wealth of information available within the wider region to determine what possible archaeological artefacts and remains may be encountered during an investigation of the sites. Apart from shell middens, all the other archaeological sites mentioned above may occur in the inland areas. There is also a possibility of encountering painted rock shelters and caves within the river valleys.

It is therefore recommended that a full phase 1 archaeological impact assessment be conducted to establish the range and importance of the exposed and in situ archaeological heritage materials and features, the potential impact of the development and to make recommendations to minimize possible damage to these sites.

REFERENCES

Binneman, J.N.F. 1996. The symbolic construction of communities during the Holocene Later Stone Age in the south-eastern Cape. Unpublished D.Phil. thesis: University of the Witwatersrand. Binneman, J.N.F. 1997. Results from a test excavation at The Havens Cave, Cambria, south- eastern Cape. Southern African Field Archaeology 6:93-105. Binneman, J.N.F. 1998. Results from a test excavation at Kleinpoort Shelter in the Baviaanskloof, Eastern Cape Province. Southern African Field Archaeology 7:90-97. Binneman, J.N.F. 1999a. Results from a test excavation at Groot Kommandokloof Shelter in the Baviaanskloof/Kouga region, Eastern Cape Province. Southern African Field Archaeology 8:100-107. Binneman, J.N.F. 1999b. Mummified human remains from the Kouga Mountains, Eastern Cape. The 16:1-2. Binneman, J.N.F. 2000. Results from two test excavations in the Baviaanskloof Mountains, Eastern Cape Province. Southern African Field Archaeology 9:81-92. Binneman, J.N.F. 2001. An introduction to a Later Stone Age coastal research project along the south-eastern Cape coast. Southern African Field Archaeology 10:75-87. Binneman, J.N.F. 2005. Archaeological research along the south-eastern Cape coast part1: open-air shell middens Southern African Field Archaeology 13 & 14:49-77. 2004/2005. Binneman, J.N.F. 2007. Archaeological research along the south-eastern Cape coast part2, caves and shelters: Kabeljous River Shelter 1 and associated stone tool industries Southern African Field Archaeology 15 & 16:57-74. Binneman, J.N.F. & Hall, S.L. 1993. The context of four painted stones from the Eastern Cape. Southern African Field Archaeology 2:89-95. Butzer , K.W. 1978. Sediment stratigraphy of the Middle Stone Age sequence at Klasies River Mouth, Tsitsikama Coast, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 33:141-151. Carrion, J.S., Brink, J.S., Scott, L. & Binneman, J.N.F. 2000. Palynology and palaeoenvironment of Pleistocene coprolites from an open-air site at Oyster Bay, Eastern Cape coast. South African Journal of Science 96:449-453. Deacon, H.J. 1967. Two radiocarbon dates from Scott's Cave, Gamtoos Valley. South African Archaeological Bulletin 22:51-52. 8

Deacon, H.J. 1992. Southern Africa and modern human origins. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London 337: 177–83. Deacon, H.J. 1993. Southern Africa and modern human origins. In: Aitken, M. J., Stringer, C. B. & Mellars, P. A., eds, The origin of modern humans and impact of chronometric dating. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 104–17. Deacon, H.J. 1995. Two Pleistocene-holocene archaeological depositories from the southern Cape, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 50:121-131. Deacon, H.J. 2001. Modern human emergence: an African archaeological perspective. In: Tobias, P. V., Raath, M. A., Moggi-Cecchi, J. & Doyle, G. A., eds, Humanity from African Renais- sance to coming Millennia. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand Press, pp. 213– 22. Deacon, H.J. & Geleijnse, V. 1988. The stratigraphy and sedementtology of the Main Site sequence at Klasies River, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 43:5- 14. Deacon, H. J & Shuurman, R. 1992. The origins of modern people: the evidence from Klasies River. In: Bräuer, G. & Smith, F. H., eds, Continuity or replacement: controversies in Homo sapiens evolution. Rotterdam: Balkema, pp. 121–9. Deacon, H. J. & Wurz, S. 1996. Klasies River Main Site, Cave 2: a occurrence. In: Pwiti, G. & Soper, R., eds, Aspects of African Archaeology. Harare: University of Zimbabwe Publications, pp. 213–8. Deacon, H.J. & Deacon, J. 1999. Human beginnings in South Africa: uncovering the secrets of the Stone Age. Cape Town: David Phillips Publishers. Henderson, Z. 1992. The context of some Middle Stone Age at Klasies River Shelter 1B: implications for understanding human behaviour. Southern African Field Archaeology 1:14-26. Klein, R.G. 1976. The mammalian fauna from the Klasies River Mouth sites, southern Cape Province, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 3:75-98. Laidler, P.W. 1947. The evolution of Middle Palaeolithic technique at Geelhoutboom, near Kareedouw, in the southern Cape. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 31:283-313. Rightmire, G.P. & Deacon, H.J. 1991. Comparative studies of Late Pleistocene human remains from Klasies River Mouth, South Africa. Journal of 20:131- 156. Singer, R. & Wymer, J. 1982. The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River Mouth in South Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Steyn, M., Binneman, J.N.F. & Loots, M. 2007. The Kouga Mummified remains. South African Archaeological Bulletin 65:3-8. Tinley,K.L. 1985. Coastal dunes of South Africa. South Africa National Programme Report No. 109. Wurz, S. 1999. The Howiesons Poort backed artefacts from Klasies River: an argument for symbolic behaviour. South African Archaeological Bulletin 54: 38–50. 9

APPENDIX B: IDENTIFICATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL FEATURES AND MATERIAL FROM COASTAL AREAS: guidelines and procedures for developers

Caves and shelters

Often these features were inhabited by people in the past, such as the San and KhoiSan, and contain valuable archaeological deposits. These deposits and remains such as stone artefacts, bone, pot shards and ornaments are protected by legislation and must not be damaged by digging or collected. Contact the nearest archaeologist for information and advise regarding the protection and conservation of these features.

Rock art - paintings

Rock paintings are often found in caves, rock shelters and also in the open on boulders. They are easy to recognize and must be treated with care. No water or any other substances must be applied to the paintings. Rock engravings are pictures scratched, scraped and pecked into the dark surface of rocks with sharp objects to expose the lighter under surface. Contact the nearest archaeologist to provide information and advice regarding the protection and conservation of rock art.

Shell middens

Shell middens can be defined as an accumulation of marine shell deposited by human agents rather than the result of marine activity. The shells are concentrated in a specific locality above the high-water mark and frequently contain stone tools, pottery, bone and occasionally also human remains. Shell middens may be of various sizes and depths, but an accumulation which exceeds 1 m2 in extent, should be reported to an archaeologist.

Human Skeletal material

Human remains, whether the complete remains of an individual buried during the past, or scattered human remains resulting from disturbance of the grave, should be reported. In general the remains are buried in a flexed position on their sides, but are also found buried in a sitting position with a flat stone capping and developers are requested to be on the alert for this.

Fossil bone

Fossil bones or any other concentrations of bones, whether fossilized or not, should be reported.

Stone artefacts

These are difficult for the layman to identify. However, large accumulations of flaked stones which do not appear to have been distributed naturally should be reported. If the 10 stone tools are associated with bone remains, development should be halted immediately and archaeologists notified.

Stone features and platforms

These occur in different forms and sizes, but easily identifiable. The most common are an accumulation of roughly circular fire cracked stones tightly spaced and filled in with charcoal and marine shell. They are usually 1-2 metres in diameter and may represent cooking platforms for shell fish. Others may resemble circular single row cobble stone markers. These occur in different sizes and may be the remains of wind breaks or cooking shelters.

Historical artefacts or features

These are easy to identify and include foundations of buildings or other construction features and items from domestic and military activities.

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Klasies River Caves

Map 1. 1:250 000 and 1:50 000 maps of the location of the proposed Oyster Bay wind energy facility. The pink dotted line marks approximately the coastal sensitive zone (insert map courtesy of Savannah (Pty) Ltd).

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Impofo Dam

Oyster Bay

Map 2. Aerial view of the general location of the proposed Oyster Bay wind energy facility (insert map courtesy of Savannah (Pty) Ltd).