Value-mapping for major economic infrastructure projects

by

Judy Ann Kraatz B. Design Studies (Hons) University of Queensland B. Architecture (Hons) University of Queensland

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering School of Urban Development

Queensland University of Technology

August 2009 Table of Contents

This page has been left blank.

- ii - Table of Contents

Abstract

The establishment of corporate objectives regarding economic, environmental, social, and ethical responsibilities, to inform business practice, has been gaining credibility in the business sector since the early 1990’s. This is witnessed through (i) the formation of international forums for sustainable and accountable development, (ii) the emergence of standards, systems, and frameworks to provide common ground for regulatory and corporate dialogue, and (iii) the significant quantum of relevant popular and academic literature in a diverse range of disciplines. How then has this move towards greater corporate responsibility become evident in the provision of major urban infrastructure projects?

The gap identified, in both academic literature and industry practice, is a structured and auditable link between corporate intent and project outcomes. Limited literature has been discovered which makes a link between corporate responsibility; project performance indicators (or critical success factors) and major infrastructure provision. This search revealed that a comprehensive mapping framework, from an organisation’s corporate objectives through to intended, anticipated and actual outcomes and impacts has not yet been developed for the delivery of such projects. The research problem thus explored is ‘the need to better identify, map and account for the outcomes, impacts and risks associated with economic, environmental, social and ethical outcomes and impacts which arise from major economic infrastructure projects, both now, and into the future’.

The methodology being used to undertake this research is based on Checkland’s soft system methodology, engaging in action research on three collaborative case studies.

A key outcome of this research is a value-mapping framework applicable to Australian public sector agencies. This is a decision-making methodology which will enable project teams responsible for delivering major projects, to better identify and align project objectives and impacts with stated corporate objectives.

- iii - Table of Contents

Keywords

Value-mapping, corporate responsibility, urban infrastructure, construction innovation, corporate reporting.

- iv - Table of Contents

Table of contents

Abstract iii. Keywords iv. Table of contents v. Supplementary materials ix. List of Figures x. List of Tables xi. Authorship xiii. Abbreviations xiv. Acknowledgements xv. Publications from this research xvi.

1. Chapter 1 – Introduction 1 1.1 Research background 1 1.2 Research scope 2 1.3 Research drivers 4 1.4 Research method overview 8 1.5 Dissertation structure 10

2. Chapter 2 – Literature Review 13 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 Corporate responsibility 16 2.2.1 Corporate social responsibility 17 2.2.2 CSR standards and frameworks 19 2.2.3 Accountability and stakeholders 23 2.3 Project Value/s 29 2.3.1 Background literature 29 2.3.2 Value chain mapping 31 2.3.3 Value stream mapping 32 2.4 Performance indicators 34 2.4.1 Sustainability and CSR indicators 35 2.4.2 Indicators for project performance 40 2.5 Measurables 51 2.5.1 Physicalisation of measurables 52 2.5.2 Monetisation 57 2.6 Summary of literature review 58

- v - Table of Contents

3. Research Methodology 61 3.1 Building on the knowledge base 61 3.2 Research approach 62 3.2.1 Research purpose 62 3.2.2 Research environment 62 3.2.3 Time dimensions of the research 63 3.2.4 Limitations of research 64 3.3 Review of research methods considered 65 3.3.1 Phenomenography 66 3.3.2 Grounded theory 66 3.3.3 Delphi method 67 3.3.4 Soft System methodology 68 3.3.5 Action research 68 3.3.6 Case studies 70 3.4 The adapted inquiry cycle 70 3.4.1 Soft System Method 71 3.4.2 Action research 72 3.4.3 Case studies 74 3.5 The value-mapping methodology 83 3.5.1 Inputs 83 3.5.2 Validity and Reliability 88 3.5.3 Application 89 3.6 Summary of research method 91

4. The value-mapping framework 93 4.1 Introduction 93 4.2 Value-mapping activities and inputs 94 4.2.1 Organisational context 96 4.2.2 Project objectives and opportunities 103 4.2.3 Accountabilities 108 4.2.4 Indicator development 112 4.2.5 The value-map 113 4.2.6 Measurables and targets 114 4.2.7 Review, revision and reporting 117 4.3 Chapter summary 117

- vi - Table of Contents

5. Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge 119 5.1 Real-world problem diagnosis 119 5.2 Case 1 description 120 5.2.1 Physical description 120 5.2.2 Engagement 122 5.3 Identifying the ‘real world problem’ 140 5.3.1. Reflections on the literature 140 5.3.2 Reflections on the fieldwork 142 5.4 Addressing the ‘real world problem’ 144 5.4.1 The draft value-mapping framework 146 5.4.2 Summary of Case 1 learnings 164

6. Case 2 – Hale Street Link 167 6.1 Questioning the problem situation 167 6.2 Case 2 description 168 6.2.1 Physical description 169 6.2.2 Engagement 170 6.3 Testing the value-mapping framework 179 6.3.1 Reflections on testing the framework 179 6.3.2 Second iteration of the value-mapping framework 182 6.4 Summary of Case 2 learnings 202

7. Case 3 – Northern Link 205 7.1 Taking action to improve 205 7.2 Case 3 description 205 7.2.1. Physical description 206 7.2.2 Engagement 208 7.3 Implementing the value-mapping framework 215 7.3.1 Reflections on implementing the framework 215 7.3.2 Second iteration of the value-mapping framework 216 7.4 Case 3 learnings 244 7.5 Chapter summary 245

- vii - Table of Contents

8. Discussion and conclusions 247 8.1 Final evaluation and specification of learnings 249 8.1.1 External feedback 249 8.1.2 Reflections on the process 252 8.2 The value-mapping framework 254 8.2.1 Reflections by the researcher 255 8.2.2 Generic value-mapping worksheets 257 8.3 Transport-related data-sets 266 8.4 Contribution of this research 269 8.4.1 Contribution to academic research 269 8.4.2 Contribution to industry 270 8.4.3 Future contribution 271 8.5 Chapter summary 275

- viii - Table of Contents

Supplementary Materials

Appendices 1. Semi-formal interview documentation 277 1.1 BCC Corporate Interviews 277 1.2 Case 1 Interviews 278 1.3 Case 2 Interviews 279 1.4 Case 3 Interviews 280 1.5 Evaluation and feedback interviews 281

2. Case 1 Critical success factors 282

3. Case 1 process maps 287 3.1 Community consultation overview 288 3.2 Design decision-making example 289 3.3 Economic analysis overview 290 3.4 Impact Assessment Statement overview 291 3.5 Business Case overview 292 3.6 IAS impacts overview 293 3.7 Tender process outline 294

4. Case 2 process maps 295 4.1 Community consultation overview 296 4.2 Design decision-making example 297 4.3 Impact Assessment Statement overview 298 4.4 Business Case overview 299

5. Transport costs in current literature 300

6. Transport data-sets 302 6.1 Accessibility 303 6.2 Health and well-being 307 6.3 Inclusiveness 309 6.4 Regional distinctiveness 311 6.5 Environment 313 6.6 Creativity 316 6.7 Economic 317

Bibliography 319

- ix - Table of Contents

List of figures 2.1 (a) Traditional sustainability (b) Multi-faceted, long-term sustainable 23 development 2.2 The variety of stakeholders in CSR reporting 26 2.3 The value chain 31 2.4 Consolidated framework for measuring project success 42 2.5 Conceptual diagram of urban ecological economic system 54 2.6 Methodological framework for collection of data on cumulative impacts 56 3.1 The inquiry/learning cycle of SSM 71 3.2 Adapted inquiry cycle 82 4.1 Mapping project outcomes to corporate objectives 95 4.2 Brisbane City Council organisational processes 99 4.3 Brisbane City Council organisational structure (2007) 100 4.4 Major Infrastructure Projects Office processes 101 4.5 Project-specific overview process map 102 4.6 Assessment framework for project success 106 4.7 Spheres of influence 109 4.8 Mapping key CSR issues to stakeholders 111 5.1 Eleanor Schonell Bridge 122 5.2 Common values and behaviours 133 5.3 Case 1 – Overview process map 148 5.4 Case 1 – Spheres of influence 150 6.1 Proposed Hale Street Link route 168 6.2 Case 2 - Overview process map 183 6.3 Case 2 - project objectives – contribution to corporate objectives 188 6.4 Case 2 - spheres of influence 190 7.1 Proposed Northern Link location 208 7.2 Case 3 – Overview process map 218 7.3 Energy impact analysis categories 242 8.1 The final value-mapping framework 255 8.2 Generic overview process map 258

- x - Table of Contents

List of tables 2.1 Most frequent occurrence of similar CSFs 42 2.2 CSF for PPP/PFI projects 46 2.3 Framework for CSFs of BOT projects in China 48 2.4 Project success factors for Design/Build projects 48 2.5 Summary of CSFs/KPIs identified in literature 50 2.6 General scheme of material flow account matrix 55 5.1 Example of impact mapping 124 5.2 Green Bridge SPeAR Assessment headline indicators 127 5.3 Green Bridge economic analysis performance indicators 128 5.4 Contribution to 2010 – Green Bridge objectives 129 5.5 Green Bridge performance objectives 130 5.6 Green Bridge project primary targets 130 5.7 Green Bridge project values 130 5.8 Green Bridge behavioural expectations 131 5.9 Monthly project report topics 134 5.10 Eleanor Schonell Bridge – Indicators, measurables and actions 137 5.11 Case 1 – Accountability map 151 5.12 Case 1 – Stakeholder map 154 5.13 Case 1 – Indicators matrix 157 5.14 Case 1 – Value map 160 6.1 Draft TransApex service requirements 172 6.2 Hale Street Link strategic objectives 173 6.3 Hale Street Link Impact Assessment Statement objectives 174 6.4 Hale Street Link strategic outcomes 175 6.5 Hale Street Link key result areas 176 6.6 Hale Street Link alliance team – actions and behaviours 177 6.7 Hale Street Link alliance objectives 178 6.8 Case 2 – Project objectives 185 6.9 Case 2 – Stakeholder map 192 6.10 Case 2 – Indicators matrix 195 6.11 Case 2 – Value-map 198 7.1 Northern Link key milestones 206 7.2 Northern Link key result areas 206 7.3 Cross-river Strategy – Transport objectives 211 7.4 Brisbane Transport Plan strategic objectives 211 7.5 Northern Link project objectives 212

- xi - Table of Contents

List of Tables continued

7.6 Northern Link project benefits 212 7.7 Northern Link impacts 212 7.8 Northern Link Environment Impact Statement timetable 213 7.9 Northern Link strategic objectives 213 7.10 Northern Link benefits 214 7.11 Case 3 – Hierarchy of objectives 221 7.12 Case 3 – Project objectives 222 7.13 Case 3 – Accountability map 225 7.14 Case 3 – Stakeholder map 229 7.15 Case 3 – Indicators matrix 232 7.16 Case 3 – Value map 236 7.17 Land use conversion costs per hectare per year 241 7.18 Land-use impact cost estimates 241 8.1 Generic project objectives worksheet (Step 2) 259 8.2 Generic accountability map worksheet (Step 3) 260 8.3 Generic stakeholder mapping worksheet (Step 4) 261 8.4 Generic indicators matrix worksheet (Step 5) 263 8.5 Generic value-mapping worksheet (steps 6 & 7) 265 8.6 Transport data-set – project objectives 268

- xii - Table of Contents

Authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature

Date

[Note: This Statement must be signed by the candidate at both “Lodgement of the Thesis for Examination” and “Submission of the Final Thesis”.]

- xiii - Table of Contents

Abbreviations

BCC Brisbane City Council CRC CI Cooperative Research Centre for Construction Innovation CSFs Critical success factors CSR Corporate social responsibility EIS Environment Impact Statement HSL Hale Street Link GGEs Greenhouse gas emissions GRI Global Reporting Initiative IAS Impact Assessment statement JH John Holland KPIs Key performance indicators KRAs Key result areas LiB Living in Brisbane MIPO Major Infrastructure Projects Office SSM Soft system methodology WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development

- xiv - Table of Contents

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge the contribution of the following people and/or organisations:

 My two academic supervisors, Professor Stephen Kajewski and Dr Karen Manley, for their on-going, valuable contributions to this research.  My industry supervisor, Scott Stewart, for his continuing contribution to this research, and his willingness to contribute resources to the collaborative work undertaken on the three case studies. Sincere thanks also goes to all those from Brisbane City Council who made an active contribution to this research.  Those people from the Cooperative Research Centre for Construction Innovation who provided the research environment within which this research could occur, and for providing access to a valuable network of industry participants for the evaluation interviews.  To Denise for her consistent and kind support throughout the duration of this undertaking.  To my parents for bestowing on me an inquiring mind and a sense of social justice.

- xv - Table of Contents

Publications from this research

Kraatz, J. A., S. Kajewski, and K. Manley. (2008a). Value mapping for major economic infrastructure projects for the Australian public sector. Clients Driving Innovation - Benefiting from Innovation. D. K. Hampson. Gold Coast, Australia, CRC Construction Innovation.

Kraatz, J. A., S. Kajewski, and K. Manley. (2008b). Mapping value/s - aligning project outcomes with Brisbane City Council’s “Living in Brisbane 2026” themes. fault-lines to sightlines - sub-tropical urbanism 20-20. Brisbane, Australia. Centre for Sub-Tropical Design, QUT.

Kraatz, J. A., S. Kajewski, and K. Manley. (2008c). Value-mapping for urban infrastructure projects: mapping project outcomes to corporate objectives. Transformation through Construction. D. K. Carter, P. A. Kaka and P. S. Ogulana. Dubai, Harriot Watt University.

- xvi - Chapter 1 - Introduction

1. Chapter 1 - Introduction

This thesis will explore project value/s in the context of delivering enhanced corporate responsibility, as related to the provision of major economic infrastructure projects by the Australian public sector. To this end, a multi-faceted definition of project value (including both product and process values) is used, which engages with the corporate intents of the project proponent.

There are two key drivers for this research. The first is the need for more transparent corporate responsibility in the planning, design and delivery of major economic infrastructure projects (hereafter referred to as major projects). The second, which is a sub-set of the first, is to maximise the value delivered by such projects.

1.1. Research background

The establishment of corporate objectives focussing on economic, environmental, social and ethical responsibilities, to inform business practice, has been gaining credibility in the business sector since the early 1990’s. This is evidenced through events such as the formation of the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) in 1990; the Rio Earth Summit in 1992; and the formation of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) that same year. The importance of this focus has been more recently highlighted through the emergence of:

 the Global Reporting Initiative (1997)  international corporate responsibility initiatives such as the UN Global Compact (2000)  environmental management standards such as ISO 14000 (2004)  principal-based reporting standards such as SA8000 (1997) and AA1000 (2003), and  the draft guidance note on social responsibility ISO26000 (2008)

These initiatives result from a business need to provide some common ground for regulatory and corporate dialogue across the four dimensions of economic, environmental, social and ethical responsibilities. The above initiatives demonstrate the need to identify, measure and report on previously unidentified elements of business’ impact.

- 1 - Chapter 1 - Introduction

 The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) includes a set of 10 reporting principles including transparency, inclusiveness and auditability.  The United Nation’s Global Compact, specifically focused on human rights, includes10 principles under the 4 headings of human rights, labour standards, environment and anti-corruption.  ISO 14000 is a family of environment management standards which enable organisations to better identify and management the environmental impact of proposed projects.  AA1000 was developed to provide credibility for business’ undertaking sustainability reporting.  SA8000 enables third party certification of the voluntary workplace requirements set out in that document.  ISO26000 development work aims to provide a consensus approach to social responsibility.

In addition, a significant quantum of popular literature has been produced in the field of corporate responsibility since the 1990’s. Following on from earlier authors including Rachel Carson (The Silent Spring, 1962) and Donnella Meadows (The Limits to Growth, 1972), key popular contributors to this field in the 1990’s included Amory and Hunter Lovins (who foundered the Rocky Mountain Institute in 1982); Paul Hawken (co-author of Natural Capitalism, 1999): Eva Cox (A Truly Civil Society, 1995) and John Elkington (Cannibals without forks, 1998).

Academic literature in diverse disciplines has also made a significant contribution. Fields of influence include the biological and ecological sciences, as represented through industrial ecology (Graedel and Allenby 2003) and ecological economics (Costanza 1998); the science and philosophy of complexity (Taylor 2001); and the discipline of management as evidenced in lean production (Jones and Womack 2002).

1.2. Research scope

This research aims to establish a value-mapping framework applicable to Australian public sector agencies which would enable these and related organizations to better identify and align project outcomes and impacts with stated corporate objectives, thus enhancing both corporate and professional responsibilities. This would assist in managing medium to long term risk and minimize possible environmental and social harm, in line with the precautionary principal.

- 2 - Chapter 1 - Introduction

The research problem

The research problem identified is ‘the need to better identify, map and account for the outcomes, impacts and risks associated with economic, environmental, social, ethical outcomes and impacts which arise from major economic infrastructure projects, both now, and in the future.

The research question

The pursuant research question is ‘How can the performance (i.e. project outcomes and impacts) of major projects be better defined, forecast and assessed (measured, monitored, audited and reported upon) against corporate objectives, outcomes and targets?’ This research addresses this question in the context of the Australian construction industry, with specific reference to the provision of major projects procured by Australian public sector agencies.

Research justification

Vella (2008) cites the ABN AMRO (2006) estimates for ‘a base case for public sector infrastructure spending in Australia over the decade to 2016 of $338 billion, of which about $80 billion, or one quarter, would be privately financed’. This was prior to the announcement of $200billion worth of State and Federal government spending infrastructure project spending in Australia in late 2008 (Rudd 2008). Of this $20billion was allocated, as a part of the Building Australia Fund, for spending on road, rail and transportation projects in 2009 and 2010. The need for such expenditure on transport infrastructure had been highlighted in reports such as that by the Business Council of Australia (Sims 2007) to ensure the competitiveness of a growing Australian economy (p. 2), and Engineers Australia (2008) to address the decline in the ‘fitness’ of Australian infrastructure (pp. 2-3).

Within the south-east Queensland region (and more specifically Greater Brisbane), the TransApex Prefeasibility Report (BCC 2005b) identifies five transport projects requiring construction prior to 2021, to relieve congestion and facilitate economic productivity (i.e. North South Bypass Tunnel, Hale Street Link, Airport Link, Northern Link and East-west link). Of the five identified, four are now either completed, under development, or scheduled for development, at a total budgeted cost of over $4billion (2004 dollars).

- 3 - Chapter 1 - Introduction

The five projects identified in the TransApex reports (BCC 2005a & b) are inner city or suburban projects which impact on established communities, whilst facilitating better transport outcomes for both the regional and national transport network. These projects are designed with a fifty to one hundred year life span. During this period of time, the economic, environmental and social context within which they will function is likely to change considerably. There is thus both a corporate and professional need to ensure that likely short, medium and long-term impacts and benefits are well-considered and understood, in the context of public sector agency delivering these projects. To add to this complexity, the planning, design and procurement phases of such projects can take between five and ten years, during which time project participants enter and leave the project team as there skills and services are required.

The need to deliver major projects, in the context of the broader public sector objectives is self evident. All Australian public sector agencies engaged within the course of this research have a set of corporate objectives and outcomes, which are used to communicate with the public, and for both external (Annual and Corporate reports) and internal (budget and service-level) reporting. The Queensland Government has the Queensland State Government Priorities (http://www.qgm.qld.gov.au/02_policy/spp.htm). The Victorian Government has the Building Futures strategy. Brisbane City Council (Australia’s largest local government authority) has the Living in Brisbane 2026 themes and the City-wide outcomes (BCC 2006a). The opportunity exists for major projects, with their substantial and long-term impacts, to report directly to these corporate objectives, in order to better fulfil corporate obligations and to better communicate organisational intent and values to the community (stakeholders and others). The value-mapping framework which is intended as an outcome of this research, establish this link.

1.3. Research drivers

Key drivers for this thesis thus include (i) the need for enhanced corporate responsibility and (ii) associated need for this to contribute enhanced project value.

Corporate responsibility

This thesis is concerned with how the move towards greater corporate responsibility has become evident in the provision of major projects in the Australian public sector,

- 4 - Chapter 1 - Introduction and how this is reflected in both the delivery of and reporting on project and corporate performance.

The broad-based review of literature relating to corporate responsibility (Section 2.2) discovered limited references which make the link between project performance and the corporate reporting of the project proponent. The review revealed that a comprehensive mapping framework, linking organisational corporate objectives to intended, anticipated and actual outcomes and impacts has not yet been developed for the delivery of major projects. Such ‘mapping’ (e.g. supply, demand or value chain) is however undertaken in other industries (e.g. manufacturing) to improve production or service efficiencies (e.g. lean manufacturing).

In the construction sector, the lean and green protocol (Klotz, Horman et al 2007) addresses part of this issue, in relation to environmental issues. This proposed research into the development of a value-mapping framework takes the further step of integrating social and ethical considerations into the mapping process, for major projects, in line with current best-practice in the broader business sector (as evidenced on the opening page of this thesis).

Anticipated project impacts are currently identified by proponents via environmental and social impact assessments undertaken as business-as-usual practice, during the detail feasibility stages of major projects. Additionally, project objectives and desired project outcomes are typically defined for a project, at the pre-tender stage, by the project proponent. The process of tracking these project objectives, outcomes and impacts back to corporate objectives and targets, and consequently identifying measurables and targets for these, is however not current construction industry practice. Nor is there popular or academic literature that develops a comprehensive framework to address the issue. And yet the negative consequences of not identifying and understanding these broader potential outcomes and impacts are evidenced in corporate history of the 1980’s. Examples of this include:

 The Exxon Valdez oil spill, wherein the consequences of transporting oil through an environmentally sensitive region; coupled with a lack of rigour in relation to company human resources practices, combined to produce an environmental disaster of long-term impact (http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/).  Nike’s admission in 2001, regarding the use of child labour in Third World countries is a reflection of lack of knowledge of an organisation’s broader supply chain (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/nike- admits-to-mistakes-over-child-labour-631975.html).

- 5 - Chapter 1 - Introduction

 The Kissimmee River restoration project is a consequence of an earlier project undertaken between 1961 and 1972 to reduce the effects of regional flooding. The unintended impact of this effort was the collapse of the entire river ecosystem. In 1992, the U.S. Congress in the Water Resources Development Act was declared to reverse this (www.floridaconservation.org /recreation/cooperative/kissimmee_river_pua.asp).

These negative incidents can be considered as the consequence of the narrower view of the role of organisations in society prior to the emergence of corporate social responsibility in the 1990’s (Warhurst 2005, p.153). They can be seen as the result of (i) not being aware of the broader issues such as the long term environmental and broader supply chain impacts, (ii) being focused only on financial performance, with no formal reporting mechanisms for environment and/or social performance; and (iii) not being in a state of readiness to take prompt and effective action when a negative impact becomes evident, whether as a result of unwillingness to be accountable or due to the complexity of the situation.

In the past decade, the need to address the broader impacts of corporate decision- making has gained greater acceptance. This is evidenced through the existence of corporate standards (whether mandatory or voluntary) previously identified. Mechanisms for identifying and dealing with this in the provision of major projects remain limited and disaggregated (i.e. separate environmental and social impact assessment processes and standards), and are not integrated into a sector-specific framework. Strategic Environmental Assessments (Arts and Lamoen 2005) are a step towards better linking project and corporate intent, but are again limited by a focus on one aspect of the triple bottom line. This results in the assessment of project performance to corporate objectives remaining a disaggregated process, as is revealed in the three cases undertaken as part of this research (Chapters 5, 6 and 7). As the science of complexity is demonstrating (Taylor 2001), the complexity of the problems with which we are posed, may result in us seeking out known answers, rather than letting ourselves be confronted by the uncertainty being generated by an increasingly complex world. To manage this, we thus need new ways of thinking, new tools and new methods in order to effectively address these emerging demands.

This thesis establishes a framework to address this in the context of the delivery major projects. There are four practical reasons why this work in important:

- 6 - Chapter 1 - Introduction

 the precautionary principal  corporate responsibility and accountability  professional responsibility  enhanced resource productivity

The precautionary principle suggests responsible and accountable action needs to be taken prior to a ‘crisis point’ in order to minimize potential risk and harm.

When an activity raises threats of harm to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken, even if some cause-and-effect relationships are not fully established scientifically. In this context, the proponent of an activity, rather than the public, should bear the burden of proof. (The Precautionary Principle, 1998 Wingspread Statement)

A best case example of the application of the precautionary principal is the City of San Francisco (USA) which, in 2004, adopted the Precautionary Principal Ordinance which includes stated responsibilities for anticipatory action to prevent harm; community right to know complete and accurate information; examination of a full range of alternatives; full cost accounting; and a participatory design process. Decision-making leading to this is based around minimizing harm and reassessing risk management (Mardigian 2004).

The second reason that this work is important is that corporate accountabilities, to the community (including future generations) and the environment, as well as to economic stakeholders, need to be effectively fulfilled. With divestment of some project delivery responsibilities, from government agencies to private sector partners, accountabilities for corporate objectives are even harder to track, and thus require a structured framework for greater transparency and enhanced communication regarding corporate intent.

The third motivator for this work is more traditional in nature, that is, to help ensure the accountability of professionals commensurate with their responsibilities. To this end, we require additional quantitative and qualitative tools to enable more structured and transparent decision-making to satisfy professional accountabilities and responsibilities. This becomes increasingly complex as more intangible criteria are added to the deliverables for major projects (Litman, 2007 p.4-2).

Finally, this thesis addresses the need for enhanced resource productivity (Porter, 1995), arising from emerging issues such as global warming and water scarcity. Such issues are driving the need better environmental and social outcomes,

- 7 - Chapter 1 - Introduction increased productivity and additional value to the community. These are emerging values to which current and future project success will be measured.

Project value/s

In the context of this thesis, project value is considered in terms of how both process and product-related issues contribute to fulfilling the corporate objectives of an Australian public sector organisation. Wandahl (2004) articulates the varied aspects of ‘value’ in this context, wherein ‘product value describes the technical and aesthetic construction, the price and the use of the construction (and) process value describes elements in the building process and cooperation between the parties’ (Wandahl 2004, p.6).

Emmitt, Sander et al (2005) also ask a series of questions which can be used to clarify the meaning of value in the context of the proposed value-mapping framework. These include ‘value to whom’; ‘what is value’; and ‘in what time perspective do we define value, when we construct, when we use or when we demolish and recycle’ (Emmitt, Sander et al. 2005, p.58).

The value/s being mapped in the framework thus provides a snapshot in time (at the pre-feasibility phase of the project), which aligns the corporate objectives and outcomes of an organisation, with project objectives developed with the involvement of key project and organisational stakeholders. The output of this process is then the basis for communicating and reporting on performance to these value parameters (through project objectives, indicators, measurables and targets) throughout project life-cycle.

1.4. Research method overview

The research method adopted includes (i) a review of relevant literature, and (ii) an adapted inquiry cycle integrating Checkland’s (2000) inquiry cycle with three practice-based cases, undertaken in an action research environment.

- 8 - Chapter 1 - Introduction

The literature review

A review of literature discusses the four themes of corporate responsibility, value, performance indicators, and measurement (Chapter 2). Literature was sourced on a multidisciplinary basis from global data-bases, further detailed in that chapter.

The adapted inquiry cycle

Initial consideration was given to various quantitative and qualitative methodologies. The soft systems methodological approach (SSM) has been selected as the starting point. This approach includes four steps (Checkland 2000) in which (i) a problem is identified; (ii) models are established to address this problem; (iii) these models are considered in terms of their ability to improve the situation; and (iv) action is taken to address the problem situation. The SSM approach is modified for this research (Figure 3.2), through integrating three cases in an action-research environment to enable the exploration of an apparent problem in a complex situation, and develop and implement a framework to address this problem situation (Chapter 3).

The adapted inquiry cycle integrates a number of action-taking rounds, each requiring engagement with a case study to produce the solution to the problem situation to be (i) explored; (ii) tested; and (iii) implemented. This approach is in line with Yin’s (2003) view that case studies ‘explain causal links in real life interventions that are too complex for the survey or experimental strategies... to describe an intervention and the real-life context in which it occurs’ (p.15). In more recent research, Dul and Hak (2008, p. 23) further reinforce the validity of ‘practice-based case studies’ which ‘describe the design, implementation and/or evaluation of some intervention, or illustrate the usefulness of a theory or approach to a specific company or situation.’

Generalisability

Qualitative research, as being undertaken here, does not seek to establish a single universal truth in the empirical tradition, but deals with a unique situation in a social (albeit work-related) environment. Baskerville (1996, p.239) describes ‘the aim is the understanding of the complex human process rather than a universal prescriptive truth’. This is consistent with SSM approach adopted for this research.

- 9 - Chapter 1 - Introduction

Notwithstanding this, this thesis addresses the issue of repeatability by establishing a rigorous methodology through which:

The whole process is subsequently recoverable by anyone interested in critically scrutinizing the research. This means declaring explicitly, at the start of the research, the intellectual frameworks and the process of using them which will be used to define what counts as knowledge in this piece of research. (Checkland 2000, p.S42)

Avison (1999, p.96) also highlights the need for the researcher to be ‘explicit in following the tenets of action research when working in real-life situations’, in order to maintain the distinction between academic endeavour and consulting. Section 3.3 details the structure which has been set in place as a part of this methodology, to ensure academic rigor.

Through applying the necessary rigour to establishing and undertaking this research, it is intended that the resultant framework can be applied throughout the Australian public sector involved in the delivery of major projects, by those seeking to map project outcomes to their stated corporate objectives.

1.5. Dissertation structure

Chapter 2 presents the review of literature, from which the gap in the academic literature, becomes apparent.

Chapter 3 details the research method adopted for this research, to further explore this gap in a practical context. It details how the collaborative cases are used to explore, test and implement the proposed value-mapping framework.

Chapter 4 outlines the value-mapping methodology, which is an outcome of both the review of literature and the 3 case studies, in some detail. The chapter seeks to contextualise the work presented in the following three chapters.

Chapter 5 describes the initial exploration of the problem situation, along with the first iteration of the value mapping framework, as developed on Case 1, the Eleanor Schonell Bridge project (Brisbane, Australia).

- 10 - Chapter 1 - Introduction

Chapter 6 describes the second action-taking round of this research, wherein the first iteration of the value-mapping framework is tested on Case 2, the Hale Street Link project (Brisbane, Australia).

Chapter 7 describes how the learnings and reflections from the two previous cases are implemented on Case 3, the Northern Link project (Brisbane, Australia), to produce the third iteration of the value-mapping framework.

Chapter 8 summarises the outcomes of the three cases, and presents the details of the final evaluation phase of the inquiry cycle, from which the final value-mapping framework is established. This chapter then details the final value-mapping framework, including a set of generic worksheets. In addition, the data-sets for project objectives, measurables and targets, identified in the course of the three cases are presented. Future research opportunities are also detailed.

- 11 - Chapter 1 - Introduction

This page has been left blank.

- 12 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

2 Chapter 2 – Literature review

2.1 Introduction

The focus for the literature review was to discover what academic literature existed that explored links between corporate responsibility and project-based performance indicators relevant to the delivery of urban infrastructure projects. Considerable literature was found when these fields were reviewed independently, however the search revealed limited literature that used corporate responsibility principles to provide guidance for the development of, or input into performance indicators in the construction sector.

To address this gap, the literature reviewed was diverse, and brought together knowledge from fields such as industrial ecology, ecological economics, complexity and lean production. The outcome being to establish a framework, grounded in an academic tradition, which can enable organizations to map and monitor project performance back to their corporate objectives.

Literature reviewed can be identified in the following themes and sub-themes. Searches were limited by relevance to the delivery of major economic infrastructure projects by the public sector in Australia.

 Corporate responsibility (CR) o Corporate social responsibility (CSR) o CSR standards and frameworks o Accountabilities and stakeholders  Project Value/s o Background literature o Value chain mapping o Value stream mapping  Performance indicators o CSR and sustainability indicators o Indicators for project performance  Measurables o Physicalisation of measurables o Monetisation

The common ground which was revealed between these fields relates to a shared focus on:

- 13 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

 economic, social, environmental and ethical issues.  stakeholder engagement.  the need to better manage complex issues.  the need to demonstrate value.  the need for a practical framework, workable in the current management environment, but grounded in thinking which steps beyond the traditional bounds of project delivery.

Background literature which helped to inform the researcher regarding current thinking in the field of urban infrastructure, with a particular focus on transportation, included Gifford (2004). Although this book is an appraisal of the transportation in the United States, it provided a comprehensive review in the context of the growing complexity of planning decisions and the need for a new way of approaching these issues.

...scenario analysis has the potential to promote learning and a better understanding of complex situations by policy makers and other stakeholders through - the stimulation of creative thinking and community.... - the identification of key events or forces which are relevant to policy resolution - the simulations of alternative policy options - the explicit inclusion of uncertainty within policy analysis. (Gifford 2004, p.226)

Initial investigations were undertaken for the broad themes for sustainability, corporate social responsibility, urban infrastructure, and relation-based procurement. This included searches of catalogues from the Queensland University of Technology, University of Queensland and Griffith University library databases. In addition the following databases and search engines were searched, based on advice from the QUT Liaison Librarian for the School of Urban Development. These included:

 Australian Digital Theses  Compendex (via Science Direct)  ePrints  Google Scholar  Informit BUILD (Australian Building Construction and Engineering Database, ATRI (Australian Transport Index) and MEDGE (Management Edge)  MIT Theses online  Scirus  Selby Collection in Sustainable Development  TRIS Online (Transport Research Information Services)  Web of Science

In addition the following sources of information were used initially:

- 14 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

 ASCE Database (American Society of Civil Engineers)  World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) website

Under the broad searches relating to sustainability and urban infrastructure or development, the following sources yielded documents which were reviewed:

 ASCE Database (American Society of Civil Engineers)  Compendex (via Science Direct)  Informit BUILD (Australian Building Construction and Engineering Database, ATRI (Australian Transport Index) and MEDGE (Management Edge)  Scirus  TRIS Online (Transport Research Information Services)

Under the topics of alliancing, public private partnerships, and relationship partnering, the following sources presented relevant documentation:

 ASCE Database (American Society of Civil Engineers)  Compendex (via Science Direct)  Google Scholar  Informit BUILD (Australian Building Construction and Engineering Database, ATRI (Australian Transport Index) and MEDGE (Management Edge)  Scirus  TRIS Online (Transport Research Information Services)

Under the theme of corporate responsibility, the following sources presented relevant documentation:

 Australian Digital Theses  ePrints  Google Scholar  Informit BUILD (Australian Building Construction and Engineering Database, ATRI (Australian Transport Index) and MEDGE (Management Edge)  IngentaConnect  World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) website

How relevant the finds returned are to this search has been based upon a number of variables including relevance to (i) the Australian public sector context; (ii) to the nature of the research being undertaken (i.e. qualitative rather then quantitative and practice-based case studies); and (iii) to informing research related to linking project performance and corporate reporting.

As a part of these initial searches, an initial 67 papers or books have been reviewed which address relationship-based contracting and urban infrastructure; and 71 papers or books have been reviewed which address corporate social responsibility and/or sustainability in this context. In addition citation searches undertaken to identify key authors. From this point, further literature was identified from bibliographies of relevant papers. At the completion of the initial literature search,

- 15 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

309 papers and books had been complied into an Endnote bibliography and inform this research. A further search of literature has been undertaken, using the above databases and search engines) relating to measurables (as reviewed in Section 2.5).

Key word and content alerts (on Web of Science and Science Direct) were established to ensure that updates were received in order to maintain the currency of the research work being undertaken. Table of Contents alerts have been used on the following journals. These were selected when articles were being sourced on multiple occasions from the same journal.

 Journal of Management in Engineering  Building and Environment  Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management  The Journal of Corporate Citizenship  Journal of Cleaner Production

The first round of literature reviewed was critical in informing the final direction of this research, and provided direction for the refinement of literature reviewed, under the four key themes, as the problem to be addressed by this research was refined.

2.2 Corporate responsibility

As discussed in Chapter 1, and in light with the enhanced levels of corporate responsibility being demanded of corporations and organizations by both shareholders and stakeholders, a better understanding of how major projects deliver on broader corporate responsibilities and objectives is being increasingly demanded. The concept of corporate responsibility (CR) is appropriately described by Amalric and Hauser (2005).

Corporate responsibility activities are defined as activities that lead a company to contribute to society beyond the foods and services it produces, the employment it provides, and the returns on investment it generates. (Amalric and Hauser 2005, p.27)

They go on to identify two benefits for companies who act on these responsibilities, being the relationship to stakeholder expectations and likely new government regulations (p.27).

By way of clarification, such activities are also referred to as corporate social responsibilities. CR is now becoming a more commonly used term, though much of

- 16 - Chapter 2 – Literature review the previous relevant academic literature has used the term CSR, thus the sub- theme heading below.

2.2.1 Corporate social responsibility

Considerable literature exists relating to corporate social responsibility (CSR). The selection of papers for review has been limited to those with reference to the public sector. Whilst the search also looked for papers with specific reference to the delivery of major economic infrastructure projects, the number of references with this cross-reference found was limited.

O’Connor and Spangenberg (2008) highlight how CSR impacts on business performance, through ‘the need to address a Triple Bottom Line of economic, social and environmental performance’ (O’Connor and Spangenberg 2008, p.1399). This concept of triple bottom line (TBL) was introduced by John Elkington, in his publication “Cannibals with Forks’ (1998).

Badshah’s paper (1998) highlights links between sustainable development, governance, the urban environment and project procurement. Badshah identifies areas where action is required, along with conflicts and obstacles which may arise in the course of project delivery via various partnership arrangements, and opportunities for new approaches. He cites the characteristics described by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) for sound governance (p.4):

 Participation  Equity  Rule of law  Effectiveness and efficiency  Transparency  Accountability  Responsiveness  Strategic Vision  Consensus Orientation

These characteristics recur in much of the literature of the literature reviewed not only on CSR but also in that reviewed on performance indicators in construction (Section 2.4.2).

Holme and Watts (2000) report on the outcome of a two year study to gain a ‘better understanding of what corporate social responsibility means and what represents good practice’ (p.3). The authors highlight a number of key issues (pp.10-11), some of which are synonymous with those issues identified by Badshah:

- 17 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

 Human rights  Reporting / disclosure /  Employee rights transparency  Environmental protection  Principles / codes  Community involvement  Consumer education / product  Supplier relations usage / stewardship  Communication  Corruption

Panapanaan, Linnanen et al. (2003) provide a practical focus which furthers this discussion, in their review of ten Finnish companies, in which they highlight current problem areas. They provide a draft framework for managing CSR which identifies key areas for consideration. This paper is also useful in that the authors provide a specific focus on supply chains, and the interdependencies between companies and their supply chains. Whilst the framework presented identifies a number of broad areas for consideration, it does not go on to discuss measurement or quantification.

Husted (2007) discusses the connection between corporate responsibility and value for an organization, the context of broader social value. He goes on to explain this relationship ‘may add value in the moment that they reduce costs, create product differentiation, or move customers to buy from one firm rather than another’ (Husted 2007, p.12).

Hahn and Scheermesser (2006) note however that implementing CSR policies does not have a direct correlation to better economic outcomes, and state that ‘methodologically correlation studies bear no evidence on the causality of how economic performance can be improved by good environmental and social performance’ (p.152). This current research is not seeking to identify a correlation or otherwise between economic value and CSR policies, as this is still subject to much debate in the literature. Waddock (2007) recognises that public good outcomes may be an important motivation for CSR reforms in organizations. ‘The key challenge is to adhere to a policy of inclusiveness and to find a place for each and every person who seeks to, or should, contribute. This is the path to legitimacy as well as innovation’ (Waddock 2007, p.41).

It is these broader issues of value, such as ecological and social value), along with the economic, that this research seeks to potentially highlight. This mobilization of disparate interest groups is a key strength in the application of these principles in the provision of public infrastructure, wherein a diverse group of stakeholders (government, business, community and environment) are required to work together

- 18 - Chapter 2 – Literature review over an extended time period to deliver a project for both the public and economic good. Hahn and Scheermesser (2006) findings show:

That there are other motivations for environmental and sustainability management besides profitability. Namely, corporate environmental and sustainability management may also be driven by ethical and normative motives or by institutional pressures and coercive adaptation. (Bansal and Roth, 2000; Prakash, 1999, 2001 in Waddock 2007, p.152)

A key point made by this author is that ‘corporate practice environmental and social management often remains decoupled and isolated from mainstream management activities and decision making, and thus does not measure up to an integrative approach (see, e.g., Figge et al., 2002)’ (Waddock 2007, p.153). It is this dissociation that this doctoral research is addressing through the development of a value-mapping framework which is integral to organization operational activity, and accessible to project team members. Tools and frameworks to achieve this are now starting to be developed and implemented. Irwin and Raganathan (2007) discuss examples of such tools including the Action Impact Matrix which ‘is a fully participative, multi-stakeholder method which can be used at any scale or level to understand the two-way interactions between development policies and ecosystems. (Munasinghe 2007 in Irwin and Raganathan 2007, pp. 21-23).

Hutchins and Sutherland (2008) also capture current thinking in terms of reporting more explicitly on social indicators through a social life-cycle assessment approach, which builds upon the more traditional environmental life cycle assessment tools already in use.

2.2.2 CSR standards and frameworks

A substantial amount of both academic and industry literature exists regarding standards and frameworks for the implementation of corporate responsibility within organizations.

The Corporations and Markets Advisory Committee’s (CMAC) discussion paper on Corporate Social Responsibility Discussion (2005) provides a succinct summary of the various current international documents which existed at the time of publication (pp. 8-11), including:

- 19 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

Normative Standards:

 UN Global Compact (2000)  UN Tripartite Declaration of Principles Concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy (1977, 2000)  UN Norms on the Responsibilities of Trans-national Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with regard to Human Rights (2003)

Management Systems and Certifications Schemes:

 ISO 14000 series dealing with environmental management  Social Accountability 8000 (SA8000), relevant to labour standards in developing countries  Accountability 1000 (AA1000) Series, which guides corporations in establishing a process for engaging with their stakeholders  Sigma Guidelines, being guiding principles for sustainability and a management framework to integrate sustainability onto corporate decision- making

Accountability and Reporting Frameworks:

 AA1000 Assurance Standard  International Standard on Assurance Engagement (ISEA 3000) issued by the International Auditing and Accounting Standards Board

Rating Indices:

 Dow Jones Sustainability Index comprising the top 200 global companies that satisfy certain criteria on environmental protection, sustainability, social issues, stakeholder relations and human rights  FTSE4Good Index Series (a subset of the FTSE share trading indices), which measures the performance of companies that meet globally recognised corporate responsibility standards

The CMAC paper also identified two elements in ‘the corporate approach to CSR … corporate benefit and risk management’ (p.18) as being critical, thus highlighting the value of enhanced corporate social responsibility additionally as a risk management tool, as is intended as an outcome of the proposed value-mapping framework.

Warhurst (2005, pp.155-157) also provides a comprehensive listing of legal and voluntary codes for behaviour from international law (i.e. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights) through to a discussion of binding national laws relevant for the European Union and the United States.

The International Council for Local Environmental Initiative’s (ICLEI) (1996) Local Agenda 21 document was an important document developed early in the move to enhanced corporate responsibility. Its intent is to assist Local Governments globally to take local actions in the move towards more sustainable communities. It provides

- 20 - Chapter 2 – Literature review an early example of how specific objectives with assigned measurables and targets could assist in achieving change.

The Global Compact (1999) is an initiative of the United Nations which is a primary document for any investigation of the links between business and corporate responsibility. The Compact comprises “ten principles in the areas of human rights, labour, the environment and anti-corruption enjoy universal consensus” (http://www.unglobalcompact.org/AboutTheGC/TheTenPrinciples/index.html) derived from:

 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights  The International Labour Organization's Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work  The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development  The United Nations Convention Against Corruption

The Compact asks companies to take responsibility for issues related to core values, human rights (including labour standards), the environment and corruption. The relevance of this document to this current research is through enhancing understanding a project’s supply chain and impacts in order to effectively map both the benefits and impacts of a project, upstream and downstream. McIntosh (2004) identifies that:

The next steps for companies that have adopted the Global Compact are: • To comprehensively map their 'spheres of influence' as envisaged by Principal 1 of the Global Compact • To further extend the promotion of human rights, labour standards and environmental protection upstream and downstream • To encourage suppliers to extend the endorsement of the Global Compact principles with their suppliers. (Global Compact 1999, p.39)

The proposal for value-mapping as identified by this research builds upon this approach in the delivery of major economic infrastructure projects by Australian public sector organisations.

The GRI Sustainable Reporting Guidelines (2002) underpins much of the corporate reporting documentation prepared by large organizations since its publication. This guideline underpins many of the sustainability reports presented each year by leading companies in this field. Implementation of this standard enables these organisations to benchmark their performance in relation to a set of economic, environmental and social indicators. A series of sector supplements are now

- 21 - Chapter 2 – Literature review available, with one for the construction and real estate sector becoming available in 2010.

Fox, Ward et al. (2002, pp.3-4) look at the role and position of the public sector in providing an ‘enabling environment’ for CSR. The authors identify four key roles for the public sector with regards to CSR and corporate reporting which include (i) mandating, (ii) facilitating, (iii) partnering, and (iv) endorsing. They present a set of the drivers and constraints for public sector engagement.

The Group of 100 report (2003) provides further details of relevant source documentation, and reports on relevant background document which details the steps involved in TBL reporting, and the relevance in the Australian context.

AccountAbility (2006) provides a guide note to AA1000, a global sustainability assurance standard, complimentary document to the GRI. This standard (p.12) assists with determining:

 what issues, concerns and impacts are relevant and important to sustainability performance,  why, how and at what point they are relevant and important to sustainability performance, and  who they are relevant and important for.

Additionally the application of AA1000 is intended to address financial, policy, peer and societal-based norms, and stakeholder behaviour and concerns (pp.18-19). This principal-based standard thus provides a business-based translation of the intent of the GRI, through providing assistance with structuring the steps required for any organisation-based tool such as a rigorous monitoring, reporting and auditing trail.

A complimentary standard to AA1000 is Social Accountability 8000 (SA8000), first published by Social Accountability International in 1997 and now in its third edition. This is another auditable standard for a third-party verification system. SA8000 sets out the voluntary requirements to be met by employers in the workplace, including workers’ rights workplace conditions, and management systems.

In addition to AA1000 and SA 8000, relevant standards developed by the International Organisation of Standardisation, are discussed by Oskarsson and Malmborg (2005, p.123). This includes discussion of OHSAS 18001 relating to the

- 22 - Chapter 2 – Literature review working environment, and a future standard to guide sustainable development (to be referred to as Social Responsibility, due for publication by ISO in 2010).

Another United Nations document of relevance is the Millennium Development Goals Report (2007) which provides a status report on global performance to the eight millennium development goals identified in 2000. Whilst these goals are not specifically targeted to the Australian public sector context, the underlying approach and objectives require acknowledgement in the context of this research.

The emergence of these new standards is an important step in integrating the additional facets of monitoring and reporting required to assist organizations account for broader social and environmental accountabilities. In the following diagram (Figure 2.1) Oskarsson and Malmborg (2005) illustrate this increased accountability.

Figure 2-1– (a) Tradition sustainability (b) Multi-faceted, long-term sustainable development (Oskarsson and Malmborg 2005, p.126)

2.2.3 Accountability and stakeholders

These two issues are addressed simultaneously as a reflection of the co-dependent relationship between enhancing an organisation’s accountabilities, and better understanding and engaging with organisational stakeholders. Carroll (1991) provides an early discussion of the relevance of stakeholders to CSR.

There is a natural fit between the idea of corporate social responsibility and an organisation's stakeholders. The work 'social' in CSR has always been vague and lacking in specific direction as to whom the corporation is responsible. The concept of stakeholder personalises social or societal responsibilities by delineating the specific groups or persons business should consider in its CSR orientation. (Carroll 1991, p.43)

- 23 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

Carroll further poses a series of questions which assist with stakeholder management (Section 4.1.4).

Birkin and Woodward (1997) further consider the need for corporate social reporting and its implications for different stakeholder groups in referring to Medawar’s 1976 work:

(a) the social problem - business behaviour. The underlying problem remains that society has ' taken for granted too readily and for far too long that the purpose and practice of business is self-justifying ... Profit, the business community argues, is in fact wealth for society.' (b) the political problem - what action should be taken? A political solution is required, which 'involves making decisions about the standards that should be observed in the business' ... (c) the practical problem - how to implement corporate social reporting ... developing "acceptable, objective and verifiable measurement techniques" of positive or negative impacts by business and other corporate bodies on sections of the community. (Medawar 1976 in Birkin and Woodward 1997, p.59)

Cooper and Owen (2007) state that ‘the accountee has ‘‘the power to hold to account the person who gives the account” ‘ (Stewart 1984, p.16 in Cooper and Owen 2007, p.5). Therefore, we suggest that if accountability is to be achieved stakeholders need to be empowered such that they can hold the accountors to account.’ This reinforces on of the underlying tenets of AA1000, namely inclusivity and stakeholder engagement. Cooper and Owen (2007) go on to discuss the role of these standards and guidelines (e.g. GRI and AA1000) in informing best-practice reporting in terms of stakeholder interaction. They also define the link between accountability and stakeholders through asking the question ‘to whom is the account made?’ citing Benston (1982, p. 88) in identifying ‘ ‘‘shareholders, stakeholders and society in general’’ as three possible recipient groups’ (Cooper and Owen 2007, p.3).

Welford, Chan et al. 2007 similarly identify this relationship between accountability and stakeholders, and its role in developing a CSR business focus. The importance of stakeholder engagement they attribute to the need to ‘a location-specific context’ (p.52).

The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) has provided substantial insights into accountability as it relates to corporate responsibilities. The 2005 report for WBCSD by Engen and DiPiazza ‘explored how leading companies are beginning to translate accountabilities between the seemingly alien worlds of

- 24 - Chapter 2 – Literature review sustainability and business value’ (p.2). This is further discussed in Section 4.2. These authors additionally challenge organization through the ‘spheres of influence’ concept, developed to assist companies ‘understand who they are accountable to, how different stakeholders might influence their business, and ultimately, to think about who is best placed to manage these accountabilities’ (p.8). This can similarly be thought of as better understanding the consequential, and/or upstream and downstream impacts of decision-making. In the context of the project supply chain Ruddock (in Barrett, Sexton et al. 2008), provides the following definitions, pertinent to the construction sector:

- Upstream - manufacturing; mining and quarrying; architectural and technical consultancy; business services - Parallel - architectural and technical consultancy - Downstream – real estate activities (Barrett, Sexton et al. 2008, p.69)

The third element of the WBCSD suite is the stakeholder footprinting matrix (Holme and Watts 2000). This publication outlines an approach to developing an understanding of what and how key corporate social responsibility issues can be mapped to specific stakeholders. This requires organizations to prioritise stakeholder groups in line with a set of key corporate social reporting issues relevant to organizations (Section 4.1.4).

Through these three mechanisms the WBCSD has provided tools which provide the basis for engagement as a foundation for substantive organisational reporting regarding corporate responsibilities, in line with Cooper and Owen’s (2007) reflections:

Roberts (1996, p. 59) concludes that ‘‘dialogue as a process and practice of accountability’’ has the potential to ‘‘restore the balance’’, such that the ‘‘instrumental pursuit of power and profit’’ cannot be undertaken ‘‘without regard to the wider social or environmental consequences of the pursuit of such interests’’. (Cooper and Owens 2007, p.4)

Bourne (2005) discusses the importance of effective stakeholder engagement, in the context of project success and the Stakeholder Circles tool developed as a part of doctoral work at Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT). ‘This dissertation demonstrates a link between the successful management of the relationships between the management of the relationships between the project and its stakeholders, and the stakeholder’s assessment of a successful project outcome’ (Bourne 2005, p. iv).

- 25 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

The diversity of stakeholder groups is most recently addressed by O’Connor and Spangenberg (2008) in their discussion of stakeholder dialogue processes (Figure 2.2). In the course of establishing a methodology for CSR reporting these authors place stakeholder dialogue as central to effective reporting.

External stakeholder model for sustainable reporting

Insurance Professional External R&D Territorial companies Associations communities

Shareholders Citizens

Governments Political parties COMPANY

Suppliers Customers

Professional Professional Associations Associations

Diverse Professional NGOs Other firms associations Associations

Key Traditionally recognised stakeholders Extended stakeholder categories

Figure 2-2 - The variety of stakeholders in CSR reporting (O’Connor and Spangenberg 2008, p. 1405)

Thus the literature supports the need for CSR reporting to engage with stakeholders in the development and implementation of CSR indicators in order to both ensure ownership of issues reported upon, and their contribution to a successful project.

By allowing stakeholders … with local and often site specific preoccupations, to see how their particular concerns fall within the categories of social responsibility and issues addressed by the wider international community, the local significance of proposed indicators is clearly in view of the local stakeholders and, at the same time, they can appreciate the role of the indicator systems as a contribution to wider societal objectives of economic, environmental and social dimensions of sustainability. (O’Connor and Spangenberg 2008, p.1412)

Addressing these issues can thus enable organizations to look beyond traditional project boundaries, further across both the supply and value chains, thus potentially enabling greater accuracy in terms of considering future project impacts and outcomes. This approach to organisational responsibilities and engagement with

- 26 - Chapter 2 – Literature review stakeholders is also addressed by Deakin (2007), with regards to consensus building amongst stakeholders, in saying that ‘ “the shared understanding of issues and other players, capacity to work together, skills in dialogues, joint learning, innovative problem solving, shared heuristics for action, feasible and implementable actions, and can lead to participants” redefining themselves and their objectives’ (Innes 2003 in Deakin 2007, p.62).

Cooper and Owen (2007) highlight the failure to date of effective stakeholder participation whilst financial return remains the primary driver in assessing organization performance. This, coupled with the lack of power currently attributed to non-financial or non-contractual stakeholders, contributes to lack of accountability. ‘Clearly, corporate governance mechanisms have not evolved in such a way that stakeholder accountability, as opposed to (enlightened?) stakeholder management, may be established’ (Cooper and Owen 2007, p.9).

It is proposed that this is partially attributable to the lack of clearly defined and measurable targets for non-financial performance. This research, in part, seeks to establish a framework for addressing this issue. Recent work by O’Connor and Spangenberg (2008) reinforces this approach. These authors consider ‘indicator development as a deeply social decision-making process for which a diversity of viewpoints must be brought together in order to furnish a comprehensive representation of the direct and indirect impacts of and on a company’ (O’Connor and Spangenberg 2008, p.1401).

Spangenberg (2008) furthers this discussion of the “bottom-up/top-down” approach to establishing indicators through building stakeholder engagement along with ensuring a sound basis for a set of measurable indicators to enable effective measurement of an organisation’s CSR performance.

Edum-Fotwe and Price (2008) also engage in discussion of stakeholders based on their research for development of a social ontology. They suggest several classes of stakeholders for engagement, in the context of developing a sustainable urban environment.

- 27 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

1. Those stakeholders that make the decision. 2. Those stakeholders that facilitate the decisions. 3. Those stakeholders that are affected by the decision. 4. The policy makers, development team and those impacted by the sustainability issues… 5. Stakeholders of a building for example can be grouped into: policy makers, project (building) sponsor, client organisation team, project (building) organisation team, end user, external team members … and community and external independent concerned groups. (Edum-Fotwe and Price 2008, p. 4)

Kovacs (2008) presents the outcomes of research looking at the cumulative effect of environmental impacts of the entire supply chain for a product, and again highlight the significant role of stakeholders in this understanding. ‘The business case for CSR is then defined as ‘‘a process by which companies manage their relationships with a variety of stakeholders who can have an important influence on their licence to operate” ’ (European Commission Green paper, 2001 p.4, in Kovacs 2008, p. 1571). This cumulative effect is also identified by Tricker (2007). This is discussed further in Section 2.5.

Thus the issues of accountability and the role of stakeholders in developing a corporate social responsibility framework are consistently referred to in the literature as a central issue and will be used to guide framework and methodology development. From this background, this research thus seeks to establish a practical framework, grounded upon prior research that will enhance the level of accountability to non-financial performance indicators in the provision of major economic infrastructure projects.

Theme Summary

Literature reviewed pertaining to this theme of corporate responsibility has thus demonstrated both the academic and industry basis which exists for considering issues beyond the economic in fulfilling corporate responsibilities. The literature highlights the need to understand and account for social and environmental considerations alongside the economic. It also highlights the importance of stakeholder engagement in the process of enhanced accountabilities. From this literature, tools and approaches have been distilled to help address the research question posed in this thesis. How this knowledge is then translated into providing additional project value, and better communicating project values, is what is investigated in the following theme.

- 28 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

2.3 Project value/s

The following references provide background knowledge which assisted in the development of the value-maps and their inputs, pertinent to major economic infrastructure projects. Whilst a body of literature does exist in this field in relation to the construction sector, literature is drawn from other disciplines such as manufacturing and management.

2.3.1 Background literature

An initial consideration for this research is the definition of project value. Checkland (1992) discusses this in the context of research method.

Ascertaining what roles are significant, and discovering the norms associated with them are important parts of the systems methodology, as is the discovery of the third element always associated with roles and norms: the values according to which behaviour in a role is judged. 'Values', says Cohen ' express preferences, priorities or desirable states of affairs...Values, like roles and norms continually change. (Checkland 1992, p.231)

Wandahl (2004) reiterates the somewhat transient nature of value by drawing attention to the likelihood that people in differing relationships to a project, may bring differing values to the relationship. This author goes on then to identify the need to influence ‘an individual's value and by creating a common shared set of values’ (p.1) in order to achieve improved project outcomes.

Emmitt, Saunders et al. (2005) provide further dimensions to value in recognising the flux of both the perceptive and temporal elements of any definition:

In practice the term value is used very loosely, and we will retain that approach in this paper. The word value has two characteristics (Christoffersen 2003): • The perception of value is individual and personal, and is therefore subjective. Indeed, agreement of an objective best value for a group will differ from the individuals’ perception of value • Values will change over time. (Emmitt Saunders et al. 2005, p.59)

Lean manufacturing advocates (Jones and Womack 2002) provide yet another perspective on value, and one of the most succinct definitions of ‘value creation’ as ‘providing for the customer the right product and/or service, at the right time, with the right cost’ (Jones and Womack in Klotz et al. 2007).

- 29 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

In order to clearly communicate the intent this research, with the resultant development of the value-mapping framework, recent writings by two authors are highlighted. Both these represent the duality which exists in the value universe, with its ensuing complexity. The first is in Wandahl’s (2004) discussion of product and process value.

Value as a concept has a two-sided meaning. It refers partly to "what something is worth" and partly to "the principles people apply to make decisions". When these two meanings in a scientific sense is applied and adjusted to the construction world the author describes them as product value and process value respectively. (Wandahl 2004, p.2)

The second is that provided by Emmitt, Saunders et al (2005) outlining a differentiation in the context of the internal (project team members) and external (client) focus of different participants. External value is that ‘which is the client/customer value, and the value that the project should end up with and the delivery team focusing on achieving’ (p.59) and internal value is that which is generated ‘by and between the participants of the delivery team’ (p.59). To this end they provide additional clarification to the concepts of process (soft) and product (hard) value, with soft values focussed on relationships and behaviours; and hard values related to the more traditional aspects of project delivery such as time, cost and quality (p.59).

Given this perspective, it is an important activity within a framework attempting to map project value/s, to achieve a group understanding on what this ‘value’ is, in the context of the organization delivering the project. To this end, the research highlights two key questions presented by Emmitt, Saunders et al. (2005), along with a further series of required clarifications.

If value is as crucial to define as we think, we need to answer the questions: (1) Value to whom? And (2) what is value? … Is it the value to the owner, the user or the society we mean, or maybe even the value to the architect, engineer or contractor? And in what time perspective do we define value, when we construct, when we use or when we demolish and recycle? We could also ask if value is only connected to the building (product) or is it also connected to the processes that lead us to the product? (Emmitt, Saunders et al. 2005, p.58)

The value-mapping framework being developed as part of this research thus seeks to build a shared understanding of project value with associated value-mapping objectives, in order to deliver additional value to major projects, thus reinforcing the link back to stakeholders as per the literature reviewed in the previous theme.

- 30 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

Emmitt, Saunders et al. (2005, p.59) identify a number of benefit of aligning values for overall project delivery, potentially leading to a more cooperative delivery environment.

It is thus important to regard this current research with the duality of meaning associated with project value as the context.

2.3.2 Value chain mapping

Anderson (1991) discusses the risks associated with not recognising the importance of sustainability in production. ‘The idea of 'sustainability' raised the question of whether economic benefits being derived from production now are at the expense of future generations’ (p.72). The need now exists for the risks associated with not considering environmental and social impacts to be better understood and articulated so that decision-making can be more informed. Mapping the inputs and outputs of the cradle to grave process can assist with better articulating these risks. The World Business Council for Sustainable Development’s (WBCSD 2002) value- chain methodology (Figure 2.3) can be used as the basis to build a detailed cradle to grave impact assessment (e.g. for a proposed infrastructure project), and to better understand a project’s value chain and consequent potential for risk or harm.

Value chain

Processing of Transportation Manufacturing Distribution End Use raw materials of products

Types of CSR/environmental issues/dilemmas

 Child labour  Long working  Corruption  Whole-sale  Unfair  Discrimin- hours  Discrimin- discrimin- compen- ation  Abuse of ation ation sation  Abuse of union rights  No freedom  Bribery  Social indigenous  Dangerous of speech exclusion people working  Health and  Pollution  Social conditions safety inequality in  Use of local local water community resources

Appreciation to Jens Schierbeck, Deloitte & Touche

Figure 2-3 - The value chain (WBCSD 2002)

In applying this methodology, assessment is not limited traditional economic, environment or social measures, but requires a broader at longer term impacts, such as raw/materials and services supply impacts; impacts of transportation; and

- 31 - Chapter 2 – Literature review the intergenerational impacts of the final product. This approach can also be used to determine potential value-add to the environment and community from the proposed project which is currently not accounted for.

The concept of a value chain map can be seen as an extension of more traditional supply and demand chain mapping. Cox (1999) discusses the complexity of the supply chain, highlighting the importance of understanding the dynamics of specific supply chains. ‘The process by which raw materials are turned into end products and services is rarely a simple linear process chain, and much more like a spaghetti web of complex interconnecting relationships’ (Cox 1999, p.211). Further to this Rainbird (2004) discusses characteristics of demand chains, and their interaction with supply chains. ‘It could be argued that it (supply chain management) should be termed “demand chain management” to reflect the fact that the chain should be driven by the market, not by suppliers (Christopher 1998 in Rainbird 2004, p.234).’ This approach further reinforces the importance of engagement with stakeholders on the demand-side.

2.3.3 Value stream mapping

Hines and Rich (1997) provide some of the earlier discussion regarding value stream mapping and ‘lean thinking’ which became associated with this method.

The typology is based around the identification of the particular wastes the researcher/company/value stream members wish to reduce or eliminate. As such, it allows for an extension of the effective internal waste reduction philosophy pioneered by leading companies such as Toyota. In this case, however, such an approach can be widened and so extended to a value stream setting. This extension capability lies at the heart of creating lean enterprises, with each of the value stream members working to reduce wasteful activity both inside and between their organizations. (Hines and Rich 1997, p.63)

Whereas the value chain map discussed in the previous section is outward looking, value-stream mapping traditionally focuses on activities within a process. This concept has its origins in production management in Toyota, and has been subsequently widely used to track waste in the supply chain. Arbulu, Tommelein et al. (2003) consider that through using data which can be gained from implementing such a process in the construction supply chain ‘opportunities for re-engineering industry practices across organizational boundaries (can be) highlighted on a future state map’ (Arbulu, Tommelein et al. 2003, p.162).

- 32 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

Thus the authors raise two key issues of relevance to this current research. The first is the concept of a ‘future state map’, wherein a desired future state may be articulated. Rother and Shook (2003) detail the process of value stream mapping within a manufacturing supply chain. They provide some simple guidelines for this methodology which can give guidance for the development of the project-based value-map development proposed in this research. Secondly, they raise the application of value-stream mapping across organisational boundaries, or, as applicable to this research, along the project supply chain. Jones and Womack (2002) discuss the application of factory-based value stream mapping to that between companies along the supply chain. ‘An extended value stream is simply all of the actions - both value-creating and wasteful - required to bring a product from raw materials into the arms of the customer’ (Jones and Womack 2002, p.1). Arbulu, Tommelein et al (2003, p.165) suggest that ‘adopting such a view is most appropriate and in fact unavoidable because of the highly fragmented nature of the AEC industry.’

It is this background in lean manufacturing that has informed ‘lean construction’ thinking (Bertlesen and Koskela 2004), and more recently the Lean and Green Protocol developed by Klotz, Horman et al. (2007). This evolution is relevant to current research in that it demonstrates the adaptive nature of the value stream mapping methodology. Lean thinking tools have also been examined to assist with describing the complex interactions associated with the delivery of a major economic infrastructure project.

Most organisations that use lean production techniques have already begun to address information flow by using a tool known as a value stream map (VSM) A VSM depicts the entire "value stream" - that is, the manufacturing process from raw materials to shipping dock. (Pojesek 2004, p.90)

The development of high-level process maps, in order to identify organisational and project based decision-making is discussed further in Section 4.1.1. They are also of relevance to the overview process maps used in the value-mapping framework which is being developed as part of this doctoral research, to highlight future points for review and reporting on project performance to value-mapping indicators. ‘A current state map of in-plant value streams then serves as the basis for developing future state maps that leave out wasted steps and interfaces while pulling resources through the system and smoothing flow’ (Arbulu, Tommelein et al. 2003, p.165).

- 33 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

Theme summary

This second theme has thus presented relevant literature regarding the concept of project-based value/s through (i) recognising and detailing the duality of the term ‘value/s’ and (ii) seeking to develop an understanding of how to track or map value/s throughout a process of creation.

The former concept is an important central element when considering the links between project outcomes and corporate accountability. Traditionally value has been well accounted for in an economic sense, and many systems exist to support this. In terms of environmental and social value however, tools are still be developed to account for these. These two forms of value do not lend themselves naturally to financial accounting models. Thus the importance of aligning values, with project stakeholders, in regards to environmental and social outcomes, can potentially be used to account for these aspects of project performance.

How to then track alignment to these values is then where the ‘mapping’ tools discussed in this theme may be beneficial. Such application is explored in the context of the three case studies (Chapters 5, 6 and 7).

Once the requirements for greater accountability have been identified (CSR) and the value associated with this understood, it is then necessary to establish indicators for performance which can be used to account for and report on these aspects of delivery. This is now addressed in the following theme.

2.4 Performance indicators

A performance measure is an objective that is stated in measurable terms. Synonyms include performance indicator, performance attribute, or service attribute. (Sinha and Labi 2007, p.220)

This research seeks in part, to clarify the hierarchy of objectives which exists relevant to the delivery of a major economic infrastructure project (from corporate to project-based) and thus establish a continuum from corporate objectives to project objectives, performance indicators, and associated measurables. Additionally it seeks to provide a process for effectively identifying relevant objectives and indicators; and a framework which clearly aligns project-based performance measurables back to corporate objectives. To this end, literature relevant to the

- 34 - Chapter 2 – Literature review establishment of key performance indicators (KPIs) and critical success factors (CSFs) was reviewed.

Anderson (1991) proposes a set of seven criteria for good indicators which are abridged as following:

1.The indicator itself, or the information it is calculated from, should be already available, or else be able to be made available easily and cheaply… 2. The indicator should be relatively easy to understand… 3. The indicator, to work at al, must be about something measurable… 4. …an indicator should measure something believed to be important or significant in its own right… 5. There should preferably only be a short time-lag between the state of affairs referred to and the indicator becoming available… 6. It is useful if the indicator is based on information which can be used to compare different geographical areas, social groups etc… 7. International compatibility is desirable. (Anderson 1991, pp.49-51)

Considerable literature exists which explores the role of indicators in decision- making, in the context of broader environmental and social impacts.

2.4.1 Sustainability and CSR Indicators

There is considerable research in this field in recent times. In the context of this current research, the review is focussed on how such indicators enable organizations to link their project outcomes back to their own stated corporate objectives. An appreciation of this field is however important. It is not the intent of this research to establish a generic, stand-alone set of CSR indicators (whilst this may be an ultimate outcome for an organization after the repeated application of the framework). Indicators in the context of this research are to be considered as a part of a hierarchy of objectives (Section 4.2.2) which assist in communicating project values, thus providing a framework for enhanced project reporting and accountability.

Palme and Tillman (2007, p.1350) present the findings of an extensive literature search relating to sustainable development indicators, and conclude that ‘the major organizational applications of SDIs (sustainable development indicators) described in the literature searched were reporting, accounting, benchmarking, and planning’.

- 35 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

Mayer (2008, pp. 281-282) provides an assessment of the currently available indices for measurement of sustainability including:

 Wellbeing  Sustainable Economic Welfare  Environmental sustainability  Genuine Progress  Natural Capital  Genuine Savings  Satellite based sustainability  Sustainable National Income  Sparce PCA  Emergy Analysis  STIRPAT  Ecological Footprint  Fisher Information

Scipioni, Mazzi et al. (2008) discuss the need for and importance of indicators as both communication and reporting mechanisms, and suggest that indicators:

By simplifying complex phenomenons, may help politicians and citizens to define individual or collective targets, linking them to clear goals and reaching them with concrete projects. The main function of the indicator, in fact, is to briefly represent the investigated problems in a way that preserves the informative content of the analysis. (Scipioni, Mazzi et al. 2008, p.1)

This is a key point for consideration in terms of the value-mapping framework as developed in the course of this research. Through linking corporate objectives, to project objectives, to value-mapping indicators, a narrative is established which enables not only the measurement of performance, but also a basis for more accurately transferring information regarding corporate value along the project supply chain.

Scipioni, Mazzi et al. (2008) go on to highlight the importance of how these indicators are determined, with particular mention to transparency, sustainability and a focus on the local scale (p.2). This is reflected in the way in which local distinctiveness, for example, can be detailed in the value-mapping framework being developed as an outcome of this research (Kraatz, Kajewski and Manley 2008b).

The evolving nature of the measurables, and their use in continuos improvement is also highlighted by Scipioni, Mazzi et al. (2008) This introduces the need for a flexible, iterative process, which in this instance, is being structured by a value- mapping framework, for which objectives, indicators and measurables are derived through a process undertaken as an integral part of the project management planning for each project (which may in turn draw upon a suite of objectives, indicators and measurables from archived project data).

- 36 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

Spangenger (2008) states that ‘the case study demonstrated how operational CSR indicators can be derived in a process of consecutive opening up and closing down of a social decision making process’ (p.132). This is represented in the value- mapping framework through the iterative manner in which the derivation of objectives and indicators needs to be undertaken. Spangenger (2008) adopts this approach as a way of dealing with complexity involving many ‘dispersed actors’ (p.132). These two characteristics are pertinent to the nature of the construction project supply chain. O’Connor and Spangenger (2008) further elaborate on this interactive process wherein their framework ‘considers indicator development as a deeply social decision-making process for which a diversity of viewpoints must be brought together in order to furnish a comprehensive representation of the direct and indirect impacts of and on a company’ (O’Connor and Spangenger 2008, p.1401).

2.4.1.1 Practical application of sustainability and CSR indicators

Anderson’s (1991) paper considers social and environmental indicators in the context of alternative economic indicators. Whilst this is aimed at national accounts, some lessons can be taken for potential project-based accounting.

For each resource, there is an opening figure of total stock of that resource at the start of the accounting period, then figures for the amount of the resource that have been used up, and any additions to the stock, and finally a figure for the total stock of the resources at the end of the period. It is also possible to link environmental accounts to national income accounts by including prices and price changes. (Anderson 1991, pp.64-65)

This is explained in the context of the Norwegian accounting system, wherein mineral, biological, environmental and other ‘inflowing resources’ such a solar radiation are accounted for.

Warhurst (2001) further discusses this transformative process, and provides a practical description which can assist in our understanding of the complexity of sustainability indicators which seek to embrace and communicate performance to non-traditional areas of impact such as natural and social capital, and the process of transformation.

It is the effects of this transformation process on human health and wellbeing that are at the heart of public-interest concerns about achieving a sustainable economy and the related role of corporate environmental and social responsibility. (Warhurst 2001, p.60)

- 37 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

This process of the transformation of goods or products (i.e. ore to steel, energy to product) is further discussed in Section 2.5.1.

A number of papers also establish indicators specific to urban transportation.

Black, Paez et al. (2002) provide a paper which addresses the lack of an indicator framework for transportation and urban land use systems. The authors provide both a framework and the analytical workings showing ‘how the indicators may be quantified’ (p.192-193).

Nicolas, Pochet et al. (2003) seek to establish a set of mobility indicators for urban transport. Their paper outlines the selection and assessment of the various environmental and social indicators, and the application of this framework to a case study of Lyons in France. ‘From an economic standpoint, the aim is to determine the cost-efficiency of travel within the conurbation by a close analysis of its global cost on one hand, and the cost per mode of travel on the other hand’ (Nicolas, Pouchet et al. 2003, p.8). They highlight issues relevant to environmental impacts, namely global greenhouse effect, energy consumption, air pollution and the road space used by various transportation modes (Nicolas, Pouchet et al. 2003, p.12). They also provide a valuable focus on accounting for the social impacts of transportation.

The social equity issues should be examined very carefully. What urban distances do they cover, for which purposes, and how much of their budget for the expenditures for their daily mobility represent? (Nicolas, Pouchet et al. 2003, p.10)

The doctoral work of Maldonado-Fortunet (2002) is also acknowledged here. The author undertakes foundation work on the development of sustainability indicators specifically relevant to civil infrastructure, as a result of a comprehensive literature review, followed by a case study and Delphi survey (Maldonado-Fortunet 2002, p. xv).

2.4.1.2 Integration into project decision-making

A number of papers address how these indicators are incorporated into the current analytical and non-analytical decision-making environment. Whilst the resultant value-mapping framework is based upon a discursive rather than a formularized process, an understanding was required of the latter, including cost benefit analysis

- 38 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

(CBA) and multi-criteria analysis (MCA). This is required to successfully address many of the decision points on the project value map.

Rogers (2001) provides background documentation on the various types on non- analytical decision-making tools used in engineering project appraisal. Of special interest is the detail account of the various types of multi-criteria decision-making tools which are available. How these can be used to inform both the quantitative and qualitative items to be considered in the value mapping process will be important to the rigour of this research.

Asafu-Adjaye (2005) also discusses methods available for full accounting, including a detail account for the steps involved in multi-criteria analysis, along with other methods.

MCA may be described as a framework to assist decision makers choose between alternative policies and projects in situations where there are multiple objective...MCA incorporates costs and benefits that cannot be valued in dollar terms. (Asafu-Adjaye 2005, p. 204)

Stirling (1997) also discusses the role of multi-criteria mapping, citing advantages including ‘transparency, rigor, performs effectively under critical review, provides a greater degree of realism than when issues optimised under a single index; allows a greater plurality of appraisal methodologies, and acknowledges the fundamental subjectivity of technology appraisal’ (p.195).

The need to identify and illustrate ‘uncertainty’ in the identification of outputs (or outcomes) is also discussed. Ellingham and Fawcett (2006) provide one accepted methodology for illustrating uncertainty in decision-making, via the use of fan diagrams and binomial trees for use where ‘precise value is unknown, but the range of possibilities and the probability of each possibility is known, then the expected value can be calculated’ (p. 31).

Recognition of this uncertainty when dealing with future possible conditions is essential when engaging in the field of corporate responsibility. The intent of this current doctoral research is to broaden the project team’s strategic focus at the front-end of a project, prior to focusing on project delivery, in order to better identify project impacts and opportunities beyond the traditional project foot-print. To this end, not all objectives and indicators may have measurables ascribed to them at the time of establishing the value map. The key issue is that these broader impacts and

- 39 - Chapter 2 – Literature review opportunities are identified, and remain items for on-going review, thus better representing uncertain future states and outcomes.

Much of the literature discovered has a focus on the environmental aspects of sustainability indicators. In their 2008 paper, Hutchins and Sutherland review literature associated with both metrics and indicators for social responsibility. They provide insights into how to account social indicators for an organizational supply chain, with particular reference to the need for bounding the scope of the analysis.

A final key issue relates to the quantum of indicators considered necessary of the task of reporting. Connor and Spangenberg (2008) discuss the issue of the quantum of indicators required for effective reporting, which they suggest should be under 180.

This is what has to be done through seeking out indicators that are ‘‘robust’’ and ‘‘generic’’ across stakeholder groups. For example this might be achieved, at the site-level, by a second phase of appraisal during which a group of stakeholder engages in deliberation to obtain a ‘‘representative diversity’’ within the constraint of, say, a maximum of three indicators per performance issue. With 15 performance issues, this would yield 15 x 3 ¼ = 45 indicators deployed for the CSR reporting at the site-level. Probably, some indicators will be used across two or more performance issues. So, we arrive through this procedure, not too far from the rule-of-thumb proposed by stakeholders, of ‘‘about 30’’. (O’Connor and Spangenberg 2008, p.1411)

In practice, there is a tendency or desire to limit the number of indicators well below this number (Section 8.2.1). This results in an easily communicable set of numbers, similar to a dashboard report, yet often does not convey the richness or complexity of the information or impacts. The intent of the value-mapping framework being developed through this research is to communicate this richness. For Case 3, for example, fifty-six indicators have been identified.

2.4.2 Indicators for project performance

As outlined in Section 2.1, a review of literature has been undertaken on critical success factors (CSFs) and key performance indicators (KPIs) in the construction sector, with particular focus on those relevant to government procurement. Whilst these two types of indicators serve differing functions in the procurement process they both serve as a tool for tracking and reporting project performance, and are hence of relevance to this research. In part, this research questions the role CSFs

- 40 - Chapter 2 – Literature review and KPIs in the procurement process, and offers an alternative method for communicating, tracking and reporting performance, against a shared set of objectives embedded in corporate objectives and values.

Several background papers were found which provide general information relating to this topic.

2.4.2.1 Background literature

Stevens (1996) ‘reports on the second phase of a study conducted by the Quality Performance Measurement Task Force of the Construction Industry Institute’ (p.34). The objectives of this research were to:

Develop a process to assist project teams in developing a set of quantifiably predictive quality performance indicators and an implementation process that could be used to measure the quality or, and identify improvement areas for the EPC (engineer-procure-construct) process. (Stevens 1996, p.34)

The author provides a blueprint for and tools to enable this work, including examples of worksheets which identify critical elements of delivery across the project supply chain from customers to suppliers, and including both inputs and outputs (p.38).

Morledge and Owen’s (1999) paper includes definitions of, and procedures for establishing CSFs, referring to the weaknesses in CSF establishment. Further to this they identified ways of overcoming these process weaknesses and go on to identify both ‘CSFs and ‘Failure Reduction Criteria’ (i.e. those elements necessary for success but not critical)’ (p.496). The value-mapping framework proposed by this current research addresses this initial establishment phase, with the intent of establishing a hierarchy of objectives with shared value across project stakeholders.

Chan and Chan (2004) provided a review of literature for the previous decade. The authors consolidate the findings of this review into a set of factors which contribute to project success (Figure 2.4). They also discuss factors to be considered in developing KPIs to measure project success, and provide a set of indicators, which they detail in that paper.

- 41 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

Cost: e.g. variation cost, modification Quality: e.g. cost, legal claims and technical litigation specification Time

Commercial Project profitability / Success Safety value

Participants’ Environmental satisfaction performance

User expectation / satisfaction

Figure 2-4 - Consolidated framework for measuring project success (Chan and Chan 2004, p.209)

Metri (2005) produces a similar concise set of factors, discovered in the context of total quality management (TQM) frameworks for construction firms, dating from 1989 til 2004. He highlights similar CSFs by framework from a total of fifteen. The author ranks these by way of frequency of occurrence in the different frameworks considered. From this analysis he goes on to provide detail of the ten following ranked CSFs (Table 2.1).

Table 2-1 - Most frequent occurrence of similar CSFs (Metri 2005, p.65) 1. Top Management commitment 2. Quality Culture 3. Strategic quality management 4. Design quality management 5. Process management 6. Supplier quality management 7. Education and training 8. Empowerment and involvement 9. Information and analysis 10. Customer satisfaction

Dasgupta and Tam (2005) report on research specifically targeting civil infrastructure projects and discuss a layered approach to indicator development and application wherein there are ‘two categories of indicators, mandatory screening indicators (MSI) and judgment indicators (JI)’ (Dasgupta and Tam 2005, p.31). This is not dissimilar to discussions held with other some Australian agencies in the course of the evaluation of the proposed value-mapping framework (Section 8.1.1).

- 42 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

The value-mapping process presented in this research, does not seek to reduce the number of indicators to a (manageable) few (such as illustrated in Figure 2.4), but rather to ensure that (i) indicators (and measures) are in place across the spectrum of corporate responsibilities; (ii) that these are identified in a manner that recognises a broader stakeholder base than traditionally accepted, and (iii) that accountabilities for ensuring intended outcomes are realised are in place. Literature presented here however, relating to the more traditional CSFs, remains important in terms of ensuring that such a broader set of indicators remains relevant, accessible and practical to administer within the context of the construction sector.

2.4.2.2 Stakeholder-focussed performance indicators

The literature reviewed also highlights a focus on a diversity of interests and outcomes, dependent upon the view points of the relevant stakeholders. This tends to focus on inward-looking project-based stakeholders, rather than the broader stakeholder group (Section 2.2.3). The literature provides an appreciation of the need to encompass a diversity of needs and viewpoints in the resolution of any indicator set.

Sanvido, Grobler et al. (1992) cite the objective of their research being to establish CSFs and to ‘provide a forecasting tool to enable parties to rapidly assess the possibility of a successful project, from their standpoint’ (p.94). The authors outline criteria for measuring success from three differing viewpoints, i.e. the owner, the designer and the contractor. The paper details the process for selection and application of CSFs to a number of projects.

In defining success, Parfitt and Sanvido (1993) establish that ‘goals and expectations relate to a variety of elements including technical, financial, educational, social and political issues’ (p.244). In so doing, the authors thus identify the need for both hard (quantitative) and soft (qualitative) indicators. They provide a consolidated list of CSFs from which they derive a checklist intended to assist the project team in identifying success. These headings are (i) the facility team, (ii) contracts, obligations and changes, (iii) facility experience and (iv) optimisation information (Parfitt and Sanvido 1993, pp. 246-248).

Chua, Kog et al. (1999) seek ‘to identify the CSFs for construction projects, based on accumulative knowledge and judgement of experts in the industry’ (p.142). The

- 43 - Chapter 2 – Literature review paper details a series of success related factors pertinent to project characteristics, contractual arrangements, project participants and interactive processes. These authors highlighted a sub-hierarchy of issues for both project participants and interactive processes, with key issues for project participants including competency, authority, commitment and involvement, capability of key personnel, competency of project team, team turnover rate, top management support, track record and level of service.

Jefferies, Gameson et al. (2002) provide an Australian-based case study addressing a critical success factor framework for Stadium Australia. The authors identify critical success factors as ‘those few key areas of activity in which favourable results are absolutely necessary for a particular manager to reach his or her goals’ (p.354). Importantly also they identify six weaknesses in the determination of critical success factors (Jefferies, Gameson et al 2002, p.354), these being:

 Subjectivity  Bias  Human inability to process complex information  Change in relation to the surrounding environments and time dependency  Imprecise definitions, generalisations  Qualitative performance measures

They also provide useful information linking the various project-specific CSFs, to the relevant stakeholder groups, providing comments by way of clarification.

Chan and Chan (2004) outline some of the difficulties with the application of CSFs due to their application in an ‘intuitive and ad hoc’ manner competing with many other project priorities. The authors identify the dilemma with project success meaning different things to different people (or project stakeholders). As a result of three case studies the authors conclude that each project has a series of unique results ‘due to differences in project scope, project complexity, procurement methods, etc’ (p.8).

The issues raised by Chan and Chan (2004) are the specific issues which this current doctoral research seeks to address through formalizing a set of project- based objectives and indicators which (i) represent the broader stakeholder community; (ii) are developed, reviewed and reported on as a part of the project’s management process; and (iii) align back to pre-existing, stated corporate responsibilities and values.

- 44 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

2.4.2.3 Performance indicators for alliancing projects

Literature with specific reference to alliancing and partnering projects has also been reviewed. This was undertaken due to the likelihood that the case study projects to be selected would be delivered via an alliance or some form of partnering arrangement, rather than via a tradition lump sum or design and construct arrangement. It was thus important to explore the specifics of developing and applying performance indicators in this environment

Cheng, Li et al. (2000) report on research on CSFs for construction partnering projects. Their framework identifies “effective communication, conflict resolution, adequate resources, management support, mutual trust, log-term commitment, coordination and creativity” (p.84) as critical success factors for construction partnering. The authors propose that the critical success measures (both subjective and objective) that characterise partnering success be drawn from both critical management skills and critical contextual characteristics (p.85).

Chan, Ho et al. (2001) premise their paper on ‘holding the belief that “construction project success is repeatable”.’ (Ashley et al.1987). The focus of this research is specifically on design and build (D&B) projects. They provide an outline of previous empirical assessments, and list thirty-one factors that had been identified as contributing to the success of such projects. They outline the research methodology for their specific D&B assessment from which they extract six success factors of which three ‘were found to be critical … Specifically, the project team commitment; client competencies, and contractors competencies’ (Chan, Ho et al. 2001, p.99).

Rowlinson and Cheung’s (2004) paper provides background information for this topic and includes definitions for partnering, alliancing and relational partnering.

Relational (or relationship) contracting is based on a recognition of mutual benefits and win-win scenarios through more cooperative relationships between the parties. Relational contracting embraces and underpins various approaches, such as partnering, alliancing, joint venturing, and other collaborative working arrangements and better risk sharing mechanisms (Alsagoff and McDermott, 1994; Jones, 2000; Rahman and Kumaraswamy, 2002). (Cheung, 2001 in Rowlinson and Cheung 2004, p.4)

Chan, Chan et al. (2004) report on a study of the partnering process in Hong Kong, and include an extensive study of local industry to determine those CSFs applicable and influential to the industry there. The authors identify a set of significant factors

- 45 - Chapter 2 – Literature review affecting projects success which include ‘adequate resources, support from top management, mutual trust, long-term commitment, effective communication, efficient coordination and productive conflict resolution’ (pp.190-191).

Li, Akintoye et al. (2005) focus on CSFs for public-private partnership projects (PPPs) in the UK, provide a brief summary of a number of key papers and their contribution to this area. They highlight a number of ‘soft’ critical success factors often not included in frameworks, including ‘social support, commitment, mutual benefit, the importance of procurement transparency and competitive procurement process’ (p.461). Li, Akintoye et al. also provide a summary of CSFs for PPPs aggregated from academic papers at the time of publication, and report on an industry survey to rank these (Table 2.2).

Table 2-2 - CSF for PPP/PFI projects (Li, Akintoye et al. 2005, p.467) Transparent procurement process Competitive procurement process Good Governance Well-organised and committed public agency Social Support Shared authority between public and private sector Thorough and realistic cost/benefits assessment Project technical feasibility Appropriate risk allocation and risk sharing Commitment/responsibility of public/private sectors Strong and good private consortium Favourable legal framework Government involvement by providing guarantees Multi-benefit objectives Political support Stable- macro-economic conditions Sound economic policy Available financial market

Zhang (2005a) provides a discussion on CSFs with specific relevance to PPP’s, including an outline of evaluation packages for PPP projects under the four headings of financial; technical; health, safety and environment; and managerial. The author details the most significant criteria in the different evaluation packages. Zhang (2005b) calls for a worldwide protocol of CSFs for public private partnerships in response to problems which have arisen due to the risks and uncertainties associated with this type of project procurement. The author cites a World Bank summary of reasons for delays in partnered infrastructure projects including ‘(1) wide gaps between public and private expectations; (2) lack of clear government objectives and commitment; (3) complex decision making; (4) poorly defined sector policies’ and so on (Zhang 2005a, p.4). Zhang (2005b) lists five relevant CSFs

- 46 - Chapter 2 – Literature review including favourable investment environment; economic viability; reliable concessionaire consortium with strong technical strength; strong financial package; and appropriate risk allocation via reliable contractual arrangements (p.5). This paper exhibits a strong focus on financial and contractual issues, but places limited emphasis on the more qualitative issues of project success. It does however further highlight the need for a rigorous framework with which to develop and implement a representative set of performance indicators.

Across the seven papers ‘soft’ factors such as team commitment, trust and the like are highlighted, along with the more traditional factors relating to financial performance and health and safety considerations.

2.4.2.4 Performance indicators specific to project phase

The development of critical success factors appropriate for the various stages of a project is also the subject of much literature. This was of interest in considering how effective reporting, aligned to corporate objectives and values, can be undertaken if different sets of indicators are used at different phases of a project’s life. Whilst differing sets may enable reporting to discrete project activities, the question raised is how they can effectively address both corporate and stakeholder objectives?

Qiao, Wang et al. (2001) propose different CSFs for the various project phases of a Build Own Transfer (BOT) projects in China. These were developed through an extensive process which included literature searches and interviews. Information was then validated via survey and case studies (Table 2.3).

- 47 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

Table 2-3 - Framework for CSF’s of BOT projects in China (extract from Qaio, Wang et al. 2001) Preliminary Qualification  Appropriate project identification Evaluation Phase  Stable political and economic solution  Favourable legislation regulations  The Capability of project promoter  Experience with BOT project by promoter  Lack of funds for infrastructure project Tendering Phase  Competitive tendering system  Attractive financial package  Acceptable toll/tariff levels  Technology solution advantage  Select suitable project agencies Construction Phase  Quality control and supervision  Select suitable subcontractor  Standardisation of engineering contract  A multidisciplinary and multinational team  Good relationship with government authorities Operation Phase  Management control  Training local staff  Sound environmental impact  Public safety Transfer Phase  Technology transfer  Operation in good condition  Overhauling guarantees

Chan, Scott and Lam (2002) further this focus and establish ‘a comprehensive assessment framework for project success on design/build projects’ (p.120). The authors undertook a review of previous literature and then establish a set of both subjective and objective criteria for the pre-construction phase; the construction phase; and the post construction phase. They also present measures for these criteria (Table 2.4).

Table 2-4 - Project Success Factors for Design/Build projects (Chan, Scott and Lam 2002, p.124) Pre-construction Phase Objective Measures Quality Time Technical performance Cost Satisfaction of Key Project Participants Subjective Measures Construction Phase Objective Measures Quality Time Technical performance Cost Productivity Health and Safety Satisfaction of Key Project Participants Subjective Measures Conflict Management Post-construction Phase Objective Measures Subjective Measures Profitability Satisfaction of Key Project Participants, End-users and outsiders

- 48 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

This provides a valuable break-down of CSFs whilst at the same time raises a number of questions as to how performance to the post-construction phase criteria can be assessed or met if they have not been adequately addressed and considered in the previous stages of the project. Another question raised is in regards to say stakeholder satisfaction, for example, if they lay outside the realm of ‘key project participants’, and have a stake in issues other than cost; profitability; and health and safety.

This current doctoral research challenges the effectiveness of differing indicators for the different project stages, and proposes through the implementation of the value- mapping framework, to provide a mechanism for developing and implementing a consistent set of indicators from project inception to benefits realization, thus maintaining continuity between initial corporate concerns and final project outcomes. Arts and Lamoen (2005) discuss transport related performance criteria in the context of a new type of “reconnaissance” study which is being developed as a link between Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) and Environmental Impact Studies (EIS). These new forms of study are starting to put a priority on the link between corporate, program and project goals and outcomes. Fischer (2002) also discusses policy program and plan SEAs and how these can contribute to better integration of all of the tiers of project priorities.

Theme summary

Table 2.5 provides a compilation of the critical success factors and key performance indicators as identified in literature reviewed to date (from Cheng, Li et al. 2000, Metri 2005, Li, Akintoye et al. 2005, Qiao, Wang et al. 1999, Chan 2002, Chan, Ho et al. 2001, Jefferies, Gameson et al. 2002, and Zhang 2005a). This table provides information formatted to present a summary of indicators typical to the industry, both qualitative and quantitative in nature.

This compilation is provided to highlight the range of indicators which are already variously tracked in the sector, in terms of determining project performance or project success. These are typically used as stand-alone measures, and thus it is suggested, are abstract, beyond the specific context of the project, or the project phase, which they are intended to measure and/or report on. The question this current research is seeking to raise, relates to the context in which any such indicators are developed and applied. Through providing a context which (i) links

- 49 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

Table 2-5 - Summary of CSFs/KPIs identified in literature Financial / Economic indicators Business results / performance Tariff/Toll setting up and adjustment mechanism Economic return to expectations Low tariff/toll levels Sound Financial Analysis Gov control of tariff/toll levels Total Investment Schedule incl. payment & draw-down Schedule of revenues Debt / Equity ratio Competitive Tendering Sources/structure of loans & standby financing facilities Risk Allocation Attractiveness of loans & standby financing facilities Cost/Benefit Attractiveness of shareholder agreement Strong private Consortium Low financial charges and interest rate financing Concrete and precise concession arrangements Long-term loan financing & minimal refinancing risk Favourable legislative environment Local financing Guarantees Concessionaires ability to get supplementary external finance Clear understanding or risk and legal liabilities Abilities to deal with fluctuations in interest/exchange rate Stable macro-economic conditions Financiers' abilities Sound economic policy Internal rate of return Ability to address counterparty risk (default by other) Net present value Environmental indicators Resource availability Construction/demolition waste management Environmental Impact Control of air and water pollutants Pre-tender Site Investigation Use of local materials and equipment Noise mitigation Quality Design Biodiversity protection People / social indicators Education and Training Satisfaction with functional & technical performance Customer Satisfaction Use of local expertise Qualifications, experience and competencies Cultural Heritage protection Skills availability Effective Relationships with regulators Social Impact Empowerment & Involvement Adequate Resources Community Support Effective Multi-Disciplinary team Clear Understanding of Roles Management / Professional indicators Strategic Quality Management Design life Design quality management Maintainability Process Management Operations and maintenance policy and schedules Managerial Support Organisational culture Technical Feasibility Value engineering Strong legal framework Transfer procedures Adequate Resources Long-term Commitment Long-term Commitment Innovation and Creativity (eg collection technology) Management / Professional indicators continued Articulate Client Brief Political Support Articulated End User Needs Trust Compliance with Brief/Specs ie Fitness for Purpose Effective Coordination Organisational Capacity Effective Communication Thorough Pre-qualification process Effective Conflict resolution Thorough Proposal Assessment Effective Project management Minimal change Transparent tendering process Buildability input during design Good Governance arrangements Clear change process

- 50 - Chapter 2 – Literature review directly to corporate objectives and values of the organisation procuring the project; and (ii) links directly to a broad set of stakeholders impacted by the project (broad in the context of including non-contractual stakeholders), can project-based objectives and indicators better represent corporate values; and thereby add project value?

This section thus seeks to review a broad range of literature relevant to both traditional performance indicators in the construction sector; and those in use in the broader (newer) field of sustainability. This spread has been selected in order to identify how issues beyond the traditional project footprint can be considered, and accounted for, in the course of procuring infrastructure projects. It seeks to identify an academic foundation for grounding any emergent framework, which at the same time needs to remain relevant and practical in the context of the construction sector.

2.5 Measurables

The final theme relevant to this current research relates to the measurables that are then assigned to indicators. This forms a critical part of enhancing accountability to both project and corporate objectives. The challenge in applying measurables to non traditional indicators (e.g. environmental and social) is that these are often qualitative in nature, and thus cannot be easily monetised and/or physicalised. A key issue in establishing a value-mapping framework is thus the credibility of the not only the objectives and/or indicators, but also of the method for accounting for these measurables (whether quantitative of qualitative). In so doing however, it is intended that the value-map will better inform decision-making at each of these milestones, and provide an audit trail for project performance reporting back to corporate objectives.

Sinha and Labi (2007, p.24) detail six properties of a good performance measure. These are appropriateness; measurability; dimensionality (both spatial and temporal); and should be realistic; defensible; and forecastable. Each of these properties are potentially easier to measure where the indicator is quantitative in nature. Many however, when dealing with the delivery of infrastructure projects, are qualitative in nature, particularly social and environmental indicators. Two of the key issues explored in this last section of the literature review relate to the potential for both the physicalisation and monetisation of qualitative measurables, in order to enhance a project teams ability to compare indicators.

- 51 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

Decision-making can be biased by a tendency to focus on easy-to-measure impacts. For this reason, it is often helpful to monetize (measure in dollar values) non-market impacts so they can be incorporated into economic analysis. Impacts that are not monetized (often called intangibles) tend to be overlooked and undervalued. Monetizing non- market goods is increasingly common for planning and policy analysis, allowing more consistent and equitable decision-making. (Litman 2007, p.4.2)

This is not however intended to diminish the value of qualitative indicators, but to further enhance the ability of project teams, in intense and complex decision-making environments, to better integrate the qualitative indicators into their decision-making processes. Qualitative indicators have a key role to play as decision-making becomes more complex, and project impacts more diverse. Smith, Merna and Jobling (1999) discuss a range of methodologies which have emerged to cope with non-analytical, qualitative, decision-making.

Qualitative methodologies concern themselves with how management decisions are actually made ... Placing decisions in the context of alternative future environments permits the opening up of discussions about threats and opportunities. Simplicity and clarity are sought, and uncertainty treated as a fact of life. People are treated as active subjects. Outside influences such as technical, commercial and political considerations are identified and considered in direct relation to internal issues ... Appropriate strategies are developed to deal with complex interactions within the project. The methodologies utilise a bottom-up approach and facilitate participation by those directly involved in the problem. (Smith, Merna and Jobling 1999, p.65)

Such an approach has a place not only in academic research domain, but in the project supply chain to assist in complex decision-making. At the same time as new ways have emerged to consider qualitative objectives however, new methods are becoming available to physicalised and monetize some of these traditionally intangible objectives and impacts. It should also be noted that developing such measurables for the social indicators is still a developing arena. Hutchins and Sutherland (2008) discuss a number of measures in this regard.

2.5.1 Physicalisation of measurables

Evidence of efforts that are now being made to physicalise the environmental and social impacts that have been previously considered as intangibles and/or externalities can be found in the literature. This includes assessing the energy consumed in the production and transportation of both raw and manufactured materials which feed into project construction, along with the emissions and wastes

- 52 - Chapter 2 – Literature review produced as a by-product of the construction process. A number of techniques and tools are being developed to address this. Those discussed below related to (i) transformation (i.e. energy required to transform raw materials to products and (ii) cumulative effects (i.e. where the combined beneficial or negative impacts on urban scale differ from those predicted for a stand-alone piece of infrastructure).

Whilst these have not been explicitly applied in the course of this research, these sources are discussed here to demonstrate that new methods are available for accounting for project impacts and outcomes. These will be identified as some of the tools available to project team members to more broadly account for such items when used as performance indicators. This has discussed later in this thesis as an area for future research (Section 8.5.3).

Transformation

Odum (2002) discusses material flow and energy calculations which can enable one to determine the amount of energy invested in materials, thus enabling project teams to not only account for direct energy consumption (i.e. electricity, fuel etc) but also for the energy consumed by the materials that are used in the process of construction. This concept is further explained by Huang and Hsu (2003), who also use materials flow analysis and emergy calculations to determine the flow of resources and embedded energy association with construction (including waste) of the urban infrastructure. For clarification ‘emergy is defined as all the available energy that was used in the work of making a product and expressed in units of one type of energy’ (Huang and Hsu 2003, p.63-64).

Material flows analysis can provide a framework for analyzing the urbanization process and the way cities are transforming the earth’s ecosystems as a consequence of human activities. (Huang and Hsu 2003, p.63)

In an earlier paper Huang Wong et al. (1998) provides an illustration of this process (Figure 2.5).

- 53 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

Figure 2-5 - Conceptual diagram of urban ecological economic system (Huang, Wong et al 1998, p.20)

Bringezu (1993 and 2002) discusses ‘Material Flow Account’ for regions and ‘Materials Flow Analysis’ for products and services (respectively) using a material intensity methodology. He discusses ‘hidden flows’ associated with the extraction of raw materials and the like which contribute in different ways to the account depending on the energy intensity of this extraction process. Capturing these upstream and downstream impacts is now becoming increasingly important, and reveals new areas for required research with regards to the determination of measurables (Section 8.5.3). Table 2.6 lists inputs and outputs on a regional basis, highlighting the number of issues which can be quantified, but which are often not considered in the course of traditional project decision-making.

- 54 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

Table 2-6 - General scheme of material flow account matrix (Bringezu 1993, p.439) Material moving into and out of the Economy INPUT OUTPUT From Environment To Environment Geological Raw Materials Overburden Deposits (including overburden) Building Minerals Waste Deposits Industrial Minerals Sludges Ores Energy Carriers Water Waste Water and emitted substances Drinking water Waste water after sewerage treatment Process Water Process water output Cooling water Cooling water output Irrigation water Irrigation water not consumed by plants Drainage water Drainage water output (also from mining) Air Waste Air and emission of Combustion Steam Respiration Dust Chemical transformation Volatile substances Ventilation (?) Soil Soil Deposits Soil excavation Soil Loss by Erosion Soil “consumption” by erosion Cut Biomass not used Plant Biomass from Cultivation Fertiliser Agriculture -mineral Forestry -organic Horticulture Pesticides Biomass from Hunting and Explosives/Ammunition Gathering Fishery Erosion by Infrastructure Hunting Dissipative Losses of Products e.g. by accidents, fire, leakage Logging in Primary Forests Total Material Consumption Total Material Emission

These techniques may provide a better understanding of the energy flows associated with a major infrastructure project. It is important to note however, that, in a similar way to which supply chain analysis can be bounded (Section 2.3.2) , so too can the extent of such assessments be bounded. This bounding may be determined by the degree of accuracy with which such assessments can be determined.

Harmaajarvi (2000) presents the ‘EcoBalance model’ and case studies which have been undertaken in Finland. This model ‘estimates the total consumption of energy and other natural resources, the production of emissions and wastes, and the costs caused directly and indirectly by residential areas and urban structures’ (p.374). The EcoBalance model seeks to establish the whole-of-life picture for this infrastructure. This tool makes use of GIS data gathering (to determine the extent of landmass

- 55 - Chapter 2 – Literature review occupied by for example, paving) as further discussed in the work of Chi and Stone (2005).

Cumulative Effects

Tricker (2007) introduces the concept of ‘cumulative effects assessment’ (Figure 2.6) where individual elements may combine to produce effects different to (either counter or beneficial) original intent.

Figure 2-6 - Methodological framework for the collection of data on cumulative impacts (Tricker 2007, p.297)

The above is presented in a discussion on the cumulative effects of combined impacts, and the potential impact this can have on the public’s perception of environmental quality. Individual elements which may combine to have such an impact include the public perception of the state of the local environment; satisfaction with public transport; local environmental quality and accessibility (Tricker 2007, p.300). Concern regarding the cumulative effects is pertinent to the growing demand to account for the entire life-cycle of a product, whether it is a product in day-to-day use, or a piece of economic infrastructure with a fifty to one hundred year design life. Thus a merger occurs between the interests of value stream mapping and full-cost accounting. Kovacs (2008) explores this in recent research and defines this ‘extended producer responsibility’ as referring ‘to the

- 56 - Chapter 2 – Literature review extension of responsibility for the environmental impacts of products during their entire life cycle to the producers’’ (Harper and Greadel 2004, p.438 in Kovacs 2008, p.1752).

Schmidt and Schwegler (2008) also discuss cumulative effects, this time in the context of eco-intensities and how to measure the upstream ad down-stream impacts of an organisation, and how to ascribe impacts. Again this paper presents a level of detail in terms of measurement which is outside the scope of this current research, but which is relevant to future research related to quantifying measurables to assist with decision-making of major economic infrastructure projects (Section 8.5.3).

Finally Saunders, Kuhnimhof et al. (2008) provide a urban planning and policy tool which integrates much of that discussed above, in a ‘a new transport energy assessment tool: the transport energy specification’ (Saunders, Kuhnimhof et al. 2008, p.876).

2.5.2 Monetisation

The second method explored when considering how qualitative indicators can be more effectively integrated into a quantitative decision-making framework, is that of monetisation. There are a number of ways in which monetisation can be applied including being based upon willingness to pay or assumptions and estimates regarding costs.

Bein (1997 p.v) states that ‘other non-market goods, such as travel time and traffic safety, are routinely monetized in transportation planning’. He suggests that this same thinking can now be effectively applied to other areas, once the value and /or the costs of these are established through a process of monetisation (Bein 1997, p.2.8).

Bell and Morse (1999) also discuss the difficulties of monetisation with specific regard to the valuation of effects. One suggestion is that ecosystem impacts could be accounted for financial based on the costs of returning the system ‘to the sustainable condition’ (p.73).

- 57 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

Sinha and Labi (2007) consider the measurement of indicators for visual impacts, energy intensity and impacts, land-use impacts and social/cultural impacts (with specific reference to environmental justice).

Litman (2007) reviews the costs and benefits of transportation, and discusses how this can be applied in the planning process. The author ‘provides monetised estimates of twenty costs for eleven travel modes under three travel conditions’ (p.1). Litman also notes some of the negative aspects of monetisation including:

Care is needed to accurately interpret and apply monetized cost values. For example, many non-motorized impacts are measured based on analysis of consumers’ willingness-to- pay for a safety or environmental improvement, or willingness-to-accept compensation for a loss of safety or environmental quality. Although the evaluation methodologies are the same, the results of a willingness-to- pay analysis often differ from the results of a willingness-to- accept. (Litman 2007, p.4.4)

Litman (2007, p.8.1) also discusses the issues raised by critics of this process.

Theme summary

Literature in this theme has been reviewed to the extent that it assures the researcher that tangible and practical measures can be ascribed to the broader set of performance indicators. Sufficient relevant literature has been discovered to provide this assurance, with literature relating to energy and resource flows, and the monetisation of traditionally non-montetised aspects of performance being subject to much current research.

2.6 Summary of literature review

This chapter has bought together literature from the four themes of corporate responsibility, project value/s, performance indicators and measurables. This has been done in order to determine (i) what, if any, gap exists in the current academic literature; and (ii) what literature, from divergent fields, exists that can assist in addressing this perceived gap.

Through reviewing literature on corporate social responsibility the broader issues of accountability and stakeholder engagement have been identified as necessary for consideration if project outcomes are to be linked back to corporate responsibilities.

- 58 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

The review reveals substantial literature in other fields which can underpin this current research.

The literature review of project value/s reveals the duality of meaning of this term. This provides the basis for addressing value in the context of value-adding through building awareness of the benefits of addressing corporate values, whilst ensuring practical outcomes in terms of project value. Literature discovered here underpins the need to address both ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ issues if value is to be maximised. This then informs the need to consider a broader array of performance indicators than has traditionally been applied to infrastructure projects.

The literature on both performance (both CSFs and KPIs) and measurables continues the exploration to discover what academic literature (including that from other fields) can be used to inform the development of a framework designed to link project outcomes to corporate responsibilities. The intent is to demonstrate that this can be done in such a way that additional project and corporate value can be created, whilst ensuring the degree of accountability now required of organisations whose impacts are being better understood, beyond the immediate physical footprint.

This review that underpins the following discussion on the research method to be adopted for this research, and the subsequent three case studies, wherein the value-mapping framework was developed, tested and implemented.

- 59 - Chapter 2 – Literature review

This page has been left blank.

- 60 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

3. Chapter 3 - Research methodology

3.1. Building on the knowledge base

As outlined in Chapter 2 Literature Review, this research is underpinned by past academic and industry research in corporate responsibility; project value/s; performance indicators and measurement.

Corporate responsibility is considered in the context of that promoted by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (Holme and Watts 2000, Engen and DiPiazza 2005). Extensive work in this arena has been applied in the business sector, to enable multi-national organisations to identify and report on their corporate responsibilities since the 1990’s. In the context of this research, corporate responsibilities are considered as those responsibilities associated with social and environmental impacts and outcomes, and as articulated in an organisation’s vision, mission, objectives and outcomes.

Knowledge gained from lean manufacturing literature (Jones and Womack 2002, Rother and Shook 2003) from the early 1990’s related to both ‘value’ and process mapping. Lessons learnt from this early work with Toyota have since then been adopted by lean construction proponents (Bertlesen and Koskela 2004) and lean and green advocates (Klotz, Horman et al. 2007). This knowledge has been used in this thesis, as a basis for establishing present-state, high level process maps of an organisation’s decision-making and project delivery mechanisms, and to aid in the understanding value within an organisation.

Research into performance indicators (such as critical success factors or key performance indicators) for the construction industry also underpins this current research. Whilst construction projects are now using triple bottom line or sustainability models to assist in the definition of CSFs or KPIs, the literature revealed no formal links between stated project performance indicators and the project proponent’s corporate responsibilities or values. Past research, as discussed in Chapter 2, has however informed the development of this value- mapping framework in terms of the nature of the indicators and recognition of purpose.

- 61 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

And finally, literature relating to the measurement of performance, both qualitative and quantitative, has informed the development of the proposed value-mapping framework.

3.2. Research approach

3.2.1. Research purpose

The proposed value-mapping framework has been developed to align previously determined corporate objectives with a set of project-based value-mapping objectives and indicators, in order to measure project contribution to the attainment of corporate objectives. The intent is thus to develop a framework which captures pre-existing but untapped project specific value-drivers and integrates them into the project planning and delivery process. The framework is referred to as a value- mapping framework as it derives from previously unreported aspects of project delivery (thus value-adding). Additionally the framework enables reporting on a broader set of desired outcomes for an agency, and in so doing better articulates the value to the agency of the project outcomes. “ ’Values’, says Cohen 'express preferences, priorities or desirable states of affairs’ “(Checkland 1992, p.231). This concept is further discussed in Section 4.3.

3.2.2. Research environment

This research has been undertaken in a collaborative research environment through which the researcher has (i) derived new academic knowledge in the construction sector by integrating knowledge from other fields and (ii) provided a practical framework for industry professionals to confidently apply leading edge research to achieve enhanced business and community outcomes.

This research has been undertaken under the umbrella of the Cooperative Research Centre for Construction Innovation, Australia (CRC CI) whose mission (in part) is to:

Deliver project value for stakeholders for the whole-of-life, from business need, design and construction, through to ownership, asset management and reuse through improved communication and use of knowledge, increased productivity and value, effective delivery and management of whole-of-life assets. (CRC Construction Innovation web- site - www.construction-innovation.info)

- 62 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

The CRC CI network provides access to project participants for the three cases and the subsequent evaluation and validation interviews. Additionally, the CRC CI provides access to academic staff (i.e. both the principal and associate supervisors) with a proven track record in academic research in the construction sector.

3.2.3. Time dimensions of the research

Major projects have a time frame for planning and implementation which exceeds the required time for the completion of full-time doctoral research. Thus, research has been structured to enable effective and viable snapshots of activity to provide the empirical basis for this research and its outcomes. To this end, Case 1 was exploratory in nature, and undertaken on a project nearing the completion of delivery. This enabled the researcher to review project decision making, based on interviews and documentation in order to establish the first iteration of value mapping framework. The Case 2 project was in the initial stages of implementation, and is used to test this framework, prior to the implementation of the framework on Case 3. The project team was in the process of concluding pre-feasibility work.

 Case 1 - Eleanor Schonell Bridge - Pre-feasibility commenced 2002; construction completed in January 2007 (Chapter 5).  Case 2 - Hale Street Link - Pre-feasibility commenced 2005; expected opening 2011 (Chapter 6).  Case 3 - Northern Link - Pre-feasibility commenced 2005; expected opening 2016 (Chapter 7).

Through the progressive verification of findings on each of the cases, the industry expertise of participants has been used to determine the technical and practical validity of the framework. Additionally, eight semi-formal interviews have been undertaken with representatives from other participants in the project supply chain in order to seek feedback on the practicality and potential implementation of the research outcomes (Section 8.2.1). Whilst the long term benefits of the framework cannot be determined due to the time frame limitations, feedback from the evaluation interviews verifies its potential benefits. As demonstrated in Chapter 2, the academic foundation for this work is built upon proven frameworks. Thus, in combination with the active collaboration on the three cases, and the subsequent evaluation interviews, it is proposed that the basis for this framework has been as fully validated as practicable, given the above time constraints.

- 63 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

3.2.4. Limitations of research

The focus of this research has been narrowed to the provision of transport-related major projects, by the Australian public sector. The three cases undertaken as a part of this research are all transport-related projects, in varying stages of delivery, in the south-east Queensland region. This limitation applies to ensure a practical framework, bedded in an academic basis, is developed, tested and implemented in the course of this doctoral research. The intent is however, for the framework to be relevant to other types of infrastructure projects, in other states of Australia. The ability for the framework to be more broadly applied is addressed in Step 1 of the framework (Section 4.1.1), and has been initially tested in the final evaluation phase (Section 8.1).

Three key assumptions made in the course of this research are:

i. that major projects need to be able to be tracked to corporate objectives to enhance accountability of organisation, ii. that the corporate objectives and outcomes identified by organisations are suitable for reporting on for corporate accountability purposes, and iii. that pertinent information is documented. In Case 1, documentation has been reviewed retrospectively, and the assumption made that no other significant and salient information exists. This assumption has been tested in interview.

The first of these assumptions reflects heightened organisational and community expectations with regards to accountability. This is reflected in new and emerging standards and guidelines (Chapter 1), both mandatory and voluntary in nature (e.g. ISO14000 series, AA1000 and SA8000).

The second assumption relates to the corporate objectives from which the hierarchy of objectives is established as a part of the value-mapping framework. Brisbane City Council (the project owner for each of the case studies), undertakes a rigorous process of consultation with community and industry representatives, politicians and within their organisation, to establish a set of relevant objectives. This approach has been reinforced in discussion with the eight evaluation interviewees (Section 3.3.3.2). In the context of a State government agency, a decision may need to be made as to the level of objectives to be used (i.e. Departmental, Divisional or the like).

The third assumption is that key information, pertinent to project decision-making has been documented, and thus available for discovery in the course of the case

- 64 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology study investigations. Quality, audit and risk systems in organisations require that documentation relevant to decision-making, particularly where there is expenditure of public funds and/or contracts for goods an services are involved, thus ensuring that the documentation basis upon which the framework has been established, is valid.

Practical limitations on this research include:

 the array of case study projects for selection limited by those which are at a stage suitable of delivery; and on which project team members are willing to participate in collaboration.  the time limitations of project participants - a significant time contribution has been made by participants, given the time pressures which exist on major projects in the course of delivery.  the need to reconcile the difference between time frames for a full-time doctoral program (e.g. three years) and the delivery of major economic infrastructure projects (e.g. five to ten years). This has influenced the nature of the cases selected to explore the problem situation, and develop and implement the value-mapping framework.

3.3. Review of research methods considered

As established in Section 2.1, a gap in the research literature has been identified regarding the relationship between project performance and corporate responsibility. To address this gap this current research seeks to establish a formal framework and process for mapping major economic infrastructure project outcomes to stated corporate objectives. After considering a number of options, the research methodology selected is an adapted soft systems methodological approach (SSM), using an action research process wherein a collaborative partner provides both the technical expertise, and the opportunity for implementation and evaluation on three case study projects.

The initial consideration regarding the selection of the research methodology relates to the qualitative and/or quantitative nature of the research. Further to this, consideration is then required as to the specific methods which can be utilised to best explore the situation.

A qualitative approach enables:

 the researcher to employ narrative to describe a situation (including processes and relationships) rather than to measure productivity or the like (i.e. time, quality and cost).  the complexity of interactions which exist in an organisational setting (e.g. social, cultural and political agendas) to be explored.

- 65 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

 a collaborate exploration wherein the author and a group of practitioners work together to identify, test and evaluate links between corporate objectives and project outcomes and performance.

Once the broad approach is clarified, several specific methods (which are discussed later in this section) are available, including:

 Phenomenography  Grounded theory  Delphi method  Soft system methodology  Action research  Case studies

3.3.1. Phenomenography

The use of phenomenographical research tools has also been considered. Marton (1981) states that ‘in “phenomenograhpy,” … we would deal with both the conceptual and the experiential, as well with what is thought of as that which is lived’ (Marton 1981, p.181). Thus this approach would enable the researcher to consider cultural aspects associated with project delivery, and how individuals (and teams) relate to the environment within which they are working. Svensson (1997) clarifies that these tools are useful to ‘achieve descriptions of more extensive or complex phenomena’ (p.161). Using this approach, a series of structured interviews of project personnel could have provided empirical data to ‘describe the conception’, for instance, project-related performance and its relationship with corporate responsibility. As the research focus has evolved however, the research need is more about finding a way to improve a perceived problem situation (Section 3.3.2). The selected research methodology thus needs to maintain and represent the richness of the data, rather than using ‘abstraction, reduction and condensation’ (Svensson 1997 p.167) to categorise it.

Additionally, phenomonography requires that meaning between the cases is identified, described and compared (Svensson 1997). Given the differing circumstances of individual major projects, such comparison, between complex social, cultural and contractual situations would be firstly difficult to undertake, and secondly, may not result in meaningful data.

3.3.2. Grounded theory

Glaser (2002) reiterates his previous work in defining grounded theory as ‘the generation of emergent conceptualisations into integrated patterns’ (p. 2) When

- 66 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology initially considered, this method has validity for this current research. The steps associated with this method can be applied in order to explain and describe the research situation, in order to ‘to develop a well integrated set of concepts that provide(s) a thorough theoretical explanation of social phenomena under study’ (Corbin and Strauss 990, p. 5). This method includes a set of procedures for data gathering and analysis in order to build new theory, which relies to some extent, on accounting for the patterns and variations which emerge as a part of this process.

This method was however discounted for this research for a number of reasons. Firstly the intent of this research was not to explain current phenomena in order to establish a new theory of say ‘value-mapping’, but rather to derive and apply quality existing theory from other fields to address the apparent gap in the academic literature relating to corporate responsibility and the delivery of major projects. Secondly, as grounded theory requires the analysis of emergent patterns and variations in order to establish new theory, the time frame for the delivery of major projects would mean that it may take many years for sufficient data to be gathered for this analysis to be valid. The third point also relates specifically to the delivery of major projects, and the limited quantum of active projects available for analysis at any one time, within manageable proximity for the researcher. This again potentially impacts on the researcher’s ability to identify patterns and variations.

3.3.3. Delphi method

The Illinois Institute of Technology introduce the Delhi method as ‘based on a structured process for collecting and distilling knowledge from a group of experts by means of a series of questionnaires interspersed with controlled opinion feedback’ (Adler and Ziglio 1996 at www.iit.edu/~it/delphi.html). This method is used in research into the construction sector, as a method of eliciting known technical and profession knowledge from practitioners in a structured and constructive manner. With regards to this current research, this method was considered to identify links between project performance and corporate accountability and responsibilities. However, as a tool for group communication, typically between content experts in a field, it was considered limiting in this current situation. With considerable relevant knowledge identified from other fields and disciplines (through course the literature review), this research seeks to identify how this existing knowledge can be used to improve the alignment between project outcomes and corporate accountabilities and responsibilities in the construction sector, where such approaches are only now

- 67 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology starting to emerge. It was thus considered that a more interactive approach, on a series of practice-based case studies, would be more appropriate.

3.3.4. Soft System Methodology

Checkland (2000) outlines four key activities which underpin a soft systems methodological approach (SSM):

1. Finding out about a problem situation, including culturally/politically; 2. Formulating some relevant purposeful activity models; 3. Debating the situation, using the models, seeking from that debate both (a) changes which would improve the situation and are regarded as both desirable and (culturally) feasible, and (b) the accommodations between conflicting interests which will enable action-to improve to be taken; 4. Taking action in the situation to bring about improvement. (Checkland 2000, p.S21)

These four activities outline a process which enables the researcher to capture the richness of the problem being explored, and to collaborate with practitioners to develop a practical and academically sound approach to the value mapping framework proposed. Smith, Merna and Jobling (1999) identify a series of key assumptions which align with Checkland’s activities. These authors suggest that ‘the process must be participative so that all parties involved make an input, even if they are not aware of the methodology or models employed’ (pp.67-68). This structured, participative approach enables the research to use an existing network of contacts to identify major projects on which case studies may be undertaken to:

i. consider the social/cultural and political issues pertinent to addressing the identified problem situation. ii. construct a model for addressing this problem situation through a input from academic literature from a diverse range of fields. iii. engage with a group of participants to develop a potential model to address this situation. iv. engage in a real-life situation to implement a solution.

This methodology thus provides a strong basis for this current research, addressing both the need for developing the academic underpinnings required for a sound solution, and the practical needs of research in the construction sector (Section 3.4.1).

3.3.5. Action research

The intent of this research is to develop a detail understanding of a complex organisational process (Baskerville and Wood-Harper 1996, p.239) in order to bring

- 68 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology about improvement, rather than a more quantitative approach which may establish a ‘single universal truth’. Smith, Merna and Jobling (1999, p.65) highlight how ‘qualitative methodologies concern themselves with how management decisions are actually made, rather than the traditional operational research approach of obtaining the right answer’. An intensive action research-based process with those involved in the delivery of major projects can be used to provide the empirical data required for this research. This provides access to the complex organisational environment, that is, a series of infrastructure projects in varying stages of procurement.

Lu and Sexton (2006) provide an action-research based model for such interactions in their work on innovation in small construction-industry based professional organizations. A similar cyclical participatory research process has been described by Smith, Merna and Jobling (1999). These two models have been employed due to their specificity to the construction sector, and their engagement with practitioners, based upon an academic premise involving process innovation.

Through integrating the action research process with the soft system methodology, a rigorous (and repeatable) method, as identified by Checkland (2000) is established.

In between the strong criterion of repeatability (of the happenings) and the weak criterion of plausibility, we argue (Checkland and Holwell 1998a) that action research should be conducted in such a way that the whole process is subsequently recoverable by anyone interested in critically scrutinizing the research. This means declaring explicitly, at the start of the research, the intellectual frameworks and the process of using them which will be used to define what counts as knowledge in this piece of research. By declaring the epistemology of their research process in this way, the researchers make it possible for outsiders to follow the research and see whether they agree or disagree with the findings. (Checkland 2000, p.S42)

Additional rigor can be embedded in the final research method through standard methods of the triangulation of data from multiple case studies. This includes data from multiple sources (i.e. one completed and two current projects via case studies) and via multiple data collection methods (i.e. semi-structure interviews and workshops, review of project documentation, and academic literature).

- 69 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

3.3.6. Case studies

Yin (2003) identifies at least five different applications for case studies including ‘explain(ing) causal links in real life interventions that are too complex for the survey or experimental strategies ... to describe an intervention and the real-life context in which it occurs’ (p.15). In addition, they may also be exploratory or descriptive in nature. An initial consideration was to undertake multiple case studies of recently completed or current public sector projects, in a descriptive mode, to illuminate the application of performance indicators on projects and how they can contribute to achieving an agency’s corporate responsibilities. This would have been coupled with a Delphi process, in order to refine issues, and solutions. As discussed below however, this method does not allow from the translation of learnings from other fields, into the problem situation, as well as the finally chosen method does (i.e. adapted SSM as described in Section 3.4).

Further to the selection of the case study method, Dul and Hak (2008) expand on the available array, and discuss the role of practice-based case studies. They consider these appropriate when considering complex situations, such as that of the delivery of major projects. It was this kind of case study which has direct relevance to the current research, especially in the context of a SSM approach (Section 3.4.3).

Summary of review of research method options

Thus, after consideration of a number of different qualitative methods, three elements of a research methodology emerged as appropriate in the context of determining how to map project outcomes back to corporate objectives. This combination, as described, has been effectively used by other research in the construction sector. Through the application of the SSM inquiry and learning cycle, in an action research environment, on three practice-based case studies, a repeatable method can be established for identifying the problem situation, developing models for addressing this, and testing and implementing a solution in a real-world environment.

3.4. The adapted inquiry cycle

The key elements of this adapted SSM approach are described in detail in this section, concluding with a description of the adapted inquiry cycle, which forms the

- 70 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology basis for gathering the empirical data which supports the research findings presented in Chapter 8.

3.4.1. Soft System Method

As discussed, the soft systems methodological approach (SSM) as defined by Checkland was considered an appropriate fit for the research problem.

The inquiry and learning cycle which is central to SSM is summarised in Figure 3.1. Checkland’s diagram clearly demonstrates the centrality of the real-world situation and the ultimate intent of seeking an outcome which enhances the existing situation, through both academic consideration (i.e. ‘consideration of relevant purposeful models’), and engagement (i.e. ‘a structured debate about desirable and feasible change’).

Figure 3-1- The inquiry/learning cycle of SSM (Checkland 2000, p.S16)

Smith, Merna and Jobling (1999, p.66) state that the purpose of SSM is ‘to overcome the inability of traditional decision theory and to adequately solve not all but the most structured problems, and that “ and to be used in situations that are characterised by uncertainty, conflicting objectives and significant human involvement’ (p.65). These latter being traits which are readily recognisable

- 71 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology characteristics of the construction supply chain. Green (1997) further articulates the benefits of an SSM approach in this environment.

Unlike the tradition of systems engineering, SSM makes no pretence that systems exist independently of human perception. SSM is intended to be used for the purposes of sense-making, rather than as a prescriptive guide to action. It is this emphasis on learning which makes the methodology especially applicable to complex client organizations during the pre-briefing stage. The methodology is implemented as a participative process whereby a facilitator works with the problem stakeholders. (Green 1997, p.331)

Thus the use of a collaborative action research method to structure the interaction required to understand current processes and to develop a value mapping framework is consistent with a SSM approach.

3.4.2. Action research

The second component of the selected methodology is the action research collaboration with a single public sector agency, utilising the SSM inquiry and learning cycle. The methodology is based upon tested action research methodology as discussed by Baskerville and Wood-Harper (1996). The steps involved, as further detailed below, are:

Project Diagnosis Action Planning Action Taking – Round 1 Evaluating and Specifying Learnings – Interim Action Taking – Round 2 Evaluating and Specifying Learnings – Final (Baskerville and Wood-Harper 1996, p.235)

The ‘project diagnosis’ (or ‘research focus’) phase requires ‘the identification of the primary problems that are the underlying causes of the organisation’s desire for change’ (Baskerville and Wood-Harper 1997, p.28). The identification of the problem was developed iteratively between the researcher (who provided the theoretical basis for the research), and the public sector agency providing the real- world environment. This agreed problem being the inability to effectively track project performance and outcomes back to previously determined corporate objectives.

In the ‘action planning’ (or ‘exploratory’) phase, the conceptual framework for the value-mapping model has been developed. This draws upon models discovered in other relevant academic literature, as previously discussed. Prior to the

- 72 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology commencement of value-mapping process, agency participants were briefed as to the academic underpinnings of this collaboration; the outcomes of the diagnosis and exploratory phases; the objectives of the action research process and the nature of the participation and expected progress.

The ‘action taking - round 1’ phase involves extensive data gathering, through twenty-one semi-structure interviews and review of project documentation on Case 1 (Chapter 5). This has been undertaken in order to construct the first iteration of the value-mapping framework, which would form the basis for further testing on Case 2 and the ultimate implementation of the value-mapping framework on Case 3.

Once the draft maps are established, the interim ‘evaluation and specifying learnings’ phase can be undertaken. The draft process and value-maps were reviewed and verified in collaboration to identify the practicality and validity of the framework, based on the original research intent.

The ‘action taking – round 2’ phase then tests (i) the process and outcomes of constructing the value-mapping framework and (ii) the ability of this structured approach to track on-going project decision making back to corporate objectives. This involves six semi-structured interviews on Case 2 (Chapter 6), and a review of relevant project documentation. This has resulted in the second iteration of the value-mapping framework for evaluation and implementation on Case 3 (Chapter 7). Case 2 is important in that it verified that the framework required implementation at an early stage of project development, in order to effectively engage with the more strategic elements of corporate deliverables. This experience confirms the selection of the Northern Link as the final case study project (Case 3) for the final round of action taking. Case 3 was in the final stages of pre-feasibility when initial interviews were held. This is considered as an early stage in the projects development, and thus suitable for an implementation case study. The project team were still involved in considerations of project objectives and defining indicators and measurables for assessing performance. It was thus agreed to implement the framework on this project. A series of thirteen semi-formal interviews and one workshop were undertaken for Case 3.

The final ‘evaluation and specifying learnings’ phase (Section 8.2) includes two components. These are a series of evaluation and validation interviews, and reflections by the author.

- 73 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

Feedback has been obtained from other industry participants around Australia, for whom such a value-mapping framework may provide benefit. One-on-one semi- formal interviews with representatives of senior management from each of the following organizations were held:

 Australian Procurement and Construction Council  Leightons Australia  Queensland Department of Infrastructure and Planning  Queensland Department of Public Works  Southern and Eastern Integrated Transit Authorities  Victorian Department of Education and Training  Victorian Major Projects Office  Victorian Department of Finance - Gateway Unit

These organizations have been selected based upon two issues. The first is on the ability to access to key managers within the organizations, either via the immediate Cooperative Research Centre for Construction Innovation’s network, or through extended networks of those familiar with the research. The second is their current involvement in the delivery of economic infrastructure projects in Australia, either as a client, or as a member of the project supply chain. This is considered important in order to further test the practicality of implementing such a framework, and the perceived value of its outcomes.

In terms of the implications for the above selections for the validity of this research, the involvement of the above organisations demonstrates (i) an interest in what has been identified as the problem situation, and (ii) through acknowledgement by five of the eight organisations, the perceived benefits of applying such a framework in their organisation. This reinforces the position that a valid model for addressing this problem situation has been developed (see Section 8.1 for additional comment regarding the generalisability of the outcomes of this research).

The second element of this final evaluation phase includes reflections by the researcher in the context of both the academic literature and industry best practice.

3.4.3. Case studies

The action-based research has been undertaken on a series of three case studies. Dul and Hak (2008) expand upon the earlier work of Yin (1989, 2003) to further develop case study method when applied to complex business environments.

- 74 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

The objective of practice-oriented research is to contribute to the knowledge of a specific practitioner (not practitioners in general). A practitioner is a person or group of persons with either a formal or an informal responsibility for a real life situation in which he acts or must act. A practitioner can be a person (a manager, an entrepreneur...) or a group of persons (a team, a company...). (Dul and Hak 2008 p. 217)

Dul and Hak (2008) also consider case study research appropriate where a complex situation exists and context is considered as important. Both these conditions are present in the provision of major projects. Through undertaking this research via the chosen methodology, the author has been able to explore the current situation, as well as explore the potential impact of the value-mapping framework in an industry context as it was being developed and implemented.

Fieldwork

Three cases have been undertaken in order to:

 explore the nature of the delivery environment and develop the first iteration of the value-mapping framework for intervention (Case 1)  test this framework in a project environment (Case 2)  implement the framework in a practice environment in order to assess the benefits or otherwise of this change (Case 3).

Thus three projects, in differing stages of delivery were required for each of these undertakings. Through the Cooperative Research Centre for Construction Innovation (CRC CI) network, the researcher had access to Australia’s largest Local Government Authority, Brisbane City Council (BCC), who are currently undertaking a series of major road and bridge projects, in response to the regions growth. This authority administers a city with a population of nearly one million people, 5500km of roads, 550km of bikeways and over $15 billion worth of assets (BCC 2006b). BCC has, in the past ten years, procured a number of major economic infrastructure projects (detailed below) via relationship-based contracts. Based on this experience their procurement methodology has continued to evolve, from design and construct projects initially, to partnering and alliancing arrangements, through the public private partnerships on their most recent projects. Recent and proposed projects (currently in pre-feasibility and feasibility phases) include:

 Coronation Drive upgrade (AUS$44.9m), procured via internal delivery for Civil Works and external delivery for Tidal Flow Component. This project opened in 2002.  Inner City Bypass (AUS$280million), procured via Design/Construct/Maintain contract, which was renegotiated to a Commercial Alliance including Target

- 75 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

Cost Estimate, pain/gain share and risk sharing. Construction was from 1999 to 2002.  Eleanor Schonell Bridge (AUS$75million), procured via a modified Design and Construct contract, and opened in 2007.  North South Bypass Tunnel (AUS$2billion) currently being procured via public private partnership and due for completion in 2010.

Major transportation projects currently in the planning and procurement phases include:

 Hale Street Link (AUS$250million), being procured via an Alliance and due for completion in 2010.  Northern Link (AUS$2billion), due for completion in 2014. The procurement methodology is still to be confirmed.  Airport Link (AUS$2.5billion), to be delivered in conjunction with the State Government via a public private partnership, with an expected completion in 2012.

Further validating the selection of BCC as the case study agency are three additional points:

 The organisation has a clearly articulated set of corporate themes and objectives (BCC 2006c), which address environmental and social issues along with the more traditional economic considerations (Section 4.1.1).  As a government agency, probity issues (i.e. ethical issues) are central to their traditional procurement processes.  The organisation agreed to provide access to senior managers responsible for developing and reporting on the corporate themes, objectives and outcomes comprising the Living in Brisbane 2010 (BCC 2001a) and 2026 publication (BCC 2006a); and to three transportation projects, at varying stages of procurement (including access to key senior management and project staff on each of three case study projects).

Fieldwork interviews

Appendices 1.1 – 1.5 detail the interactions which occurred throughout the course of the fieldwork. All semi-formal interviews occurred between July 2007 and May 2008.

All interviews were conducted on the basis of anonymity. Prior to the interviews, interviewees were emailed a description of the research being undertaken, and the required QUT Ethical Consent forms. Signed copies of these forms were obtained at the time of interview. The required documentation for approvals to undertake research involving human participants with Queensland University of Technology was submitted prior to the first interview. Approval was granted for this research on 10th October 2006.

- 76 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

Interviews for Cases 2 and 3 were audio-recorded, with the explicit permission of those being interviewed. One person declined to be recorded. Notes from the interviews were transcribed within forty-eight hours of the interview (typically within twenty-four hours). These were then emailed back to the interviewee for review and comment, to ensure the information captured was an accurate reflection of the discussion. Information from the interviews has been used as detailed in each of the relevant chapters.

Appendix 1.1 details the five interviews held with five BCC staff members involved in policy-making and not directly engaged in project delivery. In addition there was a presentation to eight senior managers to obtain feedback regarding future research opportunities, once the framework was completed. The initial five interviews were conducted with senior management and policy staff. These ranged in duration from thirty to forty-five minutes. These interviews enabled the researcher to establish the corporate environment in which project delivery was occurring. This information was also verified in interview.

The initial three interviews were held with corporate strategy people. Questions asked were based on an understanding of management theory, with decision trees and flowcharts being used to effectively reflect organisational decision-making as communicated in these interviews. Questions included:

i. What is the current BCC practice for establishing corporate goals? The intent of this question was to identify what rigour existed behind establishing corporate objectives ad outcomes. ii. What is the process for rolling corporate objectives out through the organisation? The intent of this question was to understand how corporate objectives were communicated through the organisation, and how (if at all) they were tracked at a service delivery level. iii. What is the process for measuring performance to objectives? The intent of this question was to understand mechanisms for measuring performance to objectives, and to what level in the organisational structure such measurement was undertaken.

Outcomes of interviews were developed into a flowchart by the researcher, which was subsequently discussed and verified in the follow-up interviews

Two interviews were then held with sub-agency strategy staff (i.e. the Major Infrastructure Projects Office (MIPO) responsible for project delivery). These were undertaken to determine (i) a decision tree for project-based decision making with MIPO and (ii) how this rolled down from the corporate decision-making process

- 77 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology address above. In addition questions were asked with regards to the nature of ‘typical’ project delivery, and definitions of project phases.

Appendix 1.2 details the twenty-one interviews which were undertaken on Case 1, the exploratory case study. These range in duration from fifteen minutes to one hour, with a typical duration of between thirty to forty-five minutes. Interviewees include all members of the Project Executive and Project Management Groups. This includes eleven representatives of Brisbane City Council (including senior and operational management and two Councillors), senior managers from the John Holland Group who where constructing the bridge (nine people), and one private consultant.

The key question which was asked in eighteen of these interviews on Case 1 was to identify ‘what (in your particular role) do you consider to be the critical success factors for the project (i.e. the Eleanor Schonell Bridge)’? Additional questions were asked of seven interviewees regarding the process of procurement and construction, specific to the particular role of the interviewee, in order to establish a set of process maps representing a helicopter view of the project.

The question regarding CSFs has been developed as an outcome of the literature review undertaken, in order to identify what links, if any, exist between what key project stakeholders consider to the critical success factors for that project, and the corporate objectives of the organisation procuring the project (i.e. Brisbane City Council). The findings of the initial interviews have then been consolidated into the data presented in Chapter 5 (Table 5.10). The literature review of critical success factors guided the researcher in terms of what constitutes a critical success factor in terms of construction projects.

The questions leading to the development of the process maps for Case 1, were grounded on the knowledge acquired in the review of literature relating to process mapping.

The remaining interviews involved the verification of the process maps developed from data from the above interviews, and project documentation.

Appendix 1.3 details the six semi-formal interviews which were held with four stakeholders associated with Case 2. This case has been undertaken to test the draft value-mapping framework. These interviews range in duration from forty-five

- 78 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology minutes to one hour, and have been undertaken with both senior management and front-line community consultation staff.

This case has been designed to test the first iteration of the value-mapping framework. Interviews thus were used to (i) better understand the delivery process for this project (i.e. Hale Street Link) to assist in testing the process mapping method applied on Case 1; (ii) explain and discuss the draft framework; and (iii) test the process and assumptions built into the current draft of the framework on project team members currently engaged in project delivery. The latter testing relates to both the practicality of the framework and the identification of key inputs (especially measurables).

The nature of the questions and interactions have been defined by the both Checkland’s Soft System Methodology and the action research environment method discussed in the previous two sections.

Appendix 1.4 provides details the fourteen interviews and one workshop undertaken on Case 3. This was the final case study, on which the value-mapping framework has been implemented. This fieldwork involves sixteen stakeholders, including senior management and project management staff (three people) from BCC, and members of the project’s alliance team. The eleven alliance team members include four from private consultancies (in the fields of financial and engineering) with the remaining being employees or contractors to Brisbane City Council (in the fields of environmental, land use, urban development and stakeholder management).

The initial three interviews with senior project management staff have been undertaken to present the second iteration of the value mapping framework, so that project team members could commence implementation of the framework. A workshop of key project team members has also been undertaken, to provide additional, broader input into the value-mapping framework. The value-mapping framework was presented in this workshop, and feedback was gained regarding the practicality of implementation. A series of eight follow-up interviews have been subsequently undertaken, which specifically addressed the question of project objective identification. Two follow-up interviews have then been held with senior project management staff to consolidate the framework, and its content, into a form

- 79 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology that could then be further implemented subsequent to the completion of the formal case study interactions.

All the above interaction was again grounded in the iterative and interactive methods of SSM and action research. Framework development throughout, has been guided by the literature reviewed in Chapter 2, which provides guidance regarding accountability tools; process mapping; indicator (and objective) development and associated measurement techniques and tools.

Appendix 1.5 details the final round of fieldwork undertaken for this research. This includes eight semi-formal interviews carried out to discuss the value-mapping framework with representatives from other organizations in Australia. These meetings range in duration from twenty-five minutes to one hour, and were undertaken in order to determine the framework’s applicability to others in the sector and across the project supply chain. Those interviewed represent relevant organisations accessible to the researcher on the east coast of Australia, and includes:

 A senior representative from a Queensland State government agency involved in both policy development and the delivery of major projects, and with responsibilities relating to industry and research-related boards, and the State’s Gateway processes.  A senior representative from a second Queensland State government agency with involvement in the delivery of major projects, and with previous experience in other sectors of government.  A senior representative from a Victorian State government agency, responsible for over-sight of a state-wide building program, with an understanding of the role of research in improving industry performance.  A senior representative from a second Victorian State Government agency responsible for the delivery of major projects in that State.  A representative from Victorian Department of Finance, with responsibilities for that State’s Gateway process.  A senior representative from a special-purpose statutory authority in Victoria responsible for the delivery of a major transportation projects in that State  A senior stakeholder manager from Leightons (Victorian office), a global contractor involved in the delivery of major projects  A senior representative of a peak council of Australian and New Zealand Departments responsible for procurement, construction and asset management policy.

As the three case study projects have been procured by a Queensland-based local government authority, representation was sought from both the State and Federal agencies; agencies from other States of Australia; and organisations involved in (i)

- 80 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology policy and (ii) project delivery. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to engage with the New South Wales Department responsible for major project delivery.

The key purpose and thus questioning undertaken in these interviews, has been with regards to the generalisability of the framework relevant to their specific roles and organisations. This was undertaken in line with the need for academic rigour, to demonstrate the generalisability of the research, beyond the case studies undertaken. To this end, an overview of the framework was presented, and then feedback requested with regards to the applicability of the framework to their specific organisation. This information has then been reviewed and consolidated for reporting purposes by the researcher (Chapter 8).

Summary of method

The methodology for this research is summarised in the following adaptation of Checkland’s inquiry/learning cycle (Figure 3.2). The proposed research methodology integrates the action-research based fieldwork, providing an environment for clarifying the research problem, and testing then implementation of the proposed value-mapping framework in a working environment.

- 81 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

Figure 3-2 – Adapted inquiry cycle (Adapted from Checkland 2000)

- 82 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

3.5. The value-mapping methodology

This section presents the methodology behind the value-mapping framework which is further discussed in Chapter 4, and which is the outcome of the fieldwork associated with each of the three cases (Chapters 5, 6 and 7).

3.5.1. Inputs

Based on the review of literature the gap in knowledge that this research addressed is ‘how to provide a link between corporate objectives and values of Australian public sector agencies, and the project deliverables of major economic infrastructure projects’. This gap was also found, in practice, in the exploratory case study (Case 1). Literature reviewed revealed that performance indicator development in the construction sector, has not, to date, formerly linked the project outcomes and corporate objectives in a direct and reportable way. Given the length of time taken to plan and procure major projects, and the complexity of the associated supply chain, the need for a framework to effectively record, monitor and report on this link was evident. Given that this contribution has the potential to add value to the project outcomes, and that the framework tracks performance to specified elements of value, the term value-mapping has been applied. This is further discussed in Section 3.4.2.

As discussed in the literature reviewed (Chapter 2), four key themes which have been explored in the literature, are corporate responsibility, project value/s, performance Indicators, and measurables. The key inputs which have been derived from the literature and used to inform the development of the value-mapping framework are now discussed.

3.5.1.1. Corporate responsibility and value-mapping

Two key elements of corporate responsibility identified by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) are integral to the value-mapping framework developed in this research. These are (i) accountability mapping and (ii) stakeholder foot-printing (Section 2.2.3).

- 83 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

Engen and DiPiazza (2005) suggest that businesses which take advantage of the value in accountability and sustainability, will be successful insofar as they adhere to the following.

- Articulate their own vision of accountability and sustainability, and embed it within core business strategies to create value; - Use accountability codes proactively as tools to change mindsets about the relationship between value creation and sustainable development – not simply being reactive for the sake of compliance; and - Make accountability and value creation mutually reinforcing throughout the enterprise, integrating sustainable development across functions rather than creating a specialist silo. (Engen and DiPiazza 2005, p.3)

Holme and Watts (2000) introduce their stakeholder foot-printing tool as a part of the WBCSD suite of tools to enable corporations to better recognise and understand their engagement with external stakeholders. Warhurst (2001) further develops this theme through the need to more formally engage non-contractual stakeholders in the development process.

This is, in turn, an argument for a tri-sector partnership - an agreement between business, government and civil society - which is a model or framework for managing coherently and systematically over time project level partnerships between business, governments agencies/intergovernmental organisations and local communities or civil society organisations … The idea of a tri-sector partnership agreement is to address areas of concern by establishing agreed partnership goals, monitoring and reporting systems and collaborative activities. (Warhurst 2001, p.59)

Emmitt, Sander et al. (2005, p.59) further highlight the need to better understand stakeholder needs and drivers, based on the premise that all stakeholders have different values, and different aspirations for a project. The challenge is how to ‘map’ all these differing perspectives, to the satisfaction of all involved.

It is proposed to adapt these WBCSD accountability and stakeholder tools in order to map the alignment of project to corporate objectives, so that they may more confidently used throughout the full life cycle of project delivery (Section 4.1.4).

3.5.1.2. Lean thinking and value-mapping

The design and delivery of major economic infrastructure projects is a complex activity, often linear in nature, with project knowledge being passed along a chain of interactions. There is thus a need for knowledge to be transferred along the project

- 84 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology supply chain in an effective manner. The value-mapping framework seeks to do this with increased transparency and accessibility in terms of performance to project objectives.

To this end the methodology developed in the vehicle manufacturing sector in the early 1990’s has been identified as a foundation for transferring knowledge and decision-making along the supply chain. Lean manufacturing (Section 2.3.3), emerged in the early 1990’s in the vehicle manufacturing sector (Womack and Jones 2002, Rother and Shook 2003) as a mechanism to identify and reduce waste in the supply chain. Five key principles underpinned lean thinking.

1. Precisely specify value by specific product. 2. Identify value stream for each product. 3. Make value flow without interruptions. 4. Let the customer pull value from the producer. 5. Pursue perfection. (Bertlesen and Koskela 2004, p.3)

These principles were then adopted by proponents of ‘lean construction’. Bertlesen and Koskela (2004) discuss the growth of the discipline of lean construction beyond that of the lean manufacturing processes developed in the vehicle manufacturing industry ‘to encompass disciplines such as complexity, emergence, conversations, and lifelong learning’ (p.3).

Klotz, Horman et al. (2007) also draw upon the lean manufacturing literature that has emerged from developments in the automobile sector to discuss their Lean and Green Modelling Protocol, grounded in the process modelling and its application to software development and business processes. They state that the ‘goal for the L&G protocol is to enable representation (current state maps), analysis, and improvement (future state maps) of the green building delivery process’ (p.4).

This research follows this tradition (both academically and industry-based) through utilising the intent of process mapping to clarify and communicate complex information in relation to the construction supply chain. In this instance however, the key principles that underpin the value-mapping methodology are to:

- 85 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

i. provide objectives, indicators and measurables which link project performance to corporate objectives ii. identify project opportunities which add value beyond the traditional project delivery through leveraging corporate intent as expressed in corporate objectives iii. enhance the transparency of decision making with regard to project delivery to corporate objectives iv. provide a framework which can be monitored, reviewed and reported on at key project decision-points

Whereas Klotz, Horman et al. (2007) seek to identify both the ‘value adding’ and ‘wasteful’ activities, this research additionally seeks to:

i. establish a project-based agenda for value in terms of delivering on existing corporate objectives, grounded in the principles of corporate responsibility ii. highlight the gaps that exist in current delivery processes (as revealed by current state process maps developed as a part of the initial work in implementing the value-mapping framework) in delivery to these objectives, and present a methodology which addresses this iii. establish a future state map identifying key decision-points at which monitoring, review and reporting on performance is undertaken

Alves. Tommelein et al. (2005) state that ‘the reason for developing a VSM (value stream map) is to reveal the inefficiencies that are hidden in a value stream and to provide a future state map showing directions on how to improve the system’ (p.9). The initial process-mapping activity, which is integral to the value-mapping framework being developed in this research, seeks to reveal where an agency may loose clarity in the course of project delivery, and to provide a ‘future state’ map demonstrating how to improve the system. This is achieved through the ability to track an indicator set with direct links back to stated corporate objectives.

Bertlesen and Koskela (2004) go on to cite Green (1996) in proposing:

An understanding of the value generation during the early design phases as a learning process between the client and the design professionals. Both parties learn and through this a joint understanding of client’s value parameters and their realization in the design is reached. (Green 1996, p.5)

Through the course of establishing the initial process map, and undertaking the initial steps in the value-mapping framework, the implementation process establishes dialogue between the various participants in the project supply chain. This in turn clarifies value expectations and outcomes between corporate and project objectives, and all parties in that chain. This activity is further detailed in Section 4.2.

- 86 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

3.5.1.3. Performance indicators and value-mapping

Section 2.4 discusses the considerable literature which details the role of performance indicators in the construction sector. These are variably referred to as critical success factors (CSF), key result areas (KRAs) or key performance indicators (KPIs). They are traditionally used to measure and report on project success. Literature presented on performance indicators explores the field in several ways based on the motivation behind the formulation of the indicator set. This can be based upon:

 the identity of who is wanting to measure the performance (e.g. the client, the project manager or the alliance manager)  the stage in the project life cycle that the measurement targets (e.g. documentation, construction or benefits realisation)  the purpose of the indicators (e.g. strategic or operational)  the type of project procurement (e.g. traditional adversarial, alliancing, design and construct and the like)

The establishment of and reporting on performance indicators is traditionally aligned with reporting on project success. Parfitt and Sanvido (1993, p.244) provide a definition for success as ‘relevant to each participant, it is defined as the overall achievement of project goals and expectations. These goals and expectations relate to a variety of elements including technical, financial, educational, social and political issues’. In the context of this current research, the value mapping objectives and indicators are used to assist with measuring a broader definition of success, as it applies to corporate goals and objectives. It has been proposed in the course of conducting the fieldwork interviews that a subset of these objectives and indicators may be extracted to report on the more traditional aspects of project success, which are core deliverables for the project, as opposed to broader corporate deliverables. Further to comments in Section 2.4 regarding the role of the value-mapping indicator however, this research seeks to define a broader set of indicators, more narrative in focus, which ‘preserves the informative content of the analysis’ (Scipioni, Mazzi et al. 2008) rather than being targeted to succinct (often politically-based) reporting. Jefferies, Gameson et al. (2002, p.354) defines critical success factors as ‘those few key areas of activity in which favourable results are absolutely necessary for a particular manager to reach his or her goals…those limited number of areas where ‘things must go right’ ‘ (in Rockart 1982). The potential for the value-mapping framework is two-fold in identifying benefits at both a corporate and a project level (Section 8.3.1).

- 87 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

Chan and Chan (2004, p.8) outline some of the difficulties with the application of CSFs due to their application in an ‘intuitive and ad hoc’ manner competing with many other project priorities. In doing this the authors also identify the dilemma with project success meaning different things to different people (i.e. project stakeholders). The derivation of project objectives through the application of the value-mapping framework, is proposed as one method for focusing the establishment of, communication of and reporting on these objectives throughout the project life cycle.

Previous research in this field thus contributes in two ways to this current research. Firstly through providing input into the derivations and application of performance indicators and secondly in the discussion around expectations for success, whether corporate or project-based.

3.5.2. Validity and reliability

The validity and reliability of the findings which underpin the development of the value-mapping framework, are reinforced through the adoption of a multiple ‘practice-based’ case study approach (Section 3.3.3). As Manley (2008) indicates, such an approach can assist (when integrated with a process of manual content analysis enabled by the carefully focussed nature of this research), with the identification ‘of common themes using pattern matching analysis to compare findings across cases and to the conceptual framework’. Manley goes on to add that ‘the existence of multiple sources of evidence … increases the validity of findings, compared to a single case study approach’ (Manley 2008, p. 8). This is further reinforced with each of the three cases being transport-related infrastructure projects, thus further enabling the common themes to emerge and be addressed. Common themes were identified both in the review of literature and in interview. In the review of documentation, key examples of common themes which emerged are:

i. the discovery of several sets of project objectives from various project stages (Sections 5.3.2, 6.3.1 and 7.3.1). ii. minimal links discovered between the above project objectives, and the corporate objectives of the case study organisation.

In the context of this research method, the use of pattern matching analysis was limited, due to the evolutionary nature of the adapted inquiry cycle.

As previously discussed in Section 3.3.3.1, the fieldwork associated with the three cases included semi-structured interviews and a review of relevant documentation.

- 88 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

For Case 1, the investigation was structured around determining a set of critical success factors for the project, and identifying how and if there was a link to the corporate objectives and outcomes of the case study agency (i.e. Brisbane City Council). For Cases 2 and 3, the interviews related to the testing (Case 2) and implementation (Case 3) of each iteration of the value-mapping framework, whilst the review of documentation was undertaken to provide documentary support for information gained in interview, and assist with identifying issues related to the practical application of the framework. The reliability of the information obtained from interview is reinforced by nature and commitment of the cohort of interviewees (Section 3.3.3.1 and Appendix 1) and the process of verification undertaken by the researcher to ensure input was accurately interpreted.

In addition, the validity of the data gained, upon which the framework has been developed, was further confirmed through the triangulation of a number of sources of evidence (Yin 1989, p.78). This includes (i) the interviews and documentation referred to above (on multiple cases); (ii) participant observation enabled by action research collaboration (Section 3.3.2); (iii) correlation to academic research previously in related fields; and (iv) through the subsequent eight evaluation interviews.

3.5.3. Application

This research has drawn on four existing fields of knowledge as its basis (i.e. corporate responsibility, project value/s, performance indicators and associated measurables). It then integrates knowledge and tools from these areas, into the value-mapping methodology described above, in order to establish what is being referred to as the value-mapping framework. The term value-mapping has been used as it addresses the issue of value via a number of dimensions. The approach in this research is well expressed by Emmitt, Sander et al. (2005):

The distinction between client values as the focus and end goal of our efforts and internal values of the delivery team is made as mentioned above. The external value is separated into (i) process value and (ii) product value. Process value is about giving our customers the best experience during the design and construction of the project. It comprises: • ‘Soft values’ such as work ethics, communication, conflict solving etc. between the client and the delivery team. • ‘Hard values’ such as the delivery teams ability to keep agreed time limits, cost estimates, quality of the product and workers safety etc. (Emmitt, Sander et al 2005, p.59)

- 89 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

The value-mapping framework is intended to provide a tool which tracks both hard and soft values, and process and product values, through the various mechanisms that it brings together. Additionally it’s intent is to provide a framework which enables the agency to better communicate these values to all parties along the project supply chain, and track the decision-making process in this regard. A further aspect is that through doing this, the framework leverages additional latent value which currently exists, but remains unaccounted for. Chan, Ho et al. (2001, pp.4-5) reinforce the inclusion of softer performance indicators and also accounts for an academic tradition in support of this in quoting Pinto and Pinto (1991) who state ‘that measures for project success should also include project psychosocial outcomes - the satisfaction of interpersonal relations with project team members. Subjective measures such as participants’ satisfaction levels are known as the ‘soft’ measures’. The inclusion of satisfaction as a success measure can be found earlier in the work of Wuellner (1990)’.

Checkland (1992, p.231) quotes Cohen in suggesting that values ‘express preferences, priorities or desirable states of affairs’. Thus, enhancing value, given the context of broader corporate responsibility, can be considered to be about enhancing project value through (i) product-based outcomes such as delivering on the corporate objectives and outcomes which have been previously derived by a public sector agency, and (ii) delivery to process-based corporate values as articulated by the agency delivering the infrastructure.

To deliver on these broader aspects of value, the value-mapping framework as developed includes a series of maps and matrices which require project team members and stakeholders to engage in dialogue, at pre-feasibility stage, to determine a set of value-mapping objectives, indicators and measurables with clearly articulate accountabilities for delivery. Application of this framework requires the following steps:

- 90 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

i. Identify value-mapping objectives, aligned with previously identified corporate, program and strategic project objectives. ii. Establish accountabilities and stakeholders for delivery on each objective. iii. Use congruence between corporate outcomes, and project objectives to establish project-based indicators. iv. Establish and/or select measurables and targets for these indicators. (A complete set of measurables for each objective may not be readily available in the early stages of implementation. This can be built over time reflecting the growing awareness of broader corporate responsibilities.) v. Review, monitor and report on these indicators at key project decision points to assure on-going alignment.

The final value mapping framework is described further in Chapter 4, and its evolution, based upon the case study experience, is related in Chapters 5, 6 and 7.

3.6. Summary of research method

This chapter discussed the exploration of alternate methodologies (including descriptive case studies with Delphi expert panel surveys), and the basis for selecting the chosen method as detailed in this chapter. This method is an adapted inquiry/learning cycle (derived from Checkland’s SSM) incorporating action research collaboration on three practice-based case studies (Figure 3.2). The nature of the case studies (and accompanying fieldwork) is described in detail (refer also Appendix 1). This chapter then introduces the value-mapping methodology, as developed in the course of this research. The author identifies the key inputs from the academic literature reviewed in Chapter 2 (i.e. CSR, lean thinking, performance indicators), and how these inform the development of the value-mapping framework. From this basis, five steps are identified which form the basis of the value-mapping framework as developed throughout each step of the adapted inquiry cycle.

- 91 - Chapter 3 - Research methodology

This page has been left blank.

- 92 - Chapter 1 - Introduction

4. The value-mapping framework

4.1. Introduction

Chapters 2 and 3 detail existing academic knowledge that contributes to the development of the value-mapping framework. This chapter will provide an overview of the process undertaken to build the value-mapping framework. The final iteration of this framework includes a series of activities and inputs, in part derived from those sources discussed in Chapters 2, and in part from the three collaborative case studies described in the following chapters (Chapters 5, 6 and 7), is then presented in Chapter 8.

A draft value-mapping framework has been established in the first ‘exploratory’ action-taking round in Case 1 (Figure 3-2). This was subsequently ‘tested’ on Case 2 (action-taking round 2) and ‘implemented’ on Case 3 (final action-taking round). With each iteration the framework has been further refined. It has also been presented to eight organisations involved in the provision of infrastructure in Australia for evaluation and feedback (Section 8.1). The result is a practical value- mapping framework which can be applied in other organisations, subject to modification based upon (i) identifying a clearly articulated set of an agency’s corporate objectives and outcomes; (ii) building an understanding of corporate processes and decision-making; and (iii) commitment of an agency to linking project outcomes to corporate objectives for enhanced communications and reporting.

As detailed in the adapted inquiry cycle which underpins this research (Chapter 3), Case 1 which was in its final stages of construction, with a number of clearly articulated sets of project indicators enabled the author to:

i. identify the reporting gap which exists between project outcomes and corporate objectives. This aligned with the gap in the academic literature identified in Chapter 2 ii. highlight the benefits to this agency of undertaking this activity iii. develop the first iteration of the value-mapping framework to address this real-world problem

This process is further detailed in Chapter 5 (Eleanor Schonell Bridge). The outcomes of this first action-taking round were verified in interview with senior management, prior to consolidation of these findings into the first iteration of the

- 93 - Chapter 1 - Introduction value-mapping framework, for testing in the second action-taking round on Case 2 Hale Street Link.

Case 2 has provided the opportunity to test the draft value-mapping framework with a group of project team members not familiar with the development process. Some modifications were made to the framework (Section 6.3.2) prior to undertaking the final action-taking round. Case 2 highlights the need to engage in the value- mapping process prior to project implementation, when commitment to delivering on already established performance targets is underway.

Case 3 (the final action-taking round) has involved the researcher with taking ‘action to improve’ (Checkland 2000, p.S16). This case has enabled the implementation of the second iteration of the value-mapping framework (Chapter 7). This has resulted in further refinements leading to the third iteration of the value-mapping framework which was presented for feedback and evaluation to a group of representations from other agencies and organisations involved in major project procurement in Australia (Section 8.1).

All the above, along with researcher reflections, has then resulted in the final value- mapping framework, which is one outcome of this current research (Section 8.2).

4.2. Developing the value-mapping framework

Figure 4.1 illustrates the overall intent of the value-mapping framework under development, showing how the proposed mapping process will track inputs from pre-existing corporate objectives (on the left-hand side of the diagram), through the various project phases (as identified at the top of the diagram), to project outcomes and impacts (on the right-hand side of the diagram). Tools such as those produced by the World Business Council for Sustainable development (WBCSD) and the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) will be used to test assumptions, and as the basis for the development of aspects of the value-mapping framework (e.g. accountability and stakeholder mapping). The identification of measurables (both qualitative and quantitative) will also be undertaken, drawing upon academic literature and industry tools from a range of disciplines (e.g. lean manufacturing and ecological economics).

- 94 - Chapter 1 - Introduction

CORPORATE PLANNING PROCUREMENT OPERATIONS & MAINTENANCE DECOMMISIONING 1 2 3 4 5 OBJECTIVES DECONSTRUCTION

ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS INPUTS e.g. reduced Cost to congestion e.g. resources Legislative deconstruct influences

ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIAL INPUTS Uncertainties IMPACTS e.g. labour e.g. resource productivity Community influences PROJECT ETHICAL INPUTS Extent of e.g. due diligence SOCIAL IMPACTS Materials reuse Political e.g. reduced travel influences time

ECONOMIC INPUTS Alternative e.g. financing Organisational ETHICAL transport influences IMPACTS e.g. ethical procurement

IDENTIFY PROJECT OBJECTIVES AT ENABLES MONITORING OF PERFORMANCE BACK PRE-FEASIBILITY TO CORPORATE INTENT

Figure 4-1 - Mapping project outcomes to corporate objectives

- 95 - Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

The remaining sections in this chapter highlight the key steps and processes which have been identified as relevant to tracking project outcomes to corporate objectives. How these have been integrated into a final coherent framework, is discussed in each of the subsequent chapters.

4.2.1. Organisational context

In order to understand how project outcomes can be aligned to corporate objectives for monitoring and reporting purposes, an understanding of the corporate framework within which projects are to be delivered is required. This requires familiarity with the corporate objectives and outcomes of the organisation involved, and an understanding of how these corporate objectives are cascaded throughout the organisation.

Corporate objectives, values and outcomes

In order to identify the corporate objectives, values and outcome of the organisation, a series of semi-structured interviews were undertaken (Appendix 1.1) and corporate documentation reviewed to establish the over-arching corporate objectives and framework within which agency staff operated in order to deliver projects.

Key documents reviewed included:

 Brisbane City Council Annual Report 2005-06 (BCC 2006d)  BCC Corporate Plan 2006-2010 (BCC 2006b)  Living in Brisbane 2010 (BCC 2001a)  Our Shared Vision – Living in Brisbane 2026 (BCC 2006a)  Business Capability program – Strategic Setting Context (BCC 2007k)

From this exploratory process two key elements of corporate documentation were discovered which are critical to the development of the value-mapping framework. These are the Living in Brisbane 2010 themes (which were superseded by the Vision 2026 themes in 2006), and the City-wide Outcomes (BCC 2006a). The Vision 2026 themes are Friendly and Safe City; Clean, green city; Well-designed sub- tropical city; Accessible, connected city; Smart, prosperous city; Active, healthy city; Vibrant, creative city; and Regional, world city. These themes are actively used within the organisation to build organisational culture and guide day to day, as well as for corporate decision-making.

- 96- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

The twenty City-wide Outcomes which accompany these eight themes are Strong communities; Sustainable water use; Clean air; Smarter energy use; Public health; Biodiverse city; Waste reduction; Healthy economy; Better built environment; Safe community; City profile; Land use and management; Effective road networks; Healthy river and bay; Active communities; Green transport (BCC 2006a). They are used as a key reporting mechanism within the organisation, with cross-function teams responsible for reporting on performance against these outcomes on an annual basis.

Additionally there are eight corporate values identified by the agency, which are central to day-to-day operations. These are passion for Brisbane, responsive customer service, respect for people, courage to make a difference, working together, getting things done and value for money (BCC 2007m).

Each of these three elements, the corporate visions/themes, outcomes and values, are derived through a rigorous consultation process with community, political and organisational representatives, and thus valid for use in the implementation of value-mapping framework.

Organisational process maps

As Klotz, Horman et al. (2007) explain it is necessary to understand the decision- making environment of an organisation responsible for the delivery of the major economic infrastructure projects.

To begin development of maps using the L&G (Lean and Green) protocol, modellers must first become familiar with the organization being modelled so that the value of time spent with members of the organization is maximized. Initial data collection can include observation from within the organization being modelled and must include review of applicable organizational procedure manuals, standard forms, meeting minutes, project records, and schedule templates … After a basic understanding of the organization is achieved, the modeller can begin development of a Level 1 map. (Klotz, Horman et al. 2007, p10)

Information was gained from three semi-structured interviews with strategy staff and through review of project documentation (Appendix 1.1). This information was distilled into a process map (Rother and Shook 2002, Jones and Womack 2003), using content analysis, which captured key decision points throughout the process (Figure 4.2). This then offers potential intervention points into which the new

- 97- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework knowledge, informed by the value mapping process, can be integrated. This process map has been verified with project staff and refined as a result of their inputs.

- 98- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

Figure 4-2 – Brisbane City Council’s organisational processes

- 99- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

The organisational division responsible for the delivery of major economic infrastructure projects for Brisbane City Council is Major Infrastructure Projects Office (MIPO). Figure 4.3 shows how MIPO fits into the corporate structure of BCC.

City Policy and Strategy Council Council Standing Committees Corporate Services

Civic Cabinet iDivision

Major Infrastructure Lord Mayor Projects Office

Executive Customer and Community Chief Executive Services Office Management Brisbane CityWorks

Business Brisbane Water Units Brisbane Transport

City Business

Figure 4-3 – Brisbane City Council’s organisational structure (2007) (www.brisbane.qld.gov.au)

Interviews with project staff from the MIPO were undertaken in order to develop and verify their processes, and how the above corporate information flows through the organisation to the division. MIPO defines five project phases in its generic work breakdown structure (Figure 4.4). These are pre-feasibility, detailed feasibility, procurement, implementation and benefits realization. These align with both accepted industry practice and the organizational context. These terms were then adopted for use in the process maps to be developed for each of the case studies. These terms broadly equate to industry standards, and can be easily modified for application to other organizations.

- 100- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

Figure 4-4 – Major Infrastructure Projects Office processes

Project-specific process maps

The establishment of project-based process maps, based on lean manufacturing thinking, used the historic documentation to enable (i) an understanding the processes involved in project planning, design, and delivery; (ii) identification of the reporting gaps; and (iii) identification of how a new reporting framework could be integrated into project delivery processes. To this end, an overview process map was developed which captures information relating to corporate objectives and outcomes; and project phases and deliverables along the project supply chain (Figure 4.5).

- 101- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

Figure 4-5 – Project-specific overview process map

- 102- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

The boxes on the left hand side of the diagram are the eight themes which comprise the organizational vision. The boxes to the right hand side are the fifteen city-wide outcomes which form the basis of organizational reporting (BCC 2006c). The central, portion of the diagram captures the key events and/or decision points at which a review of the value-mapping framework could be undertaken.

This overview process map is the outcome of a series of process specific maps developed in the course of Cases 1 and 2. The establishment of these process maps was an extensive activity for the initial two cases, though it only forms a minor part of the final framework. This is as a result of the outcome that the framework can be embedded into existing organizational management systems (such as Project Management Plans and procedures, or Gateway processes), with key decision points being easily identified by those familiar with organization. Where an organization does not have such processes in place (which is unlikely if they have the capacity to deliver major economic infrastructure projects) then a more intensive process mapping activity would be required.

4.2.2. Project objectives and opportunities

Emmitt, Saunder et al. (2005, p.58) state that “If value is as crucial to define as we think, we need to answer the questions: (i) Value to whom? and (ii) what is value? Both questions are difficult to give an exact and precise answer to.” It is these two questions that need to be answered, in order to develop a set of project objectives. These questions need to be asked in the context of the corporate objectives already established by the organisation.

The Major Infrastructure Project Office (MIPO) with whom the three collaborative cases were undertaken, also have their own working definition of ‘objective’, this is ‘a concise statement (or statements) of which the project is to achieve – a strategic potion to be attained or a purpose to be achieved, a result to be obtained, a product to be produced or a service to be performed’ (MIPO 2007c).

The purpose of establishing the project objectives is three-fold:

- 103- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

i. to develop a set of objectives aligned to corporate objectives ii. to develop a set of meaningful and measurable performance indicators for the project iii. to provide continuity of message regarding project intent and values throughout the procurement process. Value being in terms of those issues discussed in Section 3.4.2.

The establishment of these indicators is thus the first step in providing a rigorous structure for the development of project indicators to measure both hard and soft, product and process values for a given project.

Alignment to corporate objectives

The establishment of project objectives and indicators is traditionally based on the following (Section 2.4):

 expert knowledge  desired outcomes  previous project experience  who is establishing the indicators (i.e. project proponent, contractor or project manager)  what phase the project is in when indicators developed

This has resulted in differing sets of project objectives and performance indicators for any one project, dependent upon project phase. The value-mapping framework seeks to apply additional rigor to this process, through having an objective and indicator set which:

i. is developed with the involvement of a broad cross-section of stakeholders. ii. directly links desired project outcomes to stated corporate objectives. iii. provides an avenue for effective and accessible archival data relating to objectives and indicators. iv. has an established process for development as a part of the project plan. v. is established early in project delivery and consistently reviewed, revised and reported on throughout the life of the project.

This research identifies an agency’s corporate responsibilities as a valid starting point for determining objectives and indicators, as a result of work on problem identification in Case 1. This provides an existing and substantive basis for identifying and monitoring performance (Section 5.3). Testing work on Case 2 further identified a need for these to be established at the pre-feasibility phase of a project (Section 6.3). In doing this an agency becomes aware of its broader commitments, beyond the footprint and life span of the project, thus better acknowledging their broader responsibilities to the community. To this end the set of resultant objectives also includes project opportunities which may be leveraged by

- 104- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework the project to fulfil broader corporate objectives. Thus the value-mapping objectives referred to in this research include both corporate and project-based objectives and opportunities relevant to the delivery of the project under consideration.

Effective performance measurement

The considerable literature on performance indicators consistently advocates that these indicators for project success need to measure both the hard and soft elements of project performance (Section 2.4). Chan, Ho et al. (2001) indicated that project success and measures have historically been identified based upon expert knowledge, without a rigorous process for determining these.

The concept of project success is a means to improve the present situation...Many project managers still attend to this topic in an intuitive and ad hoc fashion as they attempt to manage and allocate resources. (Chan, Ho et al. 2001, p.3)

Whilst those authors identify the role of differing indicators at different project stages (Figure 4.6), the value-mapping framework proposes that a set of indicators which address all phases, needs to be identified at pre-feasibility, in order for key issues relevant to agency value can remain central to decision-making throughout the various project phases and in so doing ensures the continuity of values communicated through the project’s life span and across the project supply chain. It is however acknowledged that some of the value-mapping indicators may not be able to be, or required to be monitored at each phase, in which case action on that indicated is recorded as such.

- 105- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

Figure 4-6 – Assessment framework for project success (Chan, Ho et al. 2002, p.124)

The literature consistently acknowledges the need for performance indicators to address a cross section of issues relating to project success (see Parfitt and Sanvido 1993, Chan and Chan 2004, Metri 2005 and Li, Akintoye et al. 2005). Emmitt, Sander et al. (2005) reflect this general consensus when saying:

- 106- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

The ‘basic value structure for buildings’ is based on the six key areas of value, mentioned earlier (Beauty; Functionality; Durability; Suitability (for the site and the community); Sustainability (respect for the environment); and Buildability. This value hierarchy addresses the primary project objectives and breaks them down into further sub-objectives as part of an iterative process carried out within the workshops. (Emmitt, Sander et al. 2005, pp.61-62)

Whilst these authors refer to buildings, the basic principles remain unchanged for urban infrastructure. This intent to address a broad cross-section of concerns (i.e. social, environmental and economic) is embedded in the value mapping framework by addressing the broader corporate responsibilities of an agency.

Continuity of project intent and values

Where multiple sets of project objectives and indicators exist, as is traditionally the case and as evidenced in Case 1 (Chapter 5), the ability to effectively track decision-making regarding project intent and value, across the project life span is diluted because of the change in participants throughout the project supply chain; personal values and preferences of decision-makers, and difficulties in tracking decision-making in a complex working environment. Rogers (2001, p.17) cites Herbert Simon 1976) when he says ‘that decision-makers are, in reality, limited by their value systems, habits and skills as well as by less than perfect levels of knowledge and information.’ As projects progress through the supply chain, each decision-maker brings their own ‘value, habits and skills’, to the process. The value- mapping framework seeks to provide a tool to more clearly articulate and communicate the values of the organizational owner of the project, rather than the values of supply chain organizations and/or their employees. As a result of this clarification, some of the uncertainty regarding decision-maker can also be clarified. In considering the role of uncertainty in defining objectives at the pre-feasibility stage of a major infrastructure project:

The basic premise of strategic choice is that managerial decisions are made in conditions of uncertainty. It seeks to aid the decision-making process by conceptualizing three different types of uncertainty, the first of which relates to the clarity of `guiding values’. This type of uncertainty … is caused primarily by ambiguous objectives … The second type of uncertainty pertains to the broader environment ... This is the kind of uncertainty which normally is dealt with through risk management techniques ... The third kind of uncertainty concerns `decision fields’. This … relates to the `inter-connectiveness’ between decision areas. In other words, uncertainty concerning the wider implications of an individual decision. (Green 1997, p.332)

- 107- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

The proposed value-mapping framework can address each of these aspects of uncertainty through (i) better articulating and communicating corporate or guiding values, (ii) integrating with existing risk-management systems to provide greater clarity with regard to meeting corporate objectives and targets, and (iii) identifying broader accountabilities for project objectives and opportunities which may pertain to others outside the project team.

Hierarchy of objectives

To develop a set of objectives relevant to the value-mapping framework (which will be referred to as the value-mapping narrative), the need to clarify the hierarchy of objectives within the agency and sub-agency processes has been identified. Sinha and Labi (2007) discuss this hierarchy in relation to transportation projects.

The development of performance measures derives from a hierarchy of desired system outcomes. This hierarchy starts with the broad overall goals of efficiency, effectiveness, and equity; under these broad goals are the goals of system preservation, economic development, environmental quality protection, and so on; and under each goal is a set of objectives, and for each objectives, performance measures are established. (Sinha and Labi 2007, p.21)

Translated to the current research activity, this hierarchy includes the top level corporate objectives (i.e. the eight BCC Living in Brisbane 2026 themes); the next level of strategic objectives associated with program delivery (i.e. Transport Plan for Brisbane 2006-2026 (BCC 2007); and TransApex service level requirements (BCC 2005a)); and then the various strategic project objectives used to communicate project goals to the community. The project objectives identified as a part of this framework, then sit below these in this hierarchy. These detail project objectives are those which align with each of the corporate strategies and objectives identified above, in a manner which can enable accountabilities, stakeholders, and performance measurables to be fully articulated.

4.2.3. Accountabilities

The value-mapping framework has adopted tools which can demonstrate ‘acceptance by the company of its responsibility for any decision or course of action adopted by it, the consequences thereof, and a commitment to resolving any issues that arise as a result’ (King 11 Coda SA, Engen and DiPiazza 2005, p.7). These authors further state that ‘governance mechanisms need to embrace the broadening

- 108- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework accountability agenda, and lead to decisions which change corporate behaviour’ (Engen and DiPiazza 2005, p.10). They discuss the tools, developed as part of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) work on accountability and business, which have been adapted for use within the proposed value-mapping framework. As introduced in Section 2.2.3, these are the ‘spheres of influence’ tool (Engen and DiPiazza 2005, p.8); the ‘accountability mapping matrix’ (Engen and DiPiazza 2005, p.6); and the ‘stakeholder foot-printing’ tool (Holme and Watt 2000, p.16). The three tools are proposed for use in parallel, in an adapted format, and applied iteratively in a workshop environment with project team members. These tools are central to early work by the WBCSD relating to the broader dimensions of corporate social responsibility and associated reporting.

Spheres of Influence

This tool (Figure 4.7) is used to build awareness of the extent of impact that organizational or project decisions can have, and provides a starting pointing for building awareness regarding accountabilities and impacts which may not be considered in the traditional view of an organization or their activities.

Figure 4-7 – Spheres of Influence (Engen and DiPiazza 2005, p.8)

This tool is to be used in conjunction with the accountability map so that project team members and stakeholders ask questions pertinent to the broader corporate responsibilities. The inner circle represents those issues central to an organizations performance and influence, and most likely to be currently well-understood. The next ring represents the synergistic relationship with governmental laws and

- 109- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework regulations, wherein there is a two-way flow of information and understanding. The third ring is the relationship with the market place, for example, the suppliers. It is here that an organization may start to influence the supply chain in terms of its corporate responsibilities, obligations and desires. It is also at this level where an organisation’s performance may be adversely affected if suppliers are undertaking their business in a manner that does not align with the objectives or values of the procuring organization. The outer ring is then about an organizations interaction with society, for example, the community. This consideration needs to extend beyond the realms of the physical project footprint if an organization is to be more fully conscious of its responsibilities, and wish to ensure that outcomes represent its values.

Accountability Mapping

Engen and DiPiazza (2005, p.9) present three case study issues (i.e. bribery, environmental impacts, and diversity and discrimination) and ask six key questions in order to enhance business’ understanding of their accountabilities. These questions are:

 Who is primarily accountable?  Accountable for what?  To whom?  Through what mechanism?  Potential positive outcomes?  Who might generate additional value?

The value-mapping framework proposes that these questions are equally valid in the context of public sector agencies delivery major economic infrastructure projects. The value-mapping framework thus requires that these questions are asked for each of the draft value-mapping objectives in order to clarify:

 Who is responsible for the delivery of outcomes associated with each of the value-mapping objectives?  What specific outcomes to be assigned to each of those accountabilities?  Who is affected by this course of action?  How is this achieved in the context of the delivery of the project?

Stakeholder mapping

The third tool (Figure 4.8) adapted for use in the value-mapping framework is the stakeholder foot-printing tool (Holme and Watt 2000). The use of this tool provides definition and rigor around the process of identifying who and what needs to be

- 110- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework considered as the stakeholder base for the proposed project. Case 1 confirmed that the identification of stakeholders in the early stages of a project’s life tends to be ad hoc and intuitive. The value-mapping framework proposes a structured process in order to ensure that latent stakeholders may be discovered early in the project implementation process; and that a transparent record of deliberation is available.

Stakeholder Footprints: If the shoe fits… Stakeholders Company owners Shareholders Investors Employees Customers Business partners Suppliers Competitors Government Regulators NGOs Pressure Groups Influencers Communities Values and Governance Regulation and controls Business Operations Accountability and disclosure Human rights Employee rights/ Working conditions Business context Product impact CSR Key Issues Social impact/ Investment Impact on other species Impact on the environment

Key Strong interest Some interest Weak interest

Figure 4-8 - Mapping Key CSR Issues to Stakeholders (Holme and Watts 2000, p.16)

This tool requires consideration of the links between stakeholders and key corporate social responsibility issues. They pose three questions for consideration when identifying the appropriate stakeholder base.

Legitimacy – Is a particular stakeholder group representative of issues which are relevant to your business and accountable to those with a legitimate interest in the way you do business? Contribution / Influence – Does the stakeholder group have a contribution to make in helping you to run the business more responsibly or significant influence on your company’s business and/or on other stakeholders? Outcome – Is the engagement likely to result in a productive outcome in the long run? (Holme and Watt 2000, p.15)

The stakeholder foot-printing matrix has been modified for use in the context of the value-mapping framework in two ways. Firstly to incorporate the project objectives derived previously in lieu of their ‘CSR key issues’, and secondly to modify the stakeholder sub-groups to those appropriate for local government agencies in Australia. The three questions posed by Holme and Watts (i.e. legitimacy,

- 111- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework contribution / influence and outcome) are then asked in a workshop environment to develop awareness of stakeholder groups and articulate a set of project stakeholders. This is important due to the varying priorities of each of the different stakeholders and the need to ensure project team understanding of this. Emmitt, Sander et al. (2005, p.59) discuss the need to establish common ground between stakeholders in the context of what he refers to as the ‘value universe’. Welford, Chan et al. (2007) indicate that there are some areas where stakeholder groups give more priority to factors compared with businesses. These areas include social and environmental policies, supply chain management, partnerships with NGOs, international standards, social and environmental reporting and stakeholder dialogue. For businesses, therefore, these may be areas to examine further in terms of future CSR programs and practices’ (Welford, Chan et al. 2007, p.62).

Various proprietary tools are available for stakeholder mapping including the Stakeholder Circles tool described by Bourne (2005) and the Stakeholder 360 tool presented by Boutilier (2009). These can be used as stand-alone tools or in conjunction with the WBCSD tool (which is publicly available via the WBCSD website). Each of these tools build upon tools presented by Freeman (1998) for stakeholder mapping.

4.2.4. Indicator development

A performance measure is an objective that is stated in measurable terms. Synonyms include performance indicator, performance attribute, or service attribute. (Sinha and Labi 2007, p.220)

A set of relevant value-mapping indicators are then assigned to the project objectives against which measurables can be attributed. These are derived from mapping the value-mapping objectives to those corporate outcomes previously determined by the public sector agency. These outcomes, in the case of Brisbane City Council, are used to further refine the corporate objectives, in order to provide more specific and tangible indicators against which performance can be tracked. In the course of the evaluation and validation interviews it was determined that all agencies have some form of corporate outcomes, which can be used for this purpose, in some instances in a modified format (Chapter 8.2.1). As previously identified, the corporate outcomes for the case study agency are known as the ‘city- wide outcomes’ (BCC, 2006a).

- 112- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

Scipioni, Mazzi et al. (2007, p.6) suggest there are four required characteristics of good performance indicators, these being:

i. fitness for purpose ii. clear and easily comprehensible iii. must correspond to the reality iv. must give timely information

The BCC ‘city-wide outcomes’ conform to each of these requirements, in that they:

i. have been developed in a public sector context, within an organisation responsible for the delivery of major economic infrastructure projects. ii. are concise, and their intent self-evident and unambiguous as part of the Our Shared Vision – Living in Brisbane 2026 document (BCC 2006a). iii. have been developed in consultation with political, community and organisational stakeholders. Additionally they provide a direct reflection of the services and issues relevant to a public sector agency. iv. are an integral part of the Living in Brisbane 2010 (now the Living in Brisbane 2026), following extensive community and organisational consultation.

Indicator identification is undertaken through nominating of key correspondences between the value-mapping objectives and the corporate outcomes as developed specifically for this framework. This is discussed in further detail in each of the following cases (Chapters 5, 6 and 7).This identification process is again undertaken in a workshop environment to encourage active discussion between project team members and stakeholders as to which are the key indicators for long- term monitoring. In Cases 2 and 3 this resulted in the identification of between one and four indicators for each of the project objectives.

4.2.5. The value-map

The resultant indicators are then used to track performance to both project-specific and corporate outcomes. The value-mapping framework does not assume that performance on each of the indicators will contribute one hundred percent to what may be traditionally determined as project success, but that all will contribute to broader aspects of corporate success, as identified in an agency’s corporate objectives and outcomes. Some discussion occurred in the evaluation interviews as to whether those indicators which contributed less than seventy percent should still be considered as part of the project’s indicator set (Section 8.2.1). Parfitt and Sanvido’s (1993, p.244) definition of success is again recalled wherein project success is ‘relevant to each participant, it is defined as the overall achievement of project goals and expectations’. In the case of value-mapping, the organisation’s expectations of success go beyond the traditional focus of an infrastructure project’s

- 113- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework immediate delivery foot-print, to identify and fulfil broader community and environmental concerns with a potential intergenerational focus. To this end the set of collective value-mapping objectives and indicators are established, monitored and reported on in their entirety, and not reduced to a subset relevant to contractual obligations or the like.

4.2.6. Measurables and targets

Once the value-mapping framework is consolidated, including the hierarchy of objectives, and value-mapping indicators associated, measurables, targets and tools can be assigned.

Sinha and Labi (2007, p.24) detail six properties of a good performance measure. These are appropriateness; measurability; dimensionality (both spatial and temporal); reality checking; defensibility; and forecastability. To identify these, both project documentation and information from content experts within the project teams are referred to. This initial investigation may result in only known measurables for known indicators being revealed, and thus not furthering either knowledge or practice in this field. The review of literature in this area however reveals a substantial amount of literature in other fields, along with recent literature within the transportation infrastructure sector (which is not yet mainstream in the Australian context) of relevance (Section 2.5). This confirmed the topic of measurables (with particular focus on the quantification of qualitative measurables), as needing future research (Section 8.5.3). One of the key limitations in current available knowledge is that the data is developed for the Canadian and United States environment.

In the context of the value-mapping framework, measurables were segregated into three categories comprising (i) quantitative (monetised); (ii) quantitative (physicalised); and (iii) qualitative. The need for these categories evolved in the course of the collaboration, and is reinforced by the available literature. A key challenge for the value-mapping framework is to ensure equal credibility to both the qualitative and the quantitative indicators. The value-mapping framework is not intended as a tool enabling the prioritisation of indicators, but one which reveals a broad spectrum of indicators associated with delivery to all corporate objectives, and not a prioritised sub-set. Bein (1997) suggests that:

- 114- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

Some of those concerned about sustainability believe more attention must be paid to the following intangible factors the presence of uncertainty about ecosystem functioning and its total service value, irreversibility of some natural resource degradation or loss, aversion to loss felt by many individuals, and the criticality of some natural components for which man-made capital cannot be substituted. (Bein 1997, p.2.5)

Bein references ‘sustainability’, demonstrating that this approach is equally valid where an organization’s corporate objectives address social and environmental issues as well as the economic ones. This is counter to the reality that monetized and physical measurables are more readily managed in the complex decision- making environment in the delivery of major economic infrastructure projects, than the intangible qualitative indicators. Whilst these cannot be conveniently measured, their impacts can be considerable in terms of those issues discussed above by Bein. To disregard these issues thus increases the risk of future project failure (e.g. community dissatisfaction, environmental degradation), thus the value-mapping framework equally presents all objectives and indicators without any form of prioritization or packaging (as occurs in some forms of reporting such as dash- boards).

In terms of quantifiable measurables these can be either physicalised or monetized. The benefits of this are commonly accepted. Bein (1997, p. v) states that ‘non- market goods, such as travel time and traffic safety, are routinely monetized in transportation planning’. And further suggests that:

To ensure that non-market environmental goods and services have consistent reference values throughout planning and decision making, it is necessary to have uniform reference values of costs per unit of impact or impact reduction. Monetization can achieve this end. (Bein 1997, p.2.8)

Whilst in the context of the value-mapping framework it is not intended that all indicators will ultimately be monetized, it is used to broaden the data set to facilitate decision-making where-ever feasible. This process will need to be undertaken by organizations adopting the value-mapping framework as part of the on-going development of inputs for performance measurement.

For each indicator and measure, a project and/or corporate target is required, along with the option for a potential stretch target, which can be of value in terms of contractual performance. The setting of targets was a task for the project team to determine, based on expert knowledge and corporate intention.

- 115- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

Tools for measurement

Many current tools exist for both quantitative and qualitative decision-making in the delivery of major economic infrastructure project, and are implemented on a business-as-usual basis. It is not within the scope of this dissertation to detail these, as they are considered part of the expert-knowledge input required for the value- mapping framework. Each organization has their business-as-usual tools, along with best-practice tools which provide market differentiation. The framework thus provides the ability to integrate these into the value-mapping framework for communication, reporting and archival purposes.

There are many quantitative tools currently in use to assist decision-makers (Section 2.5). Those identified in the course of this research, as relevant to the topic of performance measurement include transport planning and modelling tools (for considering travel time and distances; congestion costs; costs associated with safety and the like), and land-use planning tools (for considering land use impacts). Tools also in use are those which enable the design decision-maker to consider the integrated transport and land use impacts of their proposal. Measurement and monitoring tools exist for assessments related to air, water, energy, noise and resource consumption (including greenhouse gas emissions and captured carbon). Limited tools are available for the measurement of performance to social criteria (Hutchins and Sutherland 2008).

Cost-benefit analysis and other multi-criteria analysis tools (Bell 1999, Arts and Lamoen 2005, Tricker 2007) are traditionally used to synthesize both quantitative and qualitative criteria in the decision-making context. These methods may be used, for example, in economic analysis and economic development impacts in which project benefits are weighed against expenditure to aid decision-making.

Standard industry tools for measuring qualitative indicators and identified in the course of this research include expert panels, surveys (including stated preference surveys), community engagement, interviews, comparative case studies, industry and peer awards and the like. Sinha and Labi 2007 and Litman 2007 also discuss these tools. Some of the more innovative methods for engagement with more intangible aspects of project delivery include multi-sector partnerships (Warhurst 2001, Badshah 1988) and participative democracy (Deakin 2007).

- 116- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

4.2.7. Step 8 - Review, revision and reporting

The final activity in the value-mapping framework implementation is undertaking the monitoring, review and reporting against the value mapping indicators at subsequent steps in project development and procurement. The key decision points in the project life-span for this activity are determined as a part of the initial process mapping of both agency and sub-agency activities are recorded on an overview process map (Figure 4.5) which forms part of the framework documentation.

This requires project team members to review and report on project performance to targets as a part of standard project management reporting practice, at each of the pre-determined key decision points in the planning and procurement process. It is recommended that outcomes are reported to senior management, project stakeholders, and those with accountabilities for the delivery to the value-mapping objectives.

As the active case study involvement associated with this doctoral research concluded in April 2008, on-going review of this implementation has not been possible. A longitudinal assessment has been identified as an area of future research (Section 8.5.3).

4.3. Chapter summary

This chapter thus presents a series of key activities which, based upon the review of literature, are required for project outcomes to be linked to corporate objectives, with the intent of enhancing accountabilities across the triple bottom line. This includes:

i. a clear understanding of corporate decision-making and its integration with project decision-making. ii. defining a hierarchy of objectives, relevant to a specific project, and linked directly to corporate objectives in a way which can be tracked and reported upon. iii. adapting and implementing a set of accountability tools to better ensure organisational accountability to increasingly demanding corporate responsibilities. iv. establishing a set of indicators, linked to corporate and project objectives, against which measures and targets can be assigned for ongoing project reporting to corporate values and objectives.

- 117- Chapter 4 – The value-mapping framework

This page has been left blank.

- 118- Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

5. Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

5.1. Real-world problem diagnosis

The research problem which this thesis addresses is ‘the need to identify, map and account for the risks and benefits associated with social, environmental, governance and economic outcomes and impacts which arise from major economic infrastructure projects, both now, and in the future’. The associated research question is ‘how can the performance (i.e. project outcomes and impacts) of major projects be better defined, forecast and assessed (measured, monitored, audited and reported on) against corporate targets or KPIs’ (Section 1.2). Case 1 was undertaken to explore the nature of the problem and the research question as it applies in the context of project delivery.

In terms of the inquiry cycle (Figure 3.2), two key activities were undertaken in order to explore the problem. These were:

i. the exploratory case study – undertaken to aid in the identification of the real- world problem. This includes a review of project documentation and twenty-one semi-formal interviews with case study participants (Section 3.3.3.1).

ii. the literature review – undertaken to identify a gap in current literature, and determine a valid academic knowledge base to underpin collaboration to discover a solution for the real-world problem (Chapter 2).

Pertinent to the first activity, it is important to note that it is not possible to generalise on the delivery environment for major projects, based on a limited number of case studies. This is due to the range of externalities which influence the planning and delivery, including the economic environment, the physical context, the organisational structure of the project owner, and the like. It is thus acknowledged that any framework seeking to address this real-world problem, needs to accommodate this variability into its design and implementation (as reflected in the first activity of defining the organisational context).

Regarding the second activity, the review of academic literature contributes to this stage of the research in a number of ways:

- 119 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

i. Literature on corporate responsibility in other sectors was reinterpreted for the infrastructure sector.

ii. Previous research on critical success factors in the construction sector (Section 2.4.2) enabled development of a set of CSFs for the Case 1 – as part of a gap analysis, in terms of determining performance to corporate objectives.

iii. Literature on value-stream and process mapping enabled firstly, the description of the organisational decision-making structure influencing project decision- making; and secondly the description of the complex processes of delivering a major economic infrastructure project.

Key issues which relate to this real-world problem, and which will be addressed in the development of the value-mapping framework include:

 the need to address the whole of project supply chain  developing a model to be based on enhanced bottom line criteria to inform key performance indicators (both quantitative and qualitative)  ensuring relevance in a local/regional context whilst addressing national and international best practice

5.2. Case 1 description

The Mission Statement for this project was:

The Green Bridge (i.e. the Eleanor Schonell Bridge) will provide a green transport connection for pedestrians, cyclists and public transport patrons between Dutton Park and St Lucia. It will provide a distinct and deliberate advantage for green modes and deliver significant environmental, economic and community benefits to Brisbane. It will feature high quality, sub- tropical design, sensitively integrating with the river, green spaces, local community and the University of Queensland. It will reflect Brisbane’s lifestyle, culture, history and dynamic future. (BCC 2005c)

This statement signifies the early intent for this bridge to deliver more to Brisbane than traditionally recognised transport and economic benefit.

5.2.1. Physical description

John Holland was awarded the modified D&C contract for this cable-stay bridge and associated works ($55.5 million). The Brisbane City Council web-site (www.brisbane.qld.gov.au) at the time of this research indicated that the cable-stay bridge would span 390 metres across the Brisbane River, with two twin-column, seventy metre high towers supporting it. The bridge deck was to be twenty metres

- 120 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge wide, 1.5 metres deep with a central span one hundred and 85 metres long. The bridge will be at a height of 11.6 metres to 13.7 metres above high water level.

The following provides additional background detail (obtained during interviews with project team members) to provide context for analysis.

 Design life - one hundred years.  Structure – cable stayed bridge, built one structural module at a time.  Pile caps - in the tidal zone of the Brisbane River & built in two stages. The first stage was constructed as a pre-cast concrete shell (which was prefabricated on land to eliminate the impact of working in the tidal zone). The pile cap was then built within the shell in-situ. This method was developed by the contractor (John Holland) and the designers (GHD) at tender stage and formed part of their tender submission. A key driver for this method was safety.  Deck modules - the first deck module was constructed on the northern side of the tower, and then the deck on the opposite side of the tower was constructed. There was a programmed lag of approximately six weeks between construction work on each of the two towers, enabling lessons learnt by the design and construct team to be applied on the second tower. The deck is a composite of structural steel and precast decking. Steel and concrete decking were joined using steel studs.  Cables – these were strung from the deck module to the tower where guide tubes were concreted in place. They were tensioned under the weight of the steel deck module, pulled up and then the concrete deck poured. The deck module on the opposite side of tower was then placed. The cable stay was positioned, and so forth on both sides until the central deck module was reached.  Prefabricated tops to towers - once sufficient decking erected adjacent to towers, the prefabricated tops of towers (pre-cast shells) were placed in position via crane from the deck. The option of shells rather than solid construction reduced the size of required piles and construction time.  Form systems - a specialist form system designer/manufacturer was responsible for developing the process which enabled the tower sections to be poured and stripped in one day.  Deck stressing – the deck was lifted to bring it up to the design profile, via stressing cable stays. This can also be done in the future if (i) light rail were to be added with the additional concrete adding load to the deck requiring the cables to be re-tensioned; or (ii) should a cable be mechanically damaged requiring replacement.

- 121 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Figure 5-1- Eleanor Schonell Bridge (Photograph from Brisbane City Council website)

5.2.2. Engagement

Based on discussions with both academic and industry supervisors, the Eleanor Schonell Bridge (known as the Green Bridge until its official opening) was selected for the initial case study. This project was chosen for the following reasons:

i. It was nearing completion, which enabled a full review of existing best-practice, along with an assessment of factors which contributed to project performance.

ii. The project team and project documentation were still readily accessible.

iii. The construction manager was John Holland Group, who was also a participant in the CRC Construction Innovation, and as such had an appreciation of the research and its requisite needs and demands.

iv. The project was planned and designed to achieve more than the traditional cross-river link in that it would serve as a pedestrian, cycle and public transport link across the river (with no private vehicle access), thus inherently delivering on a broader range of corporate intentions than the traditional accessibility intent.

In order to ensure that data gathered was unbiased, engagement included information from a number of sources including a review of available project documentation; and semi-formal interviews with members of the organisations strategy and policy group, senior project team members (from both the agency and the contracting organisation), and political stakeholders (Section 3.3.3.1). These are discussed further in the following two sections.

- 122 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

5.2.2.1 Review of documentation

The review of available documentation was undertaken to identify what performance indicators had been identified for the various project phases. Additionally the researcher was seeking to identify any direct links between these and Brisbane City Council’s corporate objectives as defined by the Living in Brisbane 2010 themes (BCC 2001a). These were later superseded by the Living in Brisbane 2026 themes (BCC 2006a).

The project phases identified in the course of establishing the process maps for this project (Figure 4.4) are:

 Phase 1 - Pre-feasibility  Phase 2 - Detailed Feasibility  Phase 3 – Procurement  Phase 4 – Delivery (Implementation)  Phase 5 - Benefit Realisation

The following identifies documentation (by project phase) reviewed by the researcher.

Phase 2 – Pre-feasibility

 Cross River Strategy (Queensland Transport, Main Roads and BCC 2003)

In addition there are three corporate documents which inform this phase, these being the Living in Brisbane 2010 strategy (BCC 2001a) (Section 4.x), the Transport Plan for Brisbane 2002-2016 (BCC 2002a) and the BCC Corporate Plan (2005d).

Phase 3 – Detailed Feasibility

 Impact Assessment Study – Executive Summary only (BCC 2003a)  Green Bridge Link SPeAR® Assessment (BCC 2003a)  Green Bridge Economic Analysis (Vietch Lister Consulting 2004)  Review of Green Bridge Mission, Objectives and Targets (BCC 2005e)  Phase 4 - Delivery  Green Bridge Project Values and Behavioural Expectation (JH & BCC 2003)  Contract No. K40081-03/04 Annexure 2 – Project Scope - Part 1 Principal’s Requirements (BCC 2003b)  Contract No. K40081-03/04 Annexure 12 – Part 2 Contract Administration (BCC 2003b)  Contract No. K40081-03/04 Annexure 13 – Part 2 Environmental Management and Sustainability (BCC 2003b)

- 123 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

 Green Bridge Monthly Project Management Reports – Executive Summaries only  Green Bridge Monthly Dashboard Reports

The review of contract documentation was limited to key sections of relevance to issues raised, such as CSFs, and is discussed further in later in this section.

Cross River Strategy (Queensland Transport, Main Roads and BCC 2003)

Whilst this document was not referred to explicitly by those interviewed, it is likely that it informed those responsible for the planning of the Eleanor Schonell Bridge, and has thus been included here. This report provides a list of potential impact mapping criteria (Table 5.1) which are relevant to the current process of addressing sources of project objectives and indicators.

Table 5-1– Example of impact mapping (Queensland Transport, Main Roads and BCC 2003, p.25) Goal Criteria A. Environmental Impacts Local air pollution Global air pollution Noise Landscape/Visual intrusion Indigenous and other heritage Water quality Biodiversity B. Safety Accidents C. Transport Efficiency Project Cost Travel time and vehicle operating costs Travel time costs Accident costs Service quality D. Economic Development Freight transport cost Reliability of travel Impact of land use E. Accessibility Effect on use of public transport Effect on walking and cycling Vehicle-kilometres of travel Congestion mix F. City Amenity Cross-town traffic passing through the City Visual amenity Land-use changes Built environment and lifestyle G. Social Impacts Impact on communities Indication of who gains and who loses from the project Indication of who gains and loses from the temporal distribution of costs and benefits

- 124 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Transport Plan for Brisbane 2002-2106 (BCC 2002a)

This Plan includes sections relating to each of six Strategic Objectives, these being Quality Public Transport; Managed Travel Demand; Coordinated Transport and Land Use; A Safe and Efficient Road Network; Delivering the Goods on Time to the Right Place; and More Clean and Green Personal Transport.

BCC Corporate Plan 2006-20010 (BCC 2006b)

This document presents BCC’s plan over a four year time frame from the year of publication. The report lists indicators against each of the sixteen city-wide outcomes, which are both quantitative and qualitative in nature. It does not typically include any measurables or targets. It also presents the thirteen program areas in BCC. Of specific interest is the Moving Brisbane program. Measurables associated with this include quantitative indicators for the physical transport network, public transport usage and satisfaction, and green and active transport KPIs. It presents projects, strategies, initiatives, outcomes and agendas for the period of the Corporate Plan, and references other relevant documents such as the Transport Plan for Brisbane.

Green Bridge Link Impact Assessment Statement (IAS) (BCC 2003a)

This is a comprehensive document which highlights issues and impacts, and establishes both quantitative and qualitative measures for assessment of project impact. Section 10 of the Executive Summary of this document states that ‘the costs and benefits of the project have been assessed using quantitative methods (cost- benefit analysis) and qualitative methods (multi-criteria analysis)’. The methodology for the cost-benefit analysis was ‘in general accordance with the guidelines set out in the Cost Benefit Analysis Manual for Road Infrastructure Investment (Queensland Department of Main Roads, 1999)’ (p.76) and concluded that ‘all four Green Bridge options perform strongly in terms of economic feasibility and prove to be robust under a ‘worst case’ sensitivity analysis’ (p.77). The criteria for the qualitative multi-criteria analysis ‘were designed to be inclusive of all factors identified as pertinent to the proposal, including the transport task, local and regional impacts, cost and constructability’ (p.77). The criteria listed in Table 10.2 of the IAS Executive Summary were:

- 125 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

 Links with trip generators  Patronage growth potential  Value to the transport network  Local amenity and project impacts  Support of complementary development  Ease and success of implementation  Project cost  Future opportunities  The Contract

These represent a set of criteria that were considered applicable at the Detailed Feasibility Phase of the project for measuring performance.

Green Bridge Link SPeAR® Assessment (City Design 2003)

This report was prepared as a part of the detailed feasibility phase of this project. It provides Headline Indicators and Objectives for this project (Table 5-2).

- 126 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Table 5-2 – Green Bridge SPeAR Assessment headline indicators (City Design 2003) Environment Air Quality Improve overall air quality through means such as changes to energy Production, reducing vehicle emissions and promoting more efficient processes. Land Use Efficient utilisation of land, for example. developing previously used land, inclusion of mixed-use facilities and integrating with the surrounding context of the area. Water To ensure the integrity of water discharges from the site through the management of natural site water cycles and effluent wastes. Ecological and Manage ecology and cultural heritage issues through means such as habitat Cultural Conservation, maintaining biodiversity and conserving cultural heritage. Heritage Design and Implement sustainable design practices through the use of appropriate assessment Operation techniques, sustainable technology, sustainable management principles and the optimization and reuse of materials. Transport Encourage people to walk, cycle or use public transport more through the provision of facilities to compliment these objectives. Natural resources Materials To use natural resources more efficiently through the reduction of raw material usage and an increase in reuse and recyclinq of materials. Water To safeguard water as a renewable resource through reducing water use and water loss, maintaining the integrity of water returned to water resource, and consideration of sustainable water supply. Energy To reduce energy consumption through the introduction of energy saving mechanisms and through optimizing the use of alternative energy sources (e.g. renewable). Land To encourage efficient utilisation of land through reducing wastes sent to landfill, Utilisation remediation of contaminated sites and preservation of natural areas. Waste To manage waste impacts through minimizing the amount of waste produced and the Hierarchy impact of this waste on the environment. Societal Inclusion To include the community in the project and develop sustainable thinking in the community through developing local supply chains, community consultation and project reporting. Amenity Improvement of amenities through means such as improved leisure facilities, design in character with the area, quality of green space and reduction in traffic noise. Access To improve access to the site through improved connectivity, disabled access, key service location and public transport integration. Form and To create places and spaces that provides value to the community through improved Space security, provision of private and public spaces and cohesion. User Comfort / To ensure user comfort is built into the design through means such as user controls Satisfaction of the indoor environment, occupant feedback and comfort issues. Health and To satisfy occupational health and safety requirements and manage associated risks. Welfare Economic Viability To maximize the financial viability of the project. Competition To increase competition effects leading to a reduction in local and global monopoly Effects powers and a diversification of services providing a greater level of choice. Employees / Improve the employment and skills through increasing the level and diversity of Skills Base business opportunities, job numbers and employment conditions. Transport To reduce dependency on the need to travel by facilitating a modal shift to public transport and optimizing the efficiency of freight transport to site. Social benefits To improve the vitality of the local area through means such as supporting existing / Costs services, reduction in crime levels and improving economic infrastructure.

No measurables or mechanisms for reporting on performance to these objectives were found in the documentation.

- 127 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Green Bridge Economic Analysis (Veitch Lister Consulting 2004)

This analysis provides a series of performance indicators related to the economic costs and the economic benefits of the project (Table 5.3). Quantifiable measures and targets are available for each of these.

Table 5-3 – Green Bridge Economic Analysis performance indicators (Veitch Lister Consulting 2004) Economic Costs Capital Change in bus operating costs Change in Road Maintenance and Rehabilitation Costs Economic Car Vehicle Operating Cost Savings benefits Bus/Truck Vehicle Operating Cost Savings Car User Benefits Commercial Vehicle user Benefits Accident Costs Savings Walk/Cycle User Benefits PT User Benefits Greenhouse Gas Emission Cost Savings Other Gas Emissions Cost Savings

Review of Green Bridge Mission, Objectives and Targets (BCC 2005e)

This is the only document discovered that aligns project objectives to the Living in Brisbane 2010 themes, and was developed prior to the Business Case (Version 3) being prepared. They were intended to update the IAS objectives and targets which had been developed two years previously, following consultation with both internal and external stakeholders. Table 5-4 presents the pre-business case (Version 3) objectives, developed as part of the detailed feasibility phase of this project.

- 128 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Table 5-4 – Contribution to 2010 - Green Bridge objectives (BCC 2005e) An accessible city provide improved competitiveness to public transport, cycling and walking for commuting to and from the University of Queensland improve connectivity between the CBD and major urban activity centres improve access to the Brisbane River, CityCat and ferry services enhance integration and connectivity between pedestrian, cycle, rails, bus and ferry infrastructure An active and healthy city complete an inner-city pedestrian and cycle circuit consistent with the Riverwalk strategy provide better pedestrian and cycle linkages expanded opportunities for current and planned cycling and walking paths A city designed for subtropical living design for a subtropical climate including provision for shade, outdoor recreation and drinking water A city of inclusive communities enhance the Brisbane’s public transport network by more closely aligning public transport products with the city’s travel needs provide a more direct and improved link between the University of Queensland’s St Lucia campus for commuters from Brisbane’s northern, southern and eastern communities enhance connectivity and minimize severance help build social capacity by encouraging networks and connectivity A clean and green city promote sustainable transport make travel demand generated by the University of Queensland’s St Lucia Campus a sustainable activity utilize sustainable design and construction practices including water sensitive design and run- off management, habitat protection and maintenance and minimal use of non-renewable energy A creative city promote Brisbane as a creative city through innovative planning, policy and design A regional and world city promote and enhance the regional significance of the University of Queensland St Lucia Campus within the city through the provision of appropriate levels of transport infrastructure A smart and prosperous city enhance the site development potential of the Boggo Road Precinct and the Princess Alexandra Hospital site improve access to and between activities contributing to Brisbane as a smart and prosperous city, in particular The University of Queensland and associated knowledge-based activity

In the course of both interviews and document review no measurables were discovered which were assigned to these objectives. The documentation did not specify what (i) stakeholders are involved with; (ii) who is responsible for the development of this revised set of project objectives, nor (iii) who is responsible for ensuring delivery to these objectives.

Associated with these was a set of five performance objectives (Table 5.5).

- 129 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Table 5-5 – Green Bridge performance objectives (BCC 2005e) Increase the proportion of persons travelling to The University of Queensland’s St Lucia Campus using sustainable modes of transport (public transport, walking and cycling). Reduce UQ related private vehicle movements through the Brisbane CBD and St Lucia. Reduce demand for parking generated by the St Lucia Campus and on-street parking intrusion in Dutton Park, Fairfield and St Lucia. Improve travel times and reliability for bus patron, pedestrians and cyclists currently forced to travel longer, more congested routes to the St Lucia Campus. Reduce congestion on the inner-western road network.

Quantifiable primary targets were then provided for trips and trip types, including for sustainable forms of transport (Table 5.6).

Table 5-6 – Green Bridge project primary targets (BCC 2005e) In 2007 the Green Bridge will carry: 16,347 trips per day average semester day. 6,200 pedestrian and cyclist trips per average semester day. 10,147 bus passenger trips per average semester day. In 2007 travel to and from the University will change by: An 8.2% increase in the proportion of sustainable transport (public transport, walking & cycling) trips to 48.4%. A 6.1% increase in the proportion of bus trips to 29.60%. A 5% increase in the proportion of pedestrian and cycle trips to 17.9%.

Such measurables and targets can be integrated into the value-mapping framework, as applicable.

Green Bridge Project – Values and Behavioural Expectations (John Holland and BCC 2003)

These values and behaviours are important to the value mapping process in that they provide the functional background to the day-to-day decision-making by the delivery team. They were derived jointly between BCC and John Holland (the contractor). (Table 5-7 and 5-8).

Table 5-7 – Green Bridge project values (John Holland and BCC 2003) Respect for people Courage to make a difference Working together Getting things done Value for money

- 130 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Table 5-8 – Green Bridge behavioural expectations An environment of open, trustful and constructive communication will be maintained for the life of the project. All reporting will be presented honestly and accurately enabling well-considered decisions and actions to be undertaken. All Project Delivery Team members will respect each others views and achieve “Best for Project” outcomes. A ‘No Blame’ culture where active participation is encouraged, will underpin team solutions to project issues. The project budgets will be protected as a priority, utilizing design and/or construction alternatives to offset budget overruns. Alternative design and construction solutions will be considered positively with an open mind having due regard to project objectives and value for money. The Project Team will strive to identify alternatives which may deliver net benefits to the project. All decisions and approvals will be given in as timely manner as possible, having due regard to construction progress. All team members will conduct themselves and promote actions which appropriately consider the community and other stakeholders. We are a ‘guest in the community’. All issues of potential conflict will be openly and respectfully addressed at the earliest possible opportunity, by the appropriate level of management. Safety is a project priority and a ‘Zero Harm’ objective will guide all project team decisions and actions. All construction work will be undertaken so as to minimise impact on the environment.

Contract No. K40081-03/04 – Green Bridge Link Project (BCC 2003b)

Three specific parts of this contract were considered relevant, and are discussed below.

(1) Annexure 2: Part 1: Project Scope Part 1: Principal’s Requirements

This section provides a clearly articulated set of project objectives which were often referred to by those interviewed (BCC 2003b, Annexure 2 Part 1, p.2):

 To enhance to effectiveness of Brisbane’s public transport network, and more closely align public transport products with the region’s travel needs;  To increase the public transport mode share;  To encourage active and healthy transport (i.e. cycling and walking) in the study area;  To provide better linkages and expanded opportunities for current and planned cycling and walking paths for commuting and recreational purposes;  To provide a direct link between the University of Queensland St Lucia campus for commuters from Brisbane’s southern and eastern communities;  To reduce private vehicle movements through the Brisbane CBD for those St Lucia commuters from Brisbane’s southern and eastern communities;  To integrate and enhance connectivity between rail, bus and ferry infrastructure;  To complete a key link in the inner-city pedestrian and cycle circuit consistent with the Riverwalk Strategy, and improve access to the Brisbane river and CityCat ferry service;

- 131 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

 To provide a greater choice of travel mode for commuting to and from the University of Queensland;  To enhance the site development potential of the Boggo Road Precinct and the Princess Alexandra Hospital site;  To provide connectivity between the CBD and major urban activity centres;  To reduce congestion on the inner-western road network;  To attenuate the demand for parking within the University of Queensland campus;  To manage the level of on-street parking within the University of Queensland campus;  To improve travel time and reliability for bus patrons, pedestrians and cyclists currently forced to travel longer, more congested routes; and  To increase the number of pedestrians and bicycles trips to and from the University of Queensland St Lucia campus.”

(2) Annexure 12: Part 2 Contract Administration

This section includes details of Common Values and Behaviours (Figure 5.2) the roles and responsibilities of the Project Management Group (PMG), and the Project Executive Group (PEG); and details the Contractor’s interaction with the Principal and Superintendent in the Design Development Phase. The Common Values and Behaviours build upon those presented previously in and were now formalised as a part of the contract documentation. Some items can be identified as being captured for on-going direct reporting (e.g. develop and implement process of innovation).

- 132 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Figure 5-2 – Common values and behaviours (BCC 2003b Annexure 12 Part 2 pp.1-2)

(3) Annexure 13 Part 2 – Environmental Management and Sustainability

Table 2 (Environmental and Sustainability Objectives and Compliance) of this Annexure lists a set of eighteen requirements, and/or aims and measures to be included in the design. These are:

 Undertake Life Cycle Analysis in accordance with ISO 14040  Storm-water runoff collected shall be used to irrigate vegetated areas within the project areas  Bio-retention/vegetation will be provided in the centre of the bus station turning area  Overland flows through Dutton Park shall be directed through vegetation.  A triple interceptor shall be used to treat storm-water runoff from the drop-off car park area  A water efficient irrigation system, which minimizes maintenance, shall be installed where required

- 133 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

 Maximize user comfort through the use of natural heating, cooling and natural ventilation.  Macro climatic data including wind, rainfall and temperatures etc. shall be obtained for the site.  Construction materials shall be selected for durability, recycled content and their ability to be dismantled, re-used and recycled.  Sensors to measure lighting levels shall be used to control dimming systems to adjust lighting levels based on the penetration of daylight.  The Contractor shall demonstrate a commitment to skills development and training.  The site will be energy neutral through the use of photo-voltaic cells using a converter and channelling back into the grid.  Minimise landscape and visual impacts.  Improve connection with the environment and the community.  Preserve and enhance existing flora and fauna.  Provide for safety and well being of workers and the general public.  Community Consultation.

No formal mechanism was found by the researcher which specifically linked each of these stated aims to on-going report, though all are likely to be actioned in some way. It is, in part, this lack of an auditable trail between stated intents, and actual reporting, that the value-mapping framework seeks to address.

Green Bridge Monthly Project Management Reports

The Project Management Group (PMG) prepared monthly reports for distribution to the Project Executive Group (PEG) and other key stakeholders. Items reported on represent the key issues for management reporting for the project implementation phase (Table 5-9).

Table 5-9 – Monthly project report topics (Green Bridge Monthly Project Management report) Milestones Achieved Design Progress Highlights Construction Progress Highlights Notable Issues Safety Financial including Final Forecast Cost Analysis, Risk and Opportunity Analysis Optimum Time Management Strategy – including commentary on the critical path and changes in float Community and Stakeholder Issues – including comments on key stakeholder interfaces with the University of Queensland, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Boggo Road and Queensland Transport; and complaints received. Productivity indicators Relationship and contractual matters Council related issues and associated projects Resourcing, Industrial Relations, Quality Assurance and Environmental Management

- 134 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

The link between these topics, and those aims, objectives, values and the like previously identified, is not readily apparent. A link to Brisbane City Council’s corporate objectives, is also not readily accessible for reporting purposes.

Green Bridge Project Management Dashboard Reports

The Dashboard Reports were a supplement to the PM Monthly Reports and were produced as a single A3 page using graphics or tables to highlight key information. This includes information regarding:

 Risks and Opportunities – listing top five risks and opportunities with associated costs.  Quality – listing key issues and associated outcomes; along with numbers of non-conformances and audits.  Health and Safety – including highlights Lost Time Injury Frequency Rates (LTIFR), Trip Risk Injury Frequency Rates (TRIFR), Job Safety Analyses (JSA’s) completed to date; toolbox meetings to date, and hours worked on site.  Environmental – listing key issues and associated outcomes; along with numbers of incidents and audits.  Community – graphs the number of 1800 calls and complaints.  Achievements and Threats – listing achievements, threats and intervention strategy under the following five headings – Community, Human resources, Design, Procurement, Construction and program  Earned Value versus Actual Cost  Variations  Team Performance  Project Performance (Time)

These Dashboard Reports reflect the critical issues for project reporting, and were determined by the Project Management Group and Project Executive Group. All items in this report were measurable and reportable in a quantitative manner.

5.2.2.2 Semi-formal interviews

Five semi-formal interviews were held with corporate strategy staff of BCC (Section 3.3.3.1) to discuss how corporate objectives, values and outcomes of the organisation, were established and articulated, and to map the corporate decision-making environment. The outcomes of this initial step in the proposed value-making framework have been discussed in Section 4.1.1.1, and have been directly applied in Case 1.

- 135 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

A further twenty-one interviews were held with project team members (Appendix 1.2) to:

i. identify a set of factors which could be considered as key performance indicators or critical success factors for the project. ii. establish high-level project-based process maps to better describe the complex decision-making environment of a major project.

Critical success factors for Case 1

This was undertaken in order to identify (i) what performance indicators currently existed for Case 1, and (ii) any existing links between project performance indicators and corporate objectives (Section 5.3.2). The responses from those interviewed have been collated and are presented in Appendix 2. These were further consolidated based on the review of documentation, and knowledge gained from the review of literature in this field (Section 2.4.2). They were then verified in interview with key team participants in Case 1 (Table 5.10).

Project-based process maps

A series of high-level project-based process maps (Appendix 3) were developed as an outcome of the interviews undertaken. These were refined based upon information gathered from the review of project documents. There development was informed by the knowledge obtained from the review of literature (Section 2. 3.3). They were verified in interview with key project participants.

- 136 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Table 5-10 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge – Indicators, measurables and actions KPIs / CSFs Sub-Factors Measurables Actions Financial / Economic Risk Risk Allocation – Issues and Costs listed in monthly Dashboard and PM Risk & Opportunity Workshops and Assessments and Analysis; Management Pain-Share / reports Value Engineering workshops Gain-Share Risk Assessment Risk

Management Delivery to TCE Target Cost As above On-going Final Forecast Cost Analysis; Open Book policy; Earned Estimate Value Financial Performance Monitoring Environmental Environmental Environmental Issues, Outcomes, Incidents and Audits reported in Monthly Baseline & spot check monitoring; survey of lost habitats & affected Protection Protection PM and Dashboard reports fauna; Environmental Spill Drills; Tree Management Plan

People The People Persistence Resolution of issues due to ownership of bid and design John Holland bid and operational team involved in both processes. decisions Commitment Delivery to (or under) time, cost, quality and safety targets Integrated Accessibility Co-habitation in Site Office with Open Door policy Project Team Team One Team apparel; whole of team training and recognition One Team apparel; whole of team training and recognition events (One Team) Recognition events

Team D&C Innovations recorded in the PM Monthly Report; Alignment workshop between PEG and PMG; involvement in Empowerment integrated project team workshops to resolve issues strategic workshopping & think tanks Relationships Monthly Team Health Checks; One Team workshops to Shared Mission Statement; Clear Project Objectives; Values & resolve issues Behavioural Chart; Foundation Workshop; Internal management of issues Experience & Delivery to (or under) time, cost, quality and safety targets JH selection of key resources for bid and construction Expertise Values & Values and Monthly Team Health Checks Values and behavioural Expectations Behavioural Behaviours Expectations Respect Good Union relationships; whole of team recognition events EBA conditions; whole of team training and recognition events

Safety LTIFR & TRIFR on Monthly Dashboard report Site Inductions; Toolbox Meetings; Team Training & Milestone Celebration; Safety First focus throughout project

- 137 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

KPIs / CSFs Sub-Factors Measurables Actions Management Project Delivery Relationship Monthly Team Health Checks; Delivery to (or under) time, As documented in Contract documentation Based Contract cost, quality and safety targets delivery Flexibility in Additional $3M worth of work within project TP On-going engagement with internal & external stakeholders; team Delivery decision making; value management PEG / PMG Delivery to (or under) time, cost, quality and safety targets Roles and responsibilities as detailed in Contract Documentation structure Project Delivery to (or under) time, cost, quality and safety targets Established by PEG and work-shopped with PMG Objectives Independent Involvement of Independent Verifier in meetings and reviews Verification Programming Detail Construction Program updates and Critical Path Monitoring Construction Program updates and Critical Path Monitoring including Construction Sub Programs Programming Contractor Ethical behaviour Philosophy Co-operational PMG and PEG operations; Delivery to (or under) time, cost, Values and Behaviours as a part of contract documentation not quality and safety targets Confrontational Skilled Client Consistent PMG and PEG operations; Delivery to (or under) time, cost, Credible Client quality and safety targets MIPO Process Engagement of additional resources for Community Stakeholder; & to provide interface between bridge & associated projects

Value Value Delivery to (or under) time, cost, quality and safety targets Value Management Workshops Engineering Engineering Design and Pre-tender On-site within 2 months of award; Value Management John Holland Bid and Operational team were involved in both Construct Process workshops in early 2005; Resolution of issues as processes. Process consequence of bid/ops team liaison Contractor Design and Construction Innovations; Delivery to (or under) Integrated project team workshops Involvement in time, cost, quality and safety targets Design Aesthetic Clear objectives Outcomes Temporary Design progress; low LTIFR Construction Methodology Team Works Design and Planning

- 138 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

KPIs / CSFs Sub-Factors Measurables Actions Design and 3D Graphical Design progress; low LTIFR Fully 3D documentation of temporary works and final design detail Construct Model Process cont’d Structural Modelling Intelligent Transport. System Construction Construction Onsite progress as reported in Monthly PM Report; Just in Construction Methodology Team Methodology sequencing time delivery of materials to program Off-site Just in time delivery of materials to program Fabrication Political Support Bipartisan support Second round of public consultation Stakeholder Internal Continued design changes later than contractor On-going engagement Management Stakeholder programming initially planned Management Community Reporting in both Dashboard and Monthly PM Reports on Additional resources to manage community engagement; Monthly Consultation / community issues including 1800 calls and complaints Community Liaison Group meetings; Weekly updates to indigenous Engagement owners; Interaction with MS Society Media interface Minimal negative media Additional resources to manage community interface

- 139 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

5.3. Identifying the ‘real-world problem’

Having established a set of indicators for Case 1, the outcomes of this first round of action-taking can be analysed with reference to the literature and fieldwork.

5.3.1. Reflections on the literature

Based on the review of literature, with specific reference to the corporate responsibility and indicator themes (Chapter 2), a set of key issues relevant to the establishment of corporately accountable performance indicators for a major economic infrastructure project have been established. These need to account for macro and micro-scale issues; recognise hard and soft performance issues; enable continuity of objectives for the life of the project; are accountable to a broad spectrum of stakeholders; and are measurable and actionable. Anderson (1991) also discusses criteria for good indicators, which was used to inform background thinking (Section 2.3.2).

Linking macro and micro-scale issues

This is required in order to address the broader potential impacts (e.g. regional impacts) of a project. Arts and Lamoen (2005) discuss the need to link strategic and project objectives. This requires a more strategic approach to the development of project objectives, addressing issues beyond those of the traditional project footprint. This may result in the identification of other project opportunities, outside the financial or contractual scope of the project becoming apparent, which either directly or indirectly benefit project outcomes.

Recognition of both hard and soft performance issues

Recognition, acknowledgement and monitoring of both quantitative and qualitative performance issues (e.g. profitability and social impact) is required to achieve a balance across the economic, environmental and social realms. Whilst indicators which can either be monetized or physicalised are more readily considered in the context of project decision-making, the softer (i.e. intangible) issues need to be given equal recognition in the context of delivering of the corporate aspirations and goals of public sector organizations in Australia. This is recognized by Chan and Chan (2004, p. 209) in their framework for project success.

- 140 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Continuity of objectives through project life

The need to enable continuity to objectives across the various project stages, from project inception to benefits realization (and potentially on to deconstruction or decommissioning), is proposed to ensure that corporate objectives and values can be accounted for throughout project life. This is linked to the issues of corporate responsibilities and accountabilities addressed by Engen and DiPiazza (2005) and Holme and Watts (2000). New participants typically enter the project supply chain at each of the differing planning, design and delivery stages. Through establishing a set of measurable objectives and indicators early in the project life cycle, which reflect corporate objectives, these can be used not only to monitor and report on project performance, but to communicate corporate intent and values as new participants enter the project supply chain.

Stakeholder accountability

The ability to account for needs and aspirations of all the various project stakeholders is important for several reasons as discussed in part by Sanvido, Grobler et al. (1992) and Chan and Chan (2004). Major projects have a complex array of impacts, some of which are immediately tangible, and others which can only be forecast. Consideration of this broader array of stakeholder demands is when realized, and those on whom the impact may be felt for the next 50-100 years. It thus suggests a need to accept the complexity and uncertainty of this interplay, which may be done through acknowledging and working with current complexity.

Be measurable and actionable

Much of the literature spoke to the need for objectives and indicators to be readily measurable. Care needs to be taken to ensure this does not result in objectives and indicators which cannot be monetized or physicalised being omitted from an indicator set. Whilst multi-criteria analysis and the like seeks to account for qualitative indicators, there is also a need to ensure that the narratives associated with some qualitative criteria are given equal credibility in the decision-making process.

- 141 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Representative diversity

O’Connor and Spangenberg (2007) discuss “representative diversity” with regards to stakeholders. They use this in the context of a discussion on the number of indicators required for a reporting system. The ability to more fully represent this diversity is a key point of differentiation between what the real-world problem being addressed by this research, and that addressed in the past by other sustainability or success-based indicator frameworks. The proposed value-mapping is intended to establish a framework for reporting which links project outcomes to corporate intent, and thus presents a broader narrative than is provided by the former approaches.

5.3.2. Reflections on the fieldwork

Issues which were identified as arising from Case 1 fieldwork include (i) the number of different indicator sets discovered by the researcher; (ii) the clarity of purpose of each of the indicator sets; (iii) the limited assignment of measurables to the indicators; and (iv) the lack of a demonstrable link between corporate objectives and project objectives.

Multiple indicator sets

Seven sets of project specific indicators were discovered for varying stages of the planning, design and delivery of the project, with links between the various sets of indicators being limited. Explicit reference is made between only two of these sets, namely (i) those contained in the Green Bridge Mission, Objectives and Targets document (2005e); and (ii) those in the Green Bridge Impact Assessment Statement (BCC 2003a).

The use of multiple sets of objectives and indicators is sector–wide practice is evidenced also in the review of literature (Section 2.4.2) where much of the literature reveals that indicator sets are often developed for a specific purpose, for example, for a specific project phase or to account for success for a specific stakeholder. It is proposed however, that this lack of explicit continuity, in terms of a set of measurables against which overall project outcomes and impacts can be measured, does not facilitate a transparent and accountable appreciation of project performance.

- 142 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Clarity of purpose

Different sets of objectives and indicators were used for differing purposes including (i) to identify aspirations (e.g. the SPeAR sustainability indicators (BCC 2003a); (ii) for reporting for organisational purposes (e.g. the Green Bridge Mission, Objectives and Targets, BCC 2005e); and (iii) to measure performance for contractual purposes (e.g. Project Management reporting and BCC 2003b).

Whilst differing objectives and measurables for each different purpose is valid (as supported by academic literature and industry practice), the value-mapping framework being proposed by this research develops a measurement framework with an indicator set including the corporate objective; the project objective and associated indicators which remains consistent throughout the life of the project, forming a ‘narrative’ which can clearly communicate project intent, within the corporate context, whilst providing relevant and practical tracking of project performance.

Limited assignment of measurables

There was a lack of consistency in the way in which measurables where assigned to indicators, if at all. The most rigorous application of measurables was in the contractual phase where performance was monitored and reported on, on a monthly basis. The literature consistently supports the need for realistic measurables in order for effective outcomes (Section 2.5). Whilst it may not be possible to identify the quantum of the measurable in the early phases of a project, this can be flagged for future application when appropriate information is available. Additionally, it is acknowledged that measurables may need to change dependent upon project phase, but a framework which tracks these changes are feasible. And finally, where current practice and/or knowledge may not be able to effectively identify a measurable, this should not result in an indicator being considered unworthy, when other issues (such as accountability or stakeholder intent) require the issue or impact to be addressed.

Values and behaviours

Two explicit sets of values and behaviours were discovered relating to the performance of the project team. The first being that of the project owner (BCC) and

- 143 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge the second being part of the Contract for the project with John Holland. Performance to these behaviours and values is reflected in some of the identified KPIs/CSFs (e.g. related to social and/or environmental values, or to interpersonal relationships). It is important in the context of a framework which relates to corporate responsibility, to ensure that information relating to corporate and project values and behaviours are included as a part of the proposed value-mapping narrative.

Formal linkages between corporate and project outcomes

As previously stated, the intent of this exploratory fieldwork, in part, is to identify what project team members considered as the key performance indicators or critical success factors for this project, and to identify what links, if any, exists back to the LiB2010 corporate objectives, and organisational values. The only set of objectives or indicators that make an explicit reference to the LiB 2010 themes is the Green Bridge Mission, Objectives and Targets document (2005a). Performance Objectives and Project Targets included in this document do not however link back to these corporate objectives, and no measurables and targets were formally assigned linking to the LiB 2010 themes. Where an organization has specific and stated corporate obligations, this lack of explicit measurables makes organizational accountability for project outcomes difficult to track and report on.

Additionally information regarding the measurables and actions associated with these criteria has been consolidated in the course of this research. Table 5.10 outlines both the performance indicator themes and sub-factors pertinent to the design and construction phase of the Eleanor Schonell Bridge, along with measurables and actions identified from both documentation and interview.

5.4. Addressing the ‘real-world problem’

Based on the above reflections, the real-world problem identified is the need to develop a framework with the ability to identify, track and report on the alignment between project and corporate objectives, in order to ensure transparency and accountability in the delivery of major economic infrastructure projects.

In terms of the adapted inquiry cycle (Figure 3.2) the first iteration of the value- mapping framework equates to a ‘model of relevant purposeful activity’ (Checkland

- 144 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

2000) to address the perceived real-world problem. This framework takes account of the six weaknesses in the determination of critical success factors identified by Jefferies, Gameson et al. (2002), which were considered relevant within the context of monitoring project performance. The identified weaknesses are (i) subjectivity; (ii) bias; (iii) human inability to process complex information; (iv) change in relation to the surrounding environments; (v) time dependency; imprecise definitions, generalizations; and (vi) qualitative performance measures (p.354). Considering some of these as weaknesses directly challenges the need for corporate responsibility to address the less tangible elements of accounting, but contributes to establishing a rigor in thinking and framework development.

i. Subjectivity - through establishing a formal iterative process which can be documented, and is reviewed periodically, the issue of subjectivity can be addressed in a transparent and accountable manner.

ii. Bias - through using pre-existing and stated corporate objectives and outcomes as a starting point for a set of project-based performance indicators, a tendency to bias can be addressed. Further, through defining a process for the creation of a set of project objectives, which remain constant throughout the project, further bias along the project supply chain can be countered.

iii. Addressing complexity - through presenting a broader picture via the value- mapping narrative, rather than a more reductionist dashboard report, a fuller narrative in regards to project intent can be addressed and communicated.

iv. Environmental and temporal variations - the reporting framework can capture both environmental and temporal changes in the course of project delivery through ensuring a transparent and accountable audit trail of decisions made over time.

v. Definitions and understanding - through establishing the narrative, rather than a single word or short phrase, understandings and intent can be better communicated. The narrative includes the corporate objective (for strategic context); the project objective (for project context, derived through an iterative, facilitated process involving key stakeholders) and the indicator (against which an explicit measurable can be assigned, and based on pre- existing corporate outcomes).

vi. Measurement - whilst Jefferies, Gameson et al. (2002) consider the use of qualitative measures as a potential weakness, it is proposed that, in the context of more sustainable accounting for project performance, these should be considered as a strength.

5.4.1.

- 145 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

5.4.2. The draft value-mapping framework

As discussed in Section 4.2, Case 1 identifies the reporting gap which exists between project outcomes and corporate objectives, and highlights the benefits of undertaking this activity. The knowledge gained from Case 1 and the review of literature has resulted in the first iteration of a framework to address this real-world problem. The following activities have been identified as part of this step along the inquiry cycle. These are:

 understanding the organisational context (Step 1 of the final framework).  identifying tools for enhancing accountability (Step 3 and 4 of the final framework).  identifying measurables and targets (Step 7 of the final framework).

One substantive difference between the draft and the final value-mapping framework (Figure 8.1), relates to the determination of the project objectives, and the role that that activity takes in the final value-mapping framework.

5.2.2.3 The organisational context

The requirement for this activity was to identify the corporate objectives, values and outcomes which the project objectives can link to and to understand the decision- making environment in which the project is being designed and delivered. This step is central to the generalisability of the framework to organizations other than that involved in the case studies. This first step is fully described in Section 4.2.1. The work on Case 1 for this step, then informed the Cases 2 and 3.

Project-based process maps

As discussed in Section 4.1.1.3, project-based process maps were established for Case 1 to represent to planning, design and delivery processes of this case.

As detailed in Section 3.3.3.1, semi-structured interviews were undertaken with key project personnel working on the Elleanor Schonell Bridge from November 2006 through to July 2007. Additionally key project documentation was reviewed, including:

- 146 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

 BCC Council and project files (BCC 1996, 2002b, 2003d, 2003e, 2003f, 2004-06, 2006-07) including preliminary assessments and reports (i.e. planning needs, economic analysis) from 2002-2007  Green Bridge Link - Impact Assessment Study. (BCC 2003a)  Business Case Green Bridge Link - Commercial in Confidence (BCC 2003c)  Contract No. K40081-03/04 – Green Bridge Link Project (BCC 2003b)  Green Bridge Link Project - Monthly Project Management and Dashboard Reports dating from March 2005 to September 2006

This information has been distilled into a series of helicopter-view process maps (Appendices 3.1-3.7) to present the key decision-making processes and highlight potential intervention points at which the outputs of the value-mapping process can be reviewed and reported on. These maps have then been verified (and refined) as part of the semi-formal interview process. Each interviewee indicated a high degree of enthusiasm for the outcomes of the capture process.

An overview process map has then been constructed (Figure 5.3) to provide a snapshot of the process mapping information gathered. This map aggregates both corporate and project-based information, and is intended as a diagram rather than a time line (as previously explained in Section 4.2.1).

- 147 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Figure 5-3 – Case 1 - Overview process map

- 148 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

5.2.2.4 Identifying tools for enhancing accountability

The purpose of enhancing accountabilities has been discussed in detail in Section 4.2.3. Case 1 research reveals the lack of a consolidated, traceable accountability trail relating to (i) an understanding of the broader possible impacts of a major project on the supply chain and beyond the traditional project footprint; and (ii) enhanced identification and engagement with stakeholders (both internal and external).

Engen and DiPiazza (2005) highlight the need for enhanced governance controls through identifying weaknesses in current mechanisms:

- Stakeholder engagement is failing to produce real learning to help companies innovate and drive changes in business strategy; - Governance mechanisms need to embrace the broadening accountability agenda, and lead to decisions which change corporate behaviour; - Business strategies need to be aligned to sustainable development; - Performance management needs to include incentives aligned with sustainable development policies and goals; - Independent assurance needs to add more value; and - Public reporting needs to improve dramatically to become more useful and credible. (Engen and DiPiazza 2005, p.10)

As discussed in Section 4.2.3, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) provides three tools to assist organisations in better understanding their responsibilities, accountabilities and impacts. These are:

 Spheres of Influence  Accountability mapping  Stakeholder foot-printing

These three tools have been adapted for use in the value-mapping framework. They have been identified as part of Case 1 activity, and remained integral throughout each iteration of the tool. Their application was retrospective in this case, due to the fact that the project is in its implementation phase (and thus the role was not fully explored until Case 3, when the framework was implement earlier in the project life- cycle).

- 149 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Spheres of Influence

Information has been gathered from both interview and documentation to input into the ‘spheres of influence’ diagram. One identified benefit is in visually representing the extent of the interactions between a project and each of the four arenas of influence (i.e. company, laws and regulations, market and society’s expectations). Figure 5.4 illustrates the application of tool on Case 1.

Figure 5-4 – Case 1 - Spheres of Influence (Adapted from Engen and DiPiazza 2005, p.6)

5.2.2.5 Accountability mapping

The second tool derived from the WBCSD is the accountability map (Table 5.11). The requirement for a tool to track accountabilities for the delivery of the various objectives and indicators has been identified from both the literature and in the course of Case 1 activity.

- 150 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Table 5-11 - Case 1 – Accountability map (Adapted from Engen and DiPiazza 2005, p.9) Adapted from Engen 2005 Mapping Accountability

Green Bridge Project Objectives Cross- Who is Accountable Through what With what (Business Case V3) To whom? functional account-able? for what? mechanism? outcomes? Corporate Objectives Objectives connection?

Improved competitiveness to public transport, cycling/walking to/from UQ Improve connectivity between the CBD & major urban activity centres Improve access to the Brisbane River, CityCat & ferry services Enhance integration & connectivity between pedestrian, cycle, rail, bus & ferry infrastructure Reduce UQ related private vehicle movements through the CBD; Reduce congestion on the inner western road network Accessible City City Accessible Improve travel times & reliability for bus, ped. & cyclists Reduce demand for parking generated by UQ & on-street parking intrusions in adjacent suburbs Complete inner-city pedestrian & cycle circuit Better pedestrian & cycle linkages; expanded opportunities for cycle/ped. paths Provide for the safety & well-being of workers & public affected by the road or traffic Active &

Healthy City Satisfy occupational health & safety requirements & manage associated risks Provision for shade, outdoor recreation & drinking water Harvest stormwater, use on surrounding parklands Improve the vitality of the local area Preserve and enhance existing flora and fauna Living Living

Sub-Tropical More closely align public transport products with travel needs; More direct link between UQ for commuters from Brisbane's north, south & east Help build social capacity by encouraging networks & connectivity

City of Create spaces/places that provide value to the community Inclusive

Communities Avoid disturbing areas of significance for cultural, religious , indigenous peoples, or local community purposes

- 151 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Adapted from Engen 2005 Mapping Accountability

Green Bridge Project Objectives Cross- Who is Accountable Through what With what (Business Case V3) To whom? functional account-able? for what? mechanism? outcomes? Corporate Objectives Objectives connection?

Promote sustainable transport; Increase proportion of persons travelling to UQ using sustainable mode of transport; Make UQ travel demand a sustainable activity

Utilise sustainable design /construction practices; Reduce, reuse, Green &

Clean City recycle/ design for resource conservation Create an energy neutral bridge Promote Brisbane through innovative planning, policy & design City

Creative Promote / enhance regional significance of UQ through appropriate transport infrastructure City & World Regional Enhance site potential for Boggo Rd & PA Hosp Improve access to / between activities Maximise the financial viability of the project ous city Prosper Smart & Improve employment and skills base

- 152 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

The need was identified due to a lack of documentation articulating accountabilities for the delivery of project outcomes, especially with regard to fulfilment of the organizations corporate responsibilities as identified in the Living in Brisbane 2010 themes (BCC 2001a). As Case 1 was nearing the end of construction, there was little benefit to the organization or the project team in retrospectively identifying these accountabilities. This activity has been fully undertaken in Case 3 (Section 7.3.2).

5.2.2.6 Developing a stakeholder footprint

The third of the WBCSD adapted for use is the stakeholder foot-printing tool. Section 4.5.3 discusses that this is traditionally a somewhat intuitive and ad hoc process, being undertaken by professionals with a high degree of skill and experience. The benefit of incorporating this activity within the developing framework is to provide definition, traceability, and rigour to the process of stakeholder identification. This has been revealed by the researcher through the review of documentation, and acknowledged by those interviewed. A structured process is thus proposed as part of the value-mapping framework, in order to ensure that latent stakeholders may be discovered early in the project implementation process; and that a transparent record of deliberation is available.

The WBCSD tool was modified in the following ways for use in the value-mapping framework (Table 5.12):

i. The left-hand, vertical axis in the WBCSD tool lists key CSR issues. For the proposed value mapping framework, this vertical axis contains each of the identified project objectives, linked to corporate objectives. For Case 1, these are the eight BCC Living in Brisbane 2010 themes.

i. The top, horizontal axis of the WBCSD tool includes eight generic stakeholder groups. These groupings have been modified to represent generic groups relevant to the Australian public sector.

ii. A further column (on the right-hand vertical axis, detailing members of each of these groups has been subsequently added in Case 2 (Section 6.3.2).

- 153 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Table 5-12 – Case 1 - Stakeholder map (Adapted from Holme and Watts 2000, p.16) Stakeholders

Green Bridge Project Objectives (Business Case V3) Objectives Objectives BCC Corporate Ratepayers, constituents, Councillors Employees, Executive Customers Business Partners Suppliers Regional Councils State/ Fed. Government Lobbyists Communities Environment Improved competitiveness to public transport, cycling/walking to/from UQ Improve connectivity between the CBD & major urban activity centres Improve access to the Brisbane River, CityCat & ferry services Enhance integration & connectivity between pedestrian, cycle, rail, bus & ferry infrastructure Reduce UQ related private vehicle movements through the CBD; Reduce congestion on the inner western road network

Accessible City City Accessible Improve travel times & reliability for buses, pedestrians & cyclists Reduce demand for parking generated by UQ & on-street parking intrusions in adjacent suburbs Complete inner-city pedestrian & cycle circuit Better pedestrian & cycle linkages; Expanded opportunities for current/planned cycle/walking paths Cit Healthy

Active & Provide for the safety & well-being of workers & public affected by the road or traffic Satisfy occupational health & safety requirements & manage associated risks Provision for shade, outdoor recreation & drinking water

Harvest stormwater; use on surrounding parklands

Improve the vitality of the local area Living Living

Sub-Tropical Preserve and enhance existing flora and fauna

More closely align public transport products with travel needs; More direct link between UQ for commuters from Brisbane's north, south & east Help build social capacity by encouraging networks & connectivity

Create spaces/places that provide value to the community

Communities

City of Inclusive Avoid disturbing areas of significance for cultural, religious , indigenous peoples, or local community purposes

- 154 - Chapter 5 – Case 1 – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Stakeholders

Green Bridge Project Objectives (Business Case V3) Objectives Objectives BCC Corporate Ratepayers, constituents, Councillors Employees, Executive Customers Business Partners Suppliers Regional Councils State/ Fed. Government Lobbyists Communities Environment Promote sustainable transport; Increase proportion of persons travelling to UQ using sustainable mode of transport; Make UQ travel demand a sustainable activity

Utilise sustainable design /construction practices; Reduce, reuse, recycle/ design for

Green & resource conservation Clean City Create an energy neutral bridge Promote Brisbane through innovative planning, policy & design Creat- ive City ive City Promote / enhance regional significance of UQ through appropriate transport infrastructure World City World Regional &

Enhance site potential for Boggo Road & PA Hospital

it Improve access to/between activities Maximise the financial viability of the project Prosper Smart & Improve employment and skills base

XXX Strong interest XX Some interest X Weak interest

- 155 - Chapter 5 - Case 1 - Eleanor Schonell Bridge

5.2.2.7 Project objectives and indicators

The discovery of several sets of objectives in Case 1, typically not explicitly connected, highlights the need for a more rigorous process for the identification of project objectives and consequent indicators. As discussed in Section 3.4, key issues have emerged which inform this activity relate to (i) establishing some continuity of project intent and value, and (ii) recognizing the hierarchy of objectives from corporate objectives; to strategic objectives; to project objectives, which impact on project decision-making.

As Case 1 drew on these pre-existing sets of objectives for the first iteration of the value-mapping model, the important role of objective identification was not fully defined til Case 3 (Section 7.3). This activity then became Step 2 of the value- mapping framework (Figure 4.1) as it was for each of these objectives that accountabilities, stakeholders and indicators were developed.

Indicators have then been identified for each of the project objectives (based on Business Case - Version 3 objectives), through establishing a matrix between the project objectives and pre-existing corporate outcomes defined (Section 4.2.5). The latter were considered valid for use as they are typically (i) align with organisational objectives; (ii) are derived through a rigorous corporate BCC process; and (iii) are measurables in current use within the organization. Through prioritizing key relevancies between both axes, a set of key project-based indicators have been established, with a pre-existing relevance to organisational decision-making. Table 5.13 illustrates the indicator matrix as part Case 1 activity.

- 156 - Chapter 5 - Case 1 - Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Table 5-13 – Case 1 Indicator matrix

City-wide Outcomes for Brisbane

Green Bridge Project Objectives Indicators Clean air Food in the City Safe communities Sustainable water use Healthy river and bay Effective growth management zero Towards waste Inclusive, caring communities Outstanding city profile Cooperative governance Cleaner sustainable energy use Healthy economy Green and biodiverse city Better public health Learning and informed communities Effective road networks Well-designed responsive built env. Active & healthy communities Connected & engaged communities Green & active transport BCC Corporate Themes Improved competitiveness to public transport, Effective road networks: cycling/walking to/from UQ Connected and engaged communities: S M W M W S W M W S M Improve connectivity between the CBD & major Healthy economy: urban activity centres Effective road networks: Connected and engaged M M M M M W S S S M S communities: Improve access to the Brisbane River, CityCat & Safe communities: ferry services Connected and engaged communities: S W W W M W S M S S Green and active transport: Enhance integration & connectivity between Cooperative governance: pedestrian, cycle, rail, bus & ferry infrastructure Active and healthy communities: Green and active transport: S M S M M S M S Reduce UQ related private vehicle movements Clean air: An Accessible City City An Accessible through the CBD; Reduce congestion on the inner Effective growth management: western road network Effective road networks: S S M M S M M Improve travel times and reliability for bus Healthy economy: patrons, pedestrians and cyclists Effective road networks:

M S S S W Reduce demand for parking generated by UQ & Safe communities: on-street parking intrusions in adjacent suburbs

S M Complete inner-city pedestrian & cycle circuit Outstanding city profile: (Riverwalk) Better public health: W M M W S M S M S M M Active and healthy communities: Better pedestrian & cycle linkages; Expanded Well-designed responsive built opportunities for current/planned cycle/walking environment: paths Active and healthy communities: W W M M M M S S M M Provide for the safety and well-being of workers Safe communities: and general public who may be affected by the Better public health: road or traffic M S S S M Satisfy occupational health and safety Safe communities: An Active and Healthy City An Active and Healthy City requirements and manage associated risks S M M M Provision for shade, outdoor recreation & drinking Green and bio-diverse city: water Well designed responsive built M M M M S S M S M environment: Harvest stormwater and recycle for use on Sustainable water use: surrounding parklands Healthy river and bay: M S S M M S M Green and bio-diverse city Improve the vitality of the local area Effective growth management: Living Living Well designed responsive built M M M S M S S environment: Preserve and enhance existing flora and fauna Food in the city: Green and bio-diverse city:

City Designed for Sub-Tropical S S M M

- 157 - Chapter 5 - Case 1 - Eleanor Schonell Bridge

City-wide Outcomes for Brisbane

Green Bridge Project Objectives Indicators Clean air Food in the City Safe communities Sustainable water use Healthy river and bay Effective growth management zero Towards waste Inclusive, caring communities Outstanding city profile Cooperative governance Cleaner sustainable energy use Healthy economy Green and biodiverse city Better public health Learning and informed communities Effective road networks Well-designed responsive built env. Active & healthy communities Connected & engaged communities Green & active transport BCC Corporate Themes More closely align public transport products with Effective growth management: travel needs; More direct link between UQ for Clean sustainable energy use: commuters from Brisbane's north, south & east S M S M Effective road networks: Help build social capacity by encouraging Learning and informed networks & connectivity communities: Connected and engaged S M M M M S M S communities: Create spaces and places that provide value to Well-designed responsive built the community environment: Connected and engaged M S M M M W S W communities: Avoid disturbing areas of significance for cultural, Inclusive caring communities: religious , indigenous peoples, or local community Cooperative governance: City of Inclusive Communities purposes Learning and informed S M S S M M communities: Promote sustainable transport; Increase Cleaner sustainable energy use: proportion of persons travelling to UQ using Effective Road networks: sustainable mode of transport; Make UQ travel Green and Active transport: demand a sustainable activity S M S M W M M S Utilise sustainable design /construction practices; Sustainable water use: Reduce, reuse, recycle/ design for resource Towards zero waste: conservation Cleaner sustainable energy use: S M M S S M M M Create an energy neutral bridge Sustainable water use:

Green and Clean City Towards zero waste: Cleaner sustainable energy use: M S S S M M M Promote Brisbane through innovative planning, Outstanding city profile: policy & design Healthy economy:

City Well designed responsive built

Creative M M S M M M environment: Promote / enhance regional significance of UQ Effective growth management:

y through appropriate transport infrastructure Outstanding city profile:

Cit Cooperative governance: Regional

and World S S S M M M M M M Enhance site potential for Boggo Road and PA Effective growth management: Hospital sites Cooperative governance: Healthy economy: S S S M M M Improve access to/between activities contributing Effective growth management: to Brisbane as a smart & prosperous city Cooperative governance:

S S S M M M M Maximise the financial viability of the project Healthy Economy: Effective Road Networks:

Smart and prosperous city M M S M M M M Improve employment and skills base Outstanding city profile: Healthy economy: S S M S M M STRONG MODERATE WEAK NOT

S LINK M LINK W LINK APPLICABLE

- 158 - Chapter 5 - Case 1 - Eleanor Schonell Bridge

5.2.2.8 The value-map

The outcome of the value-mapping framework activities to this point is a framework which comprises a narrative, which links a corporate objective; to a project objective; to an indicator, against which measurables and targets can be assigned. The benefits demonstrated by the value-mapping process to this point, and the resultant indicator set are three-fold.

i. The creation of a rich narrative which can more clearly communicate corporate and project intent along the project supply chain.

ii. Through the inclusive process of creation, the narrative has the potential to better define the meaning and value of the project to the organisational owner.

iii. Through the application of measurables, targets and actions, a credible audit line can be documented for on-going reporting of performance to organisational objectives.

The value-map to this point is shown in Figure 5.14.

- 159 - Chapter 5 - Case 1 - Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Table 5-14 – Case 1 - Value map

Project Objectives Key Indicator Measurables Targets Tools Corporate Objectives Improved competitiveness to public Effective road networks Public transport trips up 5,5500 trips/day; number of transport, cycling/walking to/from UQ walk/cycle trips up between 2,800 & 4,300/day;decrease average public transport trip lengths to UQ; decrease in veh. kms/public transport passenger; improved public transport reliability Connected & engaged Increased inter and intra model interchanging communities Improve connectivity between the CBD Healthy economy & major urban activity centres Effective road networks Connected & engaged communities Improve access to the Brisbane River, Safe communities CityCat & ferry services Connected & engaged communities Green & active transport Enhance integration & connectivity Cooperative governance between pedestrian, cycle, rail, bus & Active & healthy ferry infrastructure communities Green & active transport An Accessible City Reduce UQ related private vehicle Clean air movements through the CBD; Reduce Effective growth Improved integration; location of transport nodes closer to congestion on the inner western road management higher residential densities; reduced parking intrusion. network Effective road networks Reduced congestion

Improve travel times and reliability for Healthy economy bus patrons, pedestrians and cyclists Effective road networks

Reduce demand for parking generated Safe communities by UQ & on-street parking intrusions in adjacent suburbs

- 160 - Chapter 5 - Case 1 - Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Project Objectives Key Indicator Measurables Targets Tools Corporate Objectives Complete inner-city pedestrian & cycle Outstanding city profile circuit (Riverwalk) Better public health Analyse existing air quality; dispersion models and mitigation strategies. Noise & vibration impacts during construction & ops Active & healthy communities Better pedestrian & cycle linkages; Well-designed responsive Expanded opportunities for built environment current/planned cycle/walking paths Active & healthy Improve public access to leisure facilities communities Provide for the safety and well-being of Safe communities workers and general public who may be Better public health Minimise noise disruption throughout construction Zero 1800 number affected by the road or traffic Minimise noise disruption throughout operations complaints Complaints to local member An Active and Healthy City Satisfy occupational health and safety Safe communities: LTIFR during construction requirements and manage associated Security in operations risks

Provision for shade, outdoor recreation Green & bio-diverse city & drinking water Well designed responsive improvements in micro-climate air quality built environment Harvest stormwater and recycle for use Sustainable water use % of on-site stormwater capture during construction & ops on surrounding parklands Healthy river and bay Number of environmental incidents during construction Green and bio-diverse city Use of on-site stormwater capture to maintain local vegetation Improve the vitality of the local area Effective growth management Well designed responsive Visual Impact Assessment. Enhance quality of public built environment space Preserve and enhance existing flora Food in the city and fauna Green & bio-diverse city Existing flora and fauna audits and management of impacts City Designed for Sub-Tropical Living Living Sub-Tropical for Designed City

- 161 - Chapter 5 - Case 1 - Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Project Objectives Key Indicator Measurables Targets Tools Corporate Objectives More closely align public transport Effective growth products with travel needs; More direct management link between UQ for commuters from Clean sustainable energy Brisbane's north, south & east use Effective road networks Help build social capacity by Learning & informed Build community networks during planning & construction encouraging networks & connectivity communities phases Connected & engaged Use of local supply chains during construction communities Create spaces and places that provide Well-designed responsive Universal access design value to the community built environment Connected & engaged Consultation - calls to 1800 number communities Avoid disturbing areas of significance Inclusive caring Cultural heritage management strategies

City of Inclusive Communities for cultural, religious , indigenous communities peoples, or local community purposes Cooperative governance Liaison with local indigenous & other community groups Learning & informed Evaluation & monitoring programs re nature & scale of communities predicted influences on the demographic profile Promote sustainable transport; Increase Clean air Reduction in vehicle emissions including asbestos fibres proportion of persons travelling to UQ Cleaner sustainable from braking using sustainable mode of transport; energy use Make UQ travel demand a sustainable Effective Road networks activity Green & Active transport Utilise sustainable design /construction Sustainable water use: Management of waste potable and recycled water during No practices; Reduce, reuse, recycle/ construction environmental design for resource conservation incidents Towards zero waste Recycled materials used in construction Construction Waste generated during construction Waste M’ment Plan

Green and Clean City Cleaner sustainable Use of low-embodied energy materials (ie fly ash energy use concrete) Create an energy neutral bridge Sustainable water use Embodied energy in construction materials. Annual Energy neutral Operational Energy expenditure (lighting, vehicles etc)

- 162 - Chapter 5 - Case 1 - Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Project Objectives Key Indicator Measurables Targets Tools Corporate Objectives Towards zero waste Minimise contamination caused by operational activities Cleaner sustainable On-site power generation capacity Meet energy use Minimise operational consumption (low energy lighting) operational capacity Promote Brisbane through innovative Outstanding city profile planning, policy & design Healthy economy

city Well designed responsive

Creative built environment l Promote / enhance regional significance Effective growth

ona of UQ through appropriate transport management i ity

c infrastructure Outstanding city profile eg & world R Cooperative governance Enhance site potential for Boggo Road Effective growth Improved accessibility and PA Hospital sites management Cooperative governance Healthy economy Improve access to/between activities Effective growth Refer IAS Vol 2 Table 9.3.5 contributing to Brisbane as a smart & management prosperous city Cooperative governance Maximise the financial viability of the Healthy Economy Reduction in congestion, impacts on travel times. project Effective Road Networks Electronically monitor & control level of service to Improve travel times; increase bus service frequencies; ensure conveniences, comfort, safety and accessibility; provision of real time information. Smart & prosperous city Improve employment and skills base Outstanding city profile Employment during construction phase; CDEP labour Healthy economy during construction; Boost to local employment during operation:

- 163 - Chapter 5 - Case 1 - Eleanor Schonell Bridge

5.2.2.9 Measurables and targets

Vassallo (2007) discusses the need for quality to be observable and have verifiable outcomes. He states that ‘quality can be considered “observable” when consumers of a good or users of a service can perceive it’ (p.555). Much of the value-mapping framework detailed in this section, relates to making ‘observable’ aspects of project decision-making that has been previously ad hoc or intuitive; or not fully disclosed through the lack of a mechanism to make the intangible observable. In order for such a model to be fully realised however, it requires measurables and targets to be assigned to each of the indicators. This need was reinforced by (i) the real-world examination of documentation, which discovered six sets of objectives and indicators without any tangible assigned measurables; and (ii) the literature review, which consistently reinforced the need for the assignment of measurables to objectives to ensure effective outcomes.

Both quantifiable and qualitative indicators and measurables are considered as equally important as a part of the model for disclosing a broader, more complete representation of project impacts and performance to organisational objectives (Section 4.2.7).

5.2.2.10 Review, revision and reporting

The final step identified in Case 1 is the need for a process for the ongoing monitoring, review and reporting on performance to indicators. The overview process map (Figure 5.3) can be used as a tool for identifying key decision-points where this review should occur. For effective future implementation an on-line version of the framework would best facilitate this process (Chapter 8.5.3).

5.4.3. Summary of Case 1 learnings

Case 1 has been designed as an exploratory case study wherein a perceived real- world problem could be investigated and the first iteration of the value-mapping framework developed. The following reflections are the key outcomes of Case 1.

 A broader understanding of the spheres of influence of the specific project is important, so that the environmental, societal and supply chain impacts of major economic infrastructure projects are better recognized.  An understanding of who is responsible and accountable for delivering on project objectives is important, so that tangible actionable items can be generated.

- 164 - Chapter 5 - Case 1 - Eleanor Schonell Bridge

 An understanding of the broader stakeholder footprint for projects is important, with more effective engagement with non-financial and non- contractual stakeholders being required (Section 8.5.3).  Project objectives need to be linked explicitly to stated corporate objectives with consistency throughout the project life-cycle to enable review and reporting of performance to corporate intent, in a credible way.  Qualitative and quantitative measurables and targets need to be attributed to each of the value-mapping indicators so that effective reporting can be undertaken.

The next step in the adapted inquiry cycle is to test this first iteration of the value- mapping framework on Case 2, as follows in Chapter 6.

- 165 - Chapter 5 - Case 1 - Eleanor Schonell Bridge

This page has been left blank.

- 166 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

6. Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Case 1 provided a number of learnings and reflections which resulted in the draft value-mapping framework (Chapter 5). This first iteration highlights:

 the need to identify corporate objectives to which relevant project objectives can be assigned  the need to establish a set of project objectives which can be consistently used throughout the project life cycle to communicate original intent and corporate need  that the role and complexity of developing project objectives was not currently adequately recognised. Several sets of project objectives were discovered, all developed from the detailed feasibility phases onwards, with specific purposes relative to project deliverables  the need to better identify project accountabilities and stakeholders  a lack of measurables for reporting on both corporate and project objectives (other than contractual)  an associated lack of mechanisms to review and report on corporate objectives throughout the project life

6.1. Questioning the problem situation

The next step in the modified inquiry cycle (Figure 3.2) is to question the problem situation using models developed as a consequence of Case 1. Case 2 thus tests the draft value mapping framework (the model) on a second major project (again transport-related).

The overview process map developed for Case 1 (Figure 5.3) reveals a gap in the documentation of decision-making in the early stages of project development. Limited information was found (from documentation and interviews) regarding (i) the definition of project objectives (and links to corporate objectives); (ii) the identification of stakeholders, prior to the detailed feasibility phase of the project; and (iii) the assignment of accountabilities and measurables to non-contractual project objectives and associated performance indicators. This aligns with the gap identified in the academic literature, wherein formal links between corporate responsibilities and project objectives for major projects are missing.

The role of Case 2 is thus to test:

- 167 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

i. How project objectives can be aligned with corporate objectives, and what impacts and benefits would result from this? ii. How accountabilities for delivering on objectives can be better tracked? iii. How stakeholders can be better identified for the project including those outside the traditional realm? iv. How performance to both corporate and project objectives can be more effectively measured?

6.2. Case 2 description

The Hale Street Link (HSL) project was one recommendation of the TransApex Pre- feasibility Report (BCC 2005b, p.3), intended to service all forms of transport in and around the West End and South Brisbane; to relieve congestion on the existing river crossings, and to form part of the broader transportation network. This report identified the Hale Street Link as part of:

A series of strategic tolled road links to address deficiencies in the Brisbane road network. It is part of an overall strategy to deliver enhanced transport outcomes by freeing surface congestion around the inner and middle suburbs. (GHD 2005, p.8)

Figure 6-1 indicates the proposed plan location of the HSL.

Figure 6-1 - Proposed Hale Street Link Route (BCC 2006h)

- 168 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

6.2.1. Physical Description

The vision statement of the Hale Street Link Alliance states that ‘the Hale Street Link Alliance will build a landmark, inner city bridge to enhance accessibility and liveability in Brisbane’ (www.halestreetlink.com.au). The Alliance goes on to state:

The Hale Street Link will achieve a significant, positive contribution to the urban landscape of Brisbane while providing the necessary conduits for movement of high volumes of pedestrian, cycle, car, truck and bus traffic. The project will serve as a mechanism for enhancing linkages and uses in adjoining Milton and South Brisbane, while minimising disturbance to amenity and existing residents. It will provide opportunities for a diversity of experiences, cultural expression and recreation while proving a reference point and benchmark of quality urban design and sustainability for Brisbane. Hale Street Link Contract Vision. (BCC 2007a, p1)

Hence, along with the traditional transport-related aspirations and goals, the project has stated intents which relate to alternate transport modes, urban design, sustainability, and cultural and recreational opportunities.

The HSL Impact Assessment Statement provides the following description of the bridge:

The HSL bridge is a twin concrete box girder, balanced cantilever bridge … The 100 m long main span and 70 m back spans will be supported on three river piers, located 20 m and 90 m from the abutments on each bank … The bridge accommodates two 3.5 m wide traffic lanes (with 1 m shoulders) in each direction with a 3.6 m wide cycleway on the eastern, or downstream, side of the bridge and a 3.6 m wide pedestrian footpath on the upstream side of the bridge. The traffic lanes and pathways would be separated by traffic barriers, while pedestrian and cycle barrier rails form the outer edge of the two pathways. The pedestrian path would include a shade structure supported from columns integrated with the street lighting masts, which will be founded in the traffic barriers. (BCC 2006f, pp. 3.3-3.4)

In justifying the project to the community, the Brisbane City Council (BCC) cites statistics that ‘approximately 15% of traffic entering the precinct in the morning is passing through, (while) approximately 23% of traffic entering in the evening is passing through’ (BCC 2006g, p.6). The BCC Newsletter from September 2006 identifies a construction cost of ‘between $175 and $180million’ offset by a proposed forty-five year toll of $1.68 in 2002 dollars (BCC 2006h, p.1).

- 169 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

6.2.2. Engagement

Further to those issues identified in Section 6.1, as to the role of this case study, the Hale Street Link project was selected for Case 2 for a number of reasons:

i. It was earlier in the project life-cycle than Case 1, being in the early phases of implementation, with the Alliance team having been established in June 2007. Thus the potential exists to integrate the value-mapping activities into the subsequent procurement activities. ii. Project KRA’s had been established (cost, time, safety, environment, sustainability, urban design outcomes, stakeholder management, and traffic) but benchmarks and measures were still to be determined. These had not been specifically aligned to corporate objectives. iii. The project was experiencing a high level of non-contractual stakeholder attention, and would thus provide an immediate opportunity to test the accountability and stakeholder activities in a real-world situation. iv. The various outputs from the value-mapping framework (i.e. stakeholder maps, process maps, indicators and measures) were considered to be of potential for community communication, rather than more traditional, engineering based newsletters.

Engagement on Case 2 includes a review of available project documentation, and a series of semi formal interviews (Section 3.3.3.1). Both these elements are discussed in the following two sections.

6.2.2.1 Review of documentation

The following details project documentation (by project phase) relevant to the application of the value-mapping framework:

Phase 1 – Pre-Feasibility

 TransApex Strategic Context Report (BCC 2005a)  TransApex Prefeasibility Report (BCC 2005b)

Phase 2 – Detailed Feasibility

 South Brisbane Precinct Planning Study (Sinclair Knight Merz and Cardno Eppell Olsen 2006)  Hale Street Link Draft Impact Assessment Statement (BCC 2006e)  Hale Street Link Impact Assessment Statement Supplementary Report (BCC 2006f)  Hale Street Link Business Case and Addendum (BCC 2006d)

Phase 3 – Procurement

 Hale Street Link Contract (BCC 2007a)

- 170 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Phase 4 - Implementation

 Hale Street Link Alliance (BCC, MacMahon et al. 2007)

TransApex Reports (BCC 2005a & b)

The TransApex Strategic Concept Report (BCC 2005a) identifies a vision for Brisbane which is ‘to be clean and green, accessible, smart and prosperous, creative, inclusive, active and healthy, a regional leader and a worldly city designed for sub-tropical living’ (BCC 2005a, p.9). This vision clearly identifies that delivery on each of the BCC Living in Brisbane 2026 (BCC 2006a) corporate themes is a key deliverable for this proposed project. This report also articulates four desired outcomes, derived from various studies and policy statements undertaken for Brisbane from 1997 to 2004. These outcomes (BCC 2005a, p.29) are:

 safer communities  economic growth  creation of ‘liveable communities’  environmental sustainability

For each of these, there are associated directions, principals and indicative performance appraisals. It does not provide specific measurables and targets. This report also identifies six sustainable transport planning principals (BCC 2005a, p. 30):

 efficient and safe operation of the road network  efficient and safe movement of freight  transport and land use integration to create a preferred urban form  support for public transport use  management of travel demand to a sustainable level  encouragement of clean and green personal transport as a genuine alternative to driving

Table 11.1 of that document (BCC 2005a, pp.67-68) lists the Draft TransApex service requirements, aligned with each of the Living in Brisbane themes (Table 6.1). This alignment thus indicates the corporate intent that major projects have a responsibility to deliver on each of these eight corporate objectives.

- 171 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Table 6-1 – Draft TransApex service requirements (BCC 2005a) Living in Draft TransApex Service Requirement Brisbane 2026 Theme Clean and Green Provide a road system that allows opportunities to increase the attractiveness of public transport as a viable alternative to private cars Reduce traffic impact on the environment, supporting Council’s Greening Strategy Improve regional air quality and reduce traffic-related noise Create street-scaping and ‘green space’ opportunities Ensure any negative environmental impacts associated with TransApex are appropriately mitigated or managed Accessible city Promote a sustainable road hierarchy – separating local from regional and intra-regional traffic and minimising local traffic use of higher-order roads Provide a motorway standard ring road system to cater for the diversity of travel patterns that emerge in a growing city Improve journey time and reliability across the network Reduce CBD traffic congestion and improve local road networks Reduce cross-city journey times Capture freed road space for public transport, HOVs & active transport initiatives Provide priority corridors for freight Manage and improve traffic flows on existing arterial roads and motorways Remove through-traffic from local streets Improve pedestrian safety by reducing surface traffic Subtropical city Provide and maintain a road system that reflects the city’s character and minimises negative impacts on nearby communities Enable high-density housing by reducing traffic congestion & improving public transport Reduce surface traffic to create new opportunities for urban development Create urban renewal opportunities Smart and Apply leading ’smart’ technology such as e-tolling, tunnel and environmental prosperous city management Ensure compatibility with Council and regional transport plans and future projects Promote long-term asset management principals with a ‘whole-of-life’ focus Support the long-term financial sustainability of all levels of government Ensure affordability and marketplace ‘bankability’ of individual links Encourage economic development – create employment, involve local industry Actively manage project risks, including use of private sector skills as appropriate Creative city Stimulate creative project input from private industry Encourage development and use of ‘smart’ and innovative technology Inclusive city Provide a safe road system that considered the needs of all users, complies with appropriate safety and design standards, and meets community needs and expectations Achieve awareness of and support for the project through comprehensive community consultation Recognise and respect cultural diversity Improve community connectivity Develop public housing opportunities via improved road networks Active and Facilitate development of pocket parks healthy city Provide opportunities to expand the city’s pedestrian and cycle network Regional leader Facilitate economic prosperity through strategic transport infrastructure and a world city Significantly reduce the economic costs of congested road networks Lead development of key infrastructure Develop fast and efficient transport solutions Meet State Government expectations and legislation Foster continued growth in south-east Queensland

- 172 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

The TransApex Pre-feasibility Report (BCC 2005b) includes the following statements with regards to anticipated impacts of the proposed Hale Street Link:

Traffic modelling found the bridge option would provide better connectivity and higher patronage than the tunnel option. The modelling also found the Hale Street Link would: - carry up to 31,000 vehicles per day by 2016, attracting about half of its traffic from Milton Road connections - relieve traffic congestion on the William Jolly Bridge, with peak period traffic reducing by 35 per cent - help to relieve traffic congestion on CBD roads, particularly on Riverside Drive, Grey Street, Ann Street, Wickham Terrace and St Pauls Terrace - result in a 5 per cent decrease in NSBT traffic volumes due to the reduction in traffic on other competing routes allowing alternative access to the inner north-western suburbs (this impact would reduce with future increases in traffic volumes) - allow surface road changes such as the implementation of T3 lanes on the William Jolly Bridge approaching the western end of the CBD. (BCC 2005b, p.70)

A key outcome of this bridge thus relates to the broader road network in Brisbane, beyond those suburbs immediately impacted by its construction.

South Brisbane Precinct Planning Study (SKM and CEO 2006)

One objective of this study, which was undertaken whilst the Draft Impact Assessment Statement was being prepared, was to provide information about the impacts of the project. This report identifies seven strategic objectives for the study area (Table 6-2):

Table 6-2– Hale Street Link strategic objectives (SKM and CEO 2006 p.ix) Develop a road systems that supports existing and future land use in the area; Implement Integrated Transport Planning principals in the Study area…; Reduce car trips to/from the study area; Increase walking and cycling trips in the study area; Increase public transport trips in the study area; Improve safety for all modes of transport in the study area; and Create West End as a model “best practice” suburb for walk, cycle and public transport provision.”

These objectives highlight the focus on improvements in multi-modal transportation opportunities.

- 173 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Hale Street Link Draft and Final Impact Assessment Statement (BCC 2006e and f)

The objectives of this document are broad in their scope, and require consideration of transport, social, environmental and economic impacts and benefits of the project (Table 6-3).

Table 6-3 – Hale Street Link Impact Assessment Statement objectives (BCC 2006e, pp.1-14) Evaluate the priority of the project within the context of other transport planning initiatives; Identify other associated network changes which may be necessary; Identify what city planning, land use, social, economic and environmental goals are being impacted by the project; Identify the impacts of the project and associated network changes and assess how any negative impacts can be mitigated; and Identify opportunities for integration and connection to both existing and future major activity centres and public transport network, considering all modes including walking and cycling.

This Draft IAS identifies a number of substantial short-term impacts on the immediate environment and community, which need to be addressed in further detail, prior to the project obtaining approvals to proceed.

These documents, along with that of a communications consultancy (Three Plus 2007) also identify the need for a number of stakeholder groups with varying degrees of empowerment. These include Liaison Groups, Key Stakeholder Groups and Interface Control Groups. The first of these groups has been formed as a conduit for information (BCC 2006e). The second group includes those organisations directly affected by the proposed project, and requires a high degree of direct consultation (Three Plus 2007, p.8). The third of these groups are parties to either a Memorandum of Understanding or a Commercial Agreement, with ongoing consultation, and parties to the implementation of agreed mitigation strategies (Three Plus 2007, p.8).

Hale Street Link Impact Assessment Statement Supplementary Report (BCC 2006f)

This supplementary report was commissioned to investigate the issues raised in the previous document, and to provide feed-back prior to any approval being granted. Additional reports were required for air quality, noise impacts, and health impacts on those in the immediate vicinity, along with revised designs and economic analysis.

- 174 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Hale Street Link Business Case and Addendum (BCC 2006d)

The cost-benefit analysis which forms a part of the Business Case for this project, details project costs (i.e. for capital expenditure, maintenance ad operations) and benefits over a thirty year period.

The HSL is economically positive for both the base case and a number of additional sensitivities. These additional sensitivities included increasing both the discount rate and the construction costs. Additionally, the economic assessment found that: - approximately 65% of the benefits arise from travel time savings; - approximately 24% of the benefits arise from vehicle operating cost savings; and -approximately 10% of the benefits arise from a reduction in vehicle emissions. (BCC 2006d, p.10)

Benefits identified relate to financial (e.g. vehicle operating costs), social (e.g. travel time savings) and environmental (e.g. emission reductions) impacts.

Contract No. MIPO70095-06/07 (Hale Street Link Contract) Annexure 2 (BCC 2007a)

Part 1 of Annexure 2 of this contract presents Brisbane City Council’s requirements in terms of the project scope. This contract lists seven strategic outcomes (Table 6- 4) and six key result areas of cost, time, functionality, stakeholder management, community relations and urban design and architecture.

Table 6-4 – Hale Street Link strategic outcomes (BCC 2007a, p.2) Enhance the effectiveness of Brisbane’s inner city arterial road network, and provide additional cross river capacity on a tolled, user pays facility …; Complement public transport services by maintaining acceptable levels of service on the shared road network; Encourage active and healthy transport (i.e. cycling and walking) through better linkages and expanded opportunities of cycling and walking paths for commuting and recreational purposes; Integrate and enhance connectivity and provide a greater choice of trip making for journeys across the river, improving accessibility to and from the cultural, education, residential and business precincts in South Brisbane; Enhance the urban renewal re-development potential of South Brisbane and West End; Manage the level of available off and on-street parking within the South Brisbane Peel Street precinct; and Control the through traffic in South Brisbane, Highgate Hill and West End.

Measurables for these key result areas identified in the document are listed below (Table 6.5).

- 175 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Table 6-5 – Hale Street Link key result areas (BCC 2007a) 1.2 Project Key Result Areas (a) Cost: A Target Out Turn Cost of $141.37m in $Jan 2007. (b) Time: The HSL is operational at 1st July 2010. (c) Functionality: Equitable access for vehicles to cross the river at Grey Street on William Jolly Bridge and HSL; Attractive access to the community for walking and cycling for ‘journey to work’ and recreation; Congestion reduction that provides travel time savings for a range of journeys as identified in the Impact Assessment Statement including ‘good value’ for the toll paying HSL user; River traffic public transport movements unimpeded by the HSL; Strategic network improvements for key city in-ground services due to the HSL; HSL architecture compliments the City urban fabric; South Brisbane and West End land use and redevelopment benefits from improved accessibility. (d) Stakeholder All issues managed within the Alliance Management Team (AMT) and Alliance Management Leadership Team (ALT) process; and Stakeholder support for the project publicly known. (e) Community All Community liaison Group issues managed within the AMT and ALT Relations process; The traveling public adequately informed on temporary and permanent movements and conditions; and Milton, Paddington, South Brisbane and West End residents and business operators are adequately informed on the HS delivery processes, construction impact management and the HSL project outcomes. (f) Urban Design Broad community acceptance of the bridge and approaches aesthetics at day and Architecture and night; and Cultural literacy interpretation that is owned by the local community and stakeholders

For both the key result areas, and the strategic outcomes, direct links can be readily established to each of the eight corporate themes identified by BCC (Section 4.2.1). As a key milestone in the project life cycle, when project reporting to performance indicators is a given, access to a framework (such as that proposed) which enables direct reporting back to corporate objectives could be readily facilitated.

Hale Street Link Alliance (BCC, MacMahon Constructions et al. 2007)

This document, which outlines the elements of the Alliance agreement between the five parties involved, includes a set of nine principals to guide alliance team members actions and behaviours (Table 6.6).

- 176 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Table 6-6 – Hale Street Link alliance team - actions and behaviours (BCC, MacMahon Constructions et al. 2007 pp. 1-2) We will respect each individual’s opinion and contribution We will develop an enabling culture and environment that will drive outstanding performance. We accept a Zero harm objective but we will strive to achieve the health and well-being of all We will be open and honest in all our dealings and communications. We will work to minimise impact on the community and strive to engage all stakeholders in our vision for the project We will relentlessly pursue innovation and Value for Money We will strive to deliver a world class bridge widely recognised for shaping Brisbane We will make the most of a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to develop our people and organisations We will create a positive experience for everyone involved.

This document also includes a table of seven objectives with associated measurables and targets, both quantitative and qualitative, to a varying degree of definition (Table 6.7).

- 177 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Table 6-7 – Hale Street Link alliance objectives (BCC, MacMahon Constructions et al. 2007) KRA MCOS Objective Exceptional Cost TOC=AOC As stated in the TOC gain share regime Safety The project will achieve Zero Hard (No Lost The project will achieve Zero Hard (No LTI’s) Time Injuries) level of achievement level of achievement with continuous health and safety improvements for all project employees as well as acknowledgment of personnel well-being improvements noted by all employees Time The date on which the Works are opened to The project is Complete 1 month earlier that the public for use, which date will be as MCOS. determined by the ALT and stated in the PDR Report, but that date must be not later than 1 July 2010. Functionality The project will achieve attractive access to The project will achieve increased post the community for walking and cycling for opening improvement measures against the ‘journey to work’ and recreation; congestion IAS forecasts reduction that provides travel time savings for a range of journeys as identified in the IAS including ‘good value’ for toll paying HSL users; and, strategic network improvements for key city-in-ground services due the HSL Stakeholder The project will achieve management of all The project will achieve management of all management issues within the AMT and ALT process; issues within the AMT and ALT process; achieve positive stakeholder support for the achieve a 15% improvement in customer project; and, achieve positive engagement by satisfaction surveys of agreed stakeholder the local community into the project. groups; and achieve a 15% improvement in local community surveys of the local community. Community The project will achieve at least 90% of all The project will achieve at least 100% of all relations community liaison issues are managed within community liaison issues are managed within the AMT; achieve 100% notification rate to the AMT; achieve 100% notification rate to the the travelling public (all modes) for planned travelling public (all modes) for planned traffic traffic movements and conditions relating to movements and conditions relating to the the project; local community notified of HSL project; local community notified of HSL delivery processes, construction impact delivery processes, construction impact management and HSL project outcomes; management and HSL project outcomes; project education (e.g. forums, visits to the project education (e.g. forums, visits to the site site office etc by external parties to the office etc by external parties to the project) are project) are attended by 2500 people; and the attended by 4000 people; and the City Cat City Cat timetable impacts are notified and timetable has zero impacts due to project planned. construction. Urban design The project will achieve 80% customer The project will achieve 95% customer and satisfaction survey results at Final Completion satisfaction survey results at Final Completion architecture for the aesthetics of the bridge and for the aesthetics of the bridge and approaches during day and night, cultural approaches during day and night, cultural literacy interpretation owned by the local literacy interpretation owned by the local community and stakeholders and community and stakeholders and complementary HSL architecture to the City complementary HSL architecture to the City urban fabric; achieve one industry design urban fabric; achieve three industry design award; and produce a structured collaborative awards; and produce a structured design process. collaborative design process. Environment The project will achieve water and energy The project will achieve water and energy consumption during delivery and for consumption during delivery and for operations which is sustainable over the life of operations which is sustainable over the life of the project; incur no more than five reportable the project; incur zero reportable noise, noise, vibration and/or air pollution incidents vibration and/or air pollution incidents during during delivery; vegetation, fish and wild life delivery; vegetation, fish and wild life are are managed within the approval requirement managed within the approval requirement of of the EPA; and, indigenous and non- the EPA; and, indigenous and non-indigenous indigenous heritage within the expectations of heritage within the expectations of the the custodians of that heritage. custodians of that heritage.

Again, the opportunity for these to have formal links to the corporate objectives of the organisation procuring the project is readily apparent. Whilst a number of the specific objectives and measurables identified above may only be able to be identified once a contract is in place, the proposed value-mapping framework can

- 178 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link readily accommodate such revision (as proposed as the final step in the framework), whilst providing an auditable trail of revisions.

6.2.2.2 Semi-formal interviews

Five semi-formal interviews (Section 3.3.3.1) have been undertaken for Case 2. These interviews were undertaken to test the draft value-mapping framework in three ways:

i. to test the practicality of applying the draft value-mapping framework ii. to test the usefulness of each of the steps in the draft value-mapping framework iii. to identify at what stage the framework should be initially implemented

Through a collaborative process with the interviewees, each of the steps of the draft framework were tested, modified and verified. The details of this are discussed further in the following section.

6.3. Testing the draft value-mapping framework

Modifications to the draft value-mapping framework in the course of Case 2 were the result of reflecting on (i) inputs from the fieldwork itself, from the review of documentation and interviews with the project team participants; and (ii) process issues which became apparent in the course of testing the framework (i.e. the clarity and sequencing of each of the activities associated with the value-mapping framework).

6.3.1. Reflections upon testing the framework

The key issues which arose for further consideration, and which informed the second iteration of the framework are:

 Project objectives  Contribution of project objectives to corporate themes  Assignment measurables and targets  When to implement the value-mapping framework

Each of these are discussed in detail below.

- 179 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Project objectives

Each of the following documents present sets of principals, outcomes and objectives which could be identified as project objectives.

 TransApex Pre-feasibility report (BCC 2005a)  Hale Street Link Business Case and Addendum (BCC 2006d)  Hale Street Link Draft Impact Assessment Statement (BCC 2006e)  Contract No. MIPO70095-06/07 (Hale Street Link Contract) Annexure 2 (BCC 2007a)  HSL Alliance (BCC, MacMahon Constructions et al. 2007)

The TransApex service requirements and associated strategic performance appraisal summary, provides an important link between likely project objectives, and the BCC corporate themes (LiB2026). These requirements were identified at the pre-feasibility phase of the project. Their discovery requires modification to the value-mapping framework to capture these strategic objectives. These become part of the hierarchy of objectives in the context of the value-mapping framework (Section 4.2.2).

Both the HSL Business Plan and Impact Assessment Statement identify potential impacts and benefits which should result from the project. These have been defined at the detailed feasibility phase of the project life-cycle.

The contractual key result areas (KRAs) (BCC 2007a) provide a set of project objectives, defined early in the implementation phase. Some specific targets are identified, such as cost and time, whilst the remainder do not have specific measurables are targets in place. None link specifically back to corporate objectives, thus the use of these KRAs to measure performance to such would need to be established on an as-required basis.

The Alliance Team Actions and Behaviours, Objectives and associated KRAs listed within the Project Alliance Agreement (Table 6.8) further extend the KRAs listed in the above Contract (BCC 2007a). In some instances they provide quantitative or qualitative targets and measurables for these (i.e. cost, time, safety), though many of the KRAs in the remaining five objectives remain have non-specific measurables and targets. This makes on-going reporting in their own context difficult, and reporting to specific corporate targets very difficult.

- 180 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Issues of note thus include:

 Of each of these documents, it is only the TransApex document which provides a specific link to the corporate objectives of the organisation responsible for the project.  As the project life-cycle is linear in nature, and the above objectives were discovered in each of the project phases leading up to construction, the opportunity exists for an auditable trail to be established from corporate objectives, through each of the project phases, to benefits realisation.

Contribution of project objectives to corporate objectives

Team members interviewed have identified potential benefit in using the value- mapping framework to determine the quantum (i.e. a percentage contribution) of the contribution of the project to fulfilling corporate objectives. This would potentially enable those responsible for corporate reporting to establish a visual representation of how major projects are contributing to the eight corporate themes. This change has not been integrated into the second iteration of the value map for a number of reasons including (i) the potential ad hoc and intuitive nature of assigning these percentages; and (ii) the framework’s intent is to provide a rich narrative, rather than a dash-board style reporting system (Section 4.1.7).

Assignment of measurables and targets

Of the discrete sets of project objectives discovered for Case 2, only two have measurables and targets assigned to them, with varying degrees of specificity. None provide the opportunity for an auditable reporting trail for performance to corporate objectives (i.e. LiB2026). The former have been discovered in the contract documentation (BCC 2007a) and the Alliance agreement (BCC, MacMahon Constructions et al. 2007). Both documents being part of the implementation phase documentation. And yet measurables and targets can be and are established as early as the pre-feasibility phase of a project. During the detailed feasibility phase of a project, substantial quantitative data and information is collected to support a project.

The value-mapping framework can thus be used in two ways:

- 181 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

i. as a tool for capturing and assigning data which is already being collected. ii. to identify those objectives for which measurables and targets are not gathered in a business-as-usual process. This has the potential to highlight where issues which may be critical to corporate performance and outcomes, are not being fully addressed by current processes.

Implementation timeframe

A major restriction to the application of the value-mapping framework on Case 2 was that the project was in its implementation phase, with delivery contracts and alliancing agreements already in place. This impacted due to the fact that team members were fully focussed on contractual and alliancing objectives, rather than the broader corporate or strategic objectives, as would be expected, and is required for satisfactory delivery. As this was a ‘test’ case study, it did not diminish the effectiveness of Case 2, but highlights the need for Case 3, the implementation case study, to be undertaken on a project in either the pre-feasibility or early detail feasibility stage of delivery.

6.3.2. Second iteration of the value-mapping framework

The following details the changes made to the draft value-mapping framework developed as an outcome of the literature review and Case 1, to produce the second iteration of the value-mapping framework which has then been implemented on Case 3 (Chapter 7).

In this iteration, defined steps have been established, with associated activities and inputs, as represented in the final value-mapping framework (Figure 8.1).

6.3.2.1 The organisational context As Brisbane City Council (BCC) is the project owner for Case 2, a detail investigation of the strategic organisation context has not been re-visited, and data and knowledge has been re-used from Case 1. The delivery process for Case 2 is however different. This is captured in a series of detail process maps (Appendix 4.1- 4.4), and the case-specific overview process map (Figure 6.2). The details of this have been predominantly informed by the review of project documentation. The generic elements of the map are as discussed in Section 4.2.1.

- 182 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Figure 6-2 – Case 2 Overview process map

- 183 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

6.3.2.2 Identifying project objectives

Draft objectives were extracted from Hale Street Link Draft Impact Assessment Statement (BCC 2006e) and Business Case (BCC 2006f) for input into the project objectives worksheet. Team members then reviewed these independently, and provided feedback in interview. Two issues were explored in this test case.

Linkages to strategic objectives

Case 2 reveals a layer of relevant strategic objectives which affects decision-making. These were the TransApex Prefeasibility Study (BCC 2005b) which linked directly to the Brisbane City Council’s Living in Brisbane 2026 themes, and the Alliance Objectives (BCC, MacMahon Construction et al. 2007). As a consequence, the need to establish a hierarchy of relevant objectives was confirmed. Reference to these strategic objectives have been included in additional columns in the project objectives worksheet, with strategic objectives aligned to relevant corporate and project objectives as appropriate (Table 6.8).

- 184 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Table 6-8 – Case 2 - Project objectives Code ments Project Project service require- Alliance Objective Corporate Objectives Objectives Objectives Objectives EXAMPLE TransApex Contribution Contribution to Corporate

Achieve... 99 1A Improve accessibility in the Reduce cross city travel congestion Inner City areas through times reduction that additional cross-river provides travel time capacity savings for a range 90 1B Improve level of service on Reduce CBD traffic of journeys as existing road network congestion & improve local identified in the road networks IAS… Improve journey time reliability across the network 90 1C Provide opportunities for Capture freed road space improvement in public for public transport, HOVs & transport especially to north active transport incentives & west

Accessible City Achieve attractive 85 1D Provide safe, legible and Capture freed road space access to the equitable integrated for public transport, HOVs community for ped. transport including and active transport & cycling for pedestrian & cycling incentives 'journey to work' & linkages recreation Achieve… 'good 99 1E Free-flow electronic tolling value' for users Functionality - The 85 2A Improve opportunities for Provide opportunities to project will achieve walking & cycling for expand the city's pedestrian attractive access to 'journey to work' & & cycle network the community for recreational purposes walking & cycling 85 2B Increase opportunities for for 'journey to work' ped. & cycle network & recreation… linkages & connection to major land uses 90 2C Manage traffic flow to

Active & Healthy City enhance traffic safety for ped. & cyclists Achieve 80% 65 3A Improvements to local Create street scaping & customer footpaths & streetscapes "green space" opportunities. satisfaction survey 65 3B Sense of spaciousness, Provide & maintain a road results at Final context, & site responsive to system that reflects the Completion for the the Brisbane region city's character & minimises aesthetics 65 3C Manage the relationship negative impacts on nearby between built forms, urban communities

Sub-Tropical City edge, & surrounding terrain Safety - The project 99 4A Provide a safe project in all Provide safe road system will achieve a Zero project phases that considers the needs of Harm level of all users, complies with achievement appropriate safety & design standards & meets community needs & expectations Community 50 4D Safe, legible & equitable Improve community Relations & integrated transport connectivity Stakeholder including associated amenities or structures

90 4E Effective stakeholder & Achieve awareness & community consultation support for the project through comprehensive community consultation Indigenous & non- 85 4F Effectively manage the Recognise and reflect indigenous heritage impact on local community cultural diversity

City of Inclusive Communities is handled within 50 4G Promote community Foster continued growth in expectations of the capacity building & events & south-east Queensland custodians of that assist the local area to heritage accommodate social, economic & technological changes

- 185 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link Code ments Project Project service require- Alliance Objective Corporate Objectives Objectives Objectives Objectives EXAMPLE TransApex Contribution Contribution to Corporate

Achieve water & 85 5A Contribute to a reduction in energy vehicle emissions due to consumption during the provision of more energy delivery & for efficient transport movement Reduce traffic impact operations which is 90 5B Minimise & manage Improve regional air quality sustainable over impacts of noise & vibration & reduce traffic related the life of the noise project; incur no 90 5C Minimise & manage more than 5 impacts of air pollutants reportable noise, vibration &/or air 85 5D Provide best practice Ensure any negative pollution incidents environmental outcomes environmental impacts during delivery; associated with TransApex Green & Clean Green & City vegetation; fish & are appropriately mitigated wild life are or managed managed within the approval requirement of the EPA... Cultural literacy 90 6A Improve access to key city & interpretation regional features owned by the local community and 85 6B Achieve high quality stakeholders & aesthetics of bridge & complementary approaches HSL architecture to 80 6C Innovation in design Stimulate creative project the City urban including integration of input from private industry Creative City fabric cultural literacy Encourage development & interpretation use of "smart" and innovative technology Urban Design & 75 7A Enhance social diversity, Recognise & reflect cultural architecture choice & accessibility diversity 65 4B Contribute to the effectively Foster continued growth in servicing high density urban south-east Queensland development in South Brisbane, West End & Wooloongabba. 75 8A Contribute to effectively Foster continued growth in servicing urban renewal of south-east Queensland Regional & World City inner-city areas Functionality - The 95 8B Effectively address project Support the long-term project will affordability financial sustainability of all achieve… 'good levels of government. value' for toll Ensure affordability & paying HSL users; market-place "bankability" of individual links Stakeholder 90 8C Minimise impacts on local Management - The businesses during project will construction achieve…positive 85 8D Provide innovation in Apply leading "smart" stakeholder delivery technology such as e-tolling, support for the tunnel environmental project; achieve management. positive Promote long term asset engagement by the management principals with Smart & Prosperous city local community a "whole-of-life" focus into the project 65 8E Facilitate investment of local Encourage economic

business in social development - create

infrastructure employment, involve local industry

- 186 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Contribution to corporate outcomes

Case 2 participants raised the question of potentially identifying a percentage contribution of each of the project objectives to the pre-existing corporate objectives. This was raised as their task at that time was to establish key result areas for Alliance KPIs, and such a quantitative device could assist in this reporting. This was experimented with. Figure 6-5 illustrates an indicative outcome of including two dedicated columns in the project objectives worksheet (Table 6.8). This however was not included in the second iteration of the value-mapping framework (Section 6.3.1).

- 187 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Contribution of HSL project to Corporate Objectives

120

100

80 Objective A Objective B 60 Objective C Objective D 40 Objective E % Contribution 20

0

ty g ty y ity in ties i C Ci v C City e y ni n e l h iv lt mu lea t rous cit ea m ea H o C Cr l & World City Accessib & Tropical Li - - ve 6 na o 1 - tive lusi een and C Sub c r Ac n 3 - I - G 2 - 5 y of 7 - Regi it 8 - Smart & prospe C 4 - Vision 2026 Themes

Figure 6-3 – Case 2 project objective - contribution to corporate objectives

- 188 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

6.3.2.3 Mapping accountabilities

There are two components to this step, as established in the draft value-mapping framework:

 Determining the spheres of influence of a project  Mapping accountabilities for each of the project objectives

Spheres of influence

Information was gathered from documentation to input into the ‘spheres of influence’ diagram (Figure 6.6). Case 2 confirms an understanding that this tool is useful to the value-mapping process, when implemented in the pre-feasibility phase of a project, to broaden participant awareness of project impacts. The use of this tool however, is not required as a part of the on-going reporting processes. It is thus proposed for use as a workshop tool, rather than as providing input into the final value-map.

- 189 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Figure 6-4 – Case 2 - spheres of influence (Adapted from Engen and DiPiazza 2005, p.6)

The accountability map

One motivation for participation in Case 2 by alliance team members was to provide benefit in terms of better defining stakeholders. The initial intent was for participants to prepare both the accountability map and the stakeholder footprint, and then provide feedback on its application as a part of the testing process. The accountability map was, however, not completed for Case 2, as the Alliance team was well into the implementation phase of the project, and there was little perceived benefit for the team in further defining accountabilities beyond those identified in the Alliance documentation. The Alliance team members were fully aware of their own accountabilities, which had been defined by both the contract and the Alliance

- 190 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link agreement. Contributing time to identifying accountabilities beyond that scope was understandably, not considered as a valid expenditure of time. This highlighted the need for the value-mapping framework to be applied before the implementation phase, when team members are strongly focused on project, not corporate deliverables. This was a key point in the selection of the Case 3 project.

6.3.2.4 Mapping stakeholders

A formal set of stakeholders had already been identified when collaboration commenced. This includes eleven Liaison Groups, five Key Stakeholder Groups, and three Interface Control Groups. In interview with Alliance team members however, the benefit of the stakeholder mapping tool was acknowledged, with a further key stakeholder being identified as a result of its application. A recommendation which arose from this involvement was that, in lieu of identifying strong, medium and weak links to each of the generic stakeholder groups, an additional column be added to the map to include the names of each stakeholder (Table 6.9). Thus this map becomes a tool for identifying stakeholders, using the ten generic groups as prompts, and in so doing provides an audit trail for stakeholder identification.

The second amendment to the map, for use in the value-mapping framework, is that the stakeholder groupings which appear at the top of the following map differ from the original tool (Holme and Watts 2000). This is done in order to reflect both the sector (i.e. public sector agencies) and the nature of the sector into which the project is being delivered (i.e. economic infrastructure provision).

- 191 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Table 6-9 – Case 2 - Stakeholder map (Adapted from Holme and Watts 2000, p.16) Stakeholders

Details of Project Objectives Stakeholders Corporate Objectives Objectives Partners Councils Regional Business Suppliers Lobbyists Executive Executive Customers Councillors Councillors Community Employees, Ratepayers, Government Environment constituents, State /Federal Improve accessibility in the Inner City areas through additional cross-river capacity Improve level of service on existing road network

Provide opportunities for improvement in public transport especially to north & west Provide safe, legible & equitable integrated transport including pedestrian &

Accessible City City Accessible cycling linkages Free-flow electronic tolling

Improve opportunities for walking and cycling for 'journey to work' and recreational purposes Increase opportunities for pedestrian and cycle network linkages and connection to major land uses. Active &

Healthy City Manage traffic flow to enhance traffic safety for pedestrians and cyclists

Provide improvements to local footpaths and streetscapes

Provide a sense of spaciousness, context, and site responsive to the Brisbane region. City Manage the relationship between built forms, urban edge, and the

Sub-Tropical surrounding terrain

Provide a safe project in all project phases

Provide safe, legible & equitable integrated transport including associated amenities or structures. Provide effective stakeholder and community consultation

Effectively manage the impact on local community

Communities City of Inclusive Promote community capacity building and events and assist the local area to accommodate social, economic and technological changes.

- 192 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Stakeholders

Details of Project Objectives Stakeholders Corporate Objectives Objectives Partners Councils Regional Business Suppliers Lobbyists Executive Executive Customers Councillors Councillors Community Employees, Ratepayers, Government Environment constituents, State /Federal

Contribute to a reduction in vehicle emissions due to the provision of more energy efficient transport movement Green City & Clean Minimise and manage impacts of noise and vibration

Minimise and manage impacts of air pollutants

Provide best practice environmental outcomes

Improve access to key city and regional features

Cre ativ e City Achieve high quality aesthetics of bridge and approaches

Provide innovation in design including integration of cultural literacy interpretation

Enhancing social diversity, choice and accessibility

Contribute to the effectively servicing high density urban development in South Brisbane, West End and Wooloongabba

Regional & City World

Contribute to effectively servicing urban renewal of inner-city areas Effectively address project affordability

Minimise impacts on local businesses during construction

Provide innovation in delivery Facilitate investment of local business in social infrastructure

Smart & Prosperous city

KEY STRONG LINK MODERATE LINK WEAK LINK

- 193 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

6.3.2.5 Identifying project indicators

The indicator matrix has then been completed in collaboration with Case 2 alliance team participants (Table 6.10). This was considered a valid process and there was no modifications to the process or output from the first iteration of the value- mapping framework.

- 194 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Table 6-10 – Case 2 - Indicators matrix

City-wide Outcomes for Brisbane

Project Objectives Indicators Clean air Food in the City Safe communities Sustain-able water use & Healthy river bay Effective growth management zero Towards waste Inclusive, caring communities Out-standing city profile Cooperative governance Cleaner sustain-able energy use Healthy economy Green & bio- diverse city Better public health Learning & informed communities Effective road networks Well-designed responsive built environment Active & healthy communities Connected & engaged communities Green & active transport BCC Corporate Objectives Improve accessibility in the Inner City areas Effective Growth Management through additional cross-river capacity Healthy Economy Effective Road Networks Improve level of service on existing road Cleaner sustainable energy use network Effective Road Networks

Provide opportunities for improvement in Cleaner sustainable energy use public transport especially to north and west Effective Road Networks Green and Active Transport Provide safe, legible and equitable integrated Safe communities Inclusive caring communities

An Accessible City transport including pedestrian and cycling linkages Effective road networks Free-flow electronic tolling Cooperative governance

Improve opportunities for walking and cycling Safe communities for 'journey to work' and recreational Green and Active Transport purposes Increase opportunities for pedestrian and Well designed responsive built environment cycle network linkages and connection to Connected and Engaged Communities major land uses. Green and Active Transport Manage traffic flow to enhance traffic safety Safe communities for pedestrians and cyclists Better Public Health

Active & Healthy City Effective Road Networks Provide improvements to local footpaths and Outstanding city profile streetscapes Well designed responsive built environment

Provide a sense of spaciousness, context, Outstanding city profile and site responsive to the Brisbane region. Green and bio-diverse city Well designed responsive built environment Manage the relationship between built Green and bio-diverse city forms, urban edge, and the surrounding Well designed responsive built environment Sub-Tropical City terrain Provide a safe project in all project phases Safe communities Better Public Health Active and Healthy Communities Provide safe, legible and equitable integrated Safe communities transport including associated amenities or Well-designed sub-tropical city structures. Provide effective stakeholder and community Inclusive caring communities consultation Cooperative governance Effectively manage the impact on local Inclusive caring communities community Learning and informed communities Promote community capacity building and Inclusive caring communities events and assist the local area to Learning and informed communities accommodate social, economic and Connected and engaged communities City of Inclusive Communities technological changes. Contribute to a reduction in vehicle Clean airClean sustainable energy use emissions due to the provision of more energy efficient transport movement Minimise and manage impacts of noise and Inclusive caring communities vibration Better Public Health Minimise and manage impacts of air Inclusive caring communities pollutants Better Public Health Provide best practice environmental Sustainable water use outcomes Towards zero waste

Green & CleanGreen & City Cleaner sustainable energy use Healthy River and bay Green and bio-diverse city

- 195 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

City-wide Outcomes for Brisbane

Project Objectives Indicators Clean air Food in the City Safe communities Sustain-able water use & Healthy river bay Effective growth management zero Towards waste Inclusive, caring communities Out-standing city profile Cooperative governance Cleaner sustain-able energy use Healthy economy Green & bio- diverse city Better public health Learning & informed communities Effective road networks Well-designed responsive built environment Active & healthy communities Connected & engaged communities Green & active transport BCC Corporate Objectives Improve access to key city and regional Learning and Informed communities features Connected and engaged communities

Achieve high quality aesthetics of bridge and Outstanding city profile approaches Well-designed sub-tropical city

Provide innovation in design including Well design sub-tropical city Creative City integration of cultural literacy interpretation Connected engaged communities

Enhancing social diversity, choice and Learning and informed communities accessibility Connected and engaged communities

Contribute to the effectively servicing high Effective Growth Management density urban development in South Healthy Economy World City World Regional & Brisbane, West End and Wooloongabba

Contribute to effectively servicing urban Effective growth management renewal of inner-city areas Healthy economy Well design sub-tropical built environment Effectively address project affordability Effective growth management Healthy economy Effective road networks Minimise impacts on local businesses during Effective growth management construction Healthy economy

Provide innovation in delivery Cooperative governance Healthy economy

Smart & Prosperous city Facilitate investment of local business in Inclusive caring communities social infrastructure Connected and engaged communities

STRONG MODERATE WEAK NOT KEY LINK LINK LINK APPLICABLE

- 196 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

6.3.2.6 The value-map

The value-map was compiled and verified in collaboration with Alliance team members (Figure 6.9). No amendments to the first iteration of this step in the value- mapping framework were considered necessary.

- 197 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Table 6-11 – Case 2 - Value-map

Stretch and/or Project Objectives Key Indicator Measurable Target (Minimum Condition of Satisfaction) Outstanding Tools ectives ectives

j Target Corporate Corporate Ob Improve accessibility in the Inner City Effective Growth Management Additional cross-river carrying capacity Carry 30% of daily traffic between the three bridges areas through additional cross-river (including Victoria Bridge and WJB) in 2021 capacity. Healthy Economy Cost benefit of travel time reductions? Effective Road Networks Manage competing demands between local and through traffic Improve level of service (LOS). Cleaner sustainable energy use Travel time values are Savings in vehicle hours per day: Currently F (Highly congested with – Private car users: $10.22 per person hour; HSL users - Total 286hrs (2011); 953hrs (2016); 1,897hrs significant delays) i.e. reduce – Business car users: $32.68 per person hour; and (2026). Other Network users - Total 3436hrs (2011); congestion (including travel times & – Commercial (heavy) vehicle users $17.17 per 5,687hrs (2016); 16,982hrs (2026) delays) on existing road network vehicle hour including allowance for freight value of Saving in vehicle km per day: Total 5675km (2011); time; Average private car occupancy is 1.45 persons; 28,479km(2016); 31,206km (2026). Other Network users - Average commercial vehicle occupancy is 1 person; Total 5544km (2011);419,988km (2016); 195,458km (2026) Effective Road Networks Unit crash costs are: – Motorway: $14,100 per million VKT – Expressway: $14,100 per million VKT – Arterial road: $45,200 per million VKT – Suburban road: $62,100 per million VKT – Local road: $62,100 per million VKT; Provide opportunities for improvement Cleaner sustainable energy use Improvements in % usage Accessible City City Accessible in public transport especially to north % of new services - natural gas buses & west. Effective Road Networks Maintain accepted LOS on shared road network to enable efficient and effective public transport service Green & Active Transport Improve environments and connectivity re bus and rail services Provide for safe, legible and equitable Safe communities Safe adequate lighting; clear views for surveillance; integrated transport, pedestrian designated circulation routes; equitable access for all linkages and associated amenities or users structures. Inclusive caring communities Enhance safety for after hours services Effective road networks Manage conflicts of use between cyclists and pedestrians Free-flow electronic tolling Cooperative governance Implementation Improve opportunities for walking and Safe communities Enhance personal security around parks and in Separated pedestrian & cyclist facilities connecting into cycling for 'journey to work' and isolated areas existing network recreational purposes Green & Active Transport Integrate precincts to ensure improved linkages & connectivity Increase opportunities for ped. & Well designed responsive built Attractive access to the community to walking and cycle network linkages and environment cycling connection to major land uses. Connected & Engaged Links for communities immediately north and south of Connections to Suncorp Stadium, Coronation Drive cycle Communities river path, Southbank & Riverside Drive parklands. Green & Active Transport Cross river cycle groups Manage traffic flow to enhance traffic Safe communities Safety around schoolsCPTED principles integrated Active & Healthy City City & Healthy Active safety for peds & cyclists Better Public Health

- 198 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Stretch and/or Project Objectives Key Indicator Measurable Target (Minimum Condition of Satisfaction) Outstanding Tools ectives ectives

j Target Corporate Corporate Ob Effective Road Networks Improved pedestrian wait times; Smart design for pedestrians Provide improvements to local Outstanding city profile Legibility Sub-tropical boulevards to Merrivale and Cordelia Street footpaths & streetscapes Recognisable precinct character (To be confirmed) Well designed responsive built Enhanced desirability through better design environment Provide a sense of spaciousness, Outstanding city profile Sub-tropical boulevards to Merrivale and Cordelia Street context, & site responsive to the s. Urban landscaping Brisbane region. Green & bio-diverse city Implement passive design strategies Consider prevailing breezes, solar access, ventilation through buildings, structures; optimise climatic conditions (HSL Contract) Well designed responsive built Enhanced streetscaping

Sub-Tropical City City Sub-Tropical environment Manage the relationship between Green & bio-diverse city Integrate vegetation and landscape at interfaces built forms, urban edge, & the Well designed responsive built Broad community acceptance of the bridge and Design awards, Community satisfaction surrounding terrain environment approaches aesthetics (HSL contract)

Provide a safe project in all project Safe communities Continuous health & safety improvements for all Zero harm (No Lost Time Injuries) phases (workers, road users, ped. / alliance employees cycle) Better Public Health During delivery - Lost Time injury rates Active & Healthy Communities Acknowledge person well-being improvement (HSL Alliance) Provide safe, legible & equitable Safe communities integrated transport including Well-designed sub-tropical city associated amenities or structures.

Assist the local area to accommodate Inclusive caring communities Improved access and opportunities for bicycle and social, economic & technological pedestrian movement. Increased traffic volume through changes. improved connectivity Learning & informed communities Provide effective stakeholder & Inclusive caring communities Cultural and heritage management plans Managed to the expectations of the custodians of community consultation heritage. No impacts to sites of cultural heritage significance) Cooperative governance Environment Design Report - establish design performance standards with respect to heritage (HSL Contract) Effectively manage the impact on Inclusive caring communities City of Inclusive Communities local community (homelessness) Learning & informed communities

Promote community capacity building Inclusive caring communities 15% improvement in relevant local community surveys and events and assist the local area Learning and informed to accommodate social, economic communities and technological changes. Connected and engaged

communities

- 199 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Stretch and/or Project Objectives Key Indicator Measurable Target (Minimum Condition of Satisfaction) Outstanding Tools ectives ectives

j Target Corporate Corporate Ob Contribute to a reduction in vehicle Clean air Environment Design Report - establish design emissions due to the provision of performance standards with respect air quality. more energy efficient transport movement Clean sustainable energy use Decreasing per trip/capita consumption of non- (10% of benefits according to economic assessment see renewable energy & enhancing opportunities for ped. IAS Section C Economic) & cycle movement. Unit emissions costs (air pollution and greenhouse gases) are $0.103 per VKT for light vehicles & $0.831 per VKT for heavy vehicles; Minimise & manage impacts of noise Inclusive caring communities Reportable events During Construction: 100% community liaison issues and vibration Unit traffic noise costs are $0.00672 per VKT for light managed within the AMT. 100% notification rate to public vehicles and $0.01568 per tonne km for heavy for planning traffic movements. Project education vehicles; attendance of 4000. Zero impacts on city cat timetable. Zero reportable noise, vibration &/or air pollution events during delivery. Better Public Health Specify maximum acceptable noise level change from Max acceptable 3 dBA - Where there is more than this road corridor. noise amelioration measures shall be designed in accordance with specified guidelines Minimise & manage impacts of air Inclusive caring communities Reportable events During Construction: 100% community liaison issues pollutants To BCC AIR Quality policies and EPP (Air). managed within the AMT. 100% notification rate to public for planning traffic movements. Project education attendance of 4000. Zero impacts on city cat timetable. Zero reportable noise, vibration and/or air pollution events during delivery. Green and Clean City Clean City Green and Better Public Health Provide best practice environmental Sustainable water use Establish Benchmarks and targets - Achieve water outcomes (water, energy, waste, env. consumption during delivery and for operations which footprint, resource efficiency, is sustainable over the life of the project maintenance of aquatic biodiversity) Towards zero waste See Section C IAS Plant Utility; No impact from acid sulphate soils. Cleaner sustainable energy use Establish Benchmarks & targets - Achieve energy Use solar panels to produce energy. consumption during delivery & for operations which is sustainable over the life of the project. Healthy river & bay Measurement & monitoring. Environment Design No worsening of existing water quality Report - establish design performance standards with Vegetation, fish & wild life management to approval of respect to Drainage, erosion, sedimentation, water EPA quality, flora & fauna. Green & bio-diverse city No loss of vegetation marked for retention Improving access to key city and Learning & Informed communities regional features Connected & engaged communities Achieve high quality aesthetics of Outstanding city profile Customer satisfaction 95% customer satisfaction survey results at end of final bridge and approaches Industry recognition completion for aesthetics of bridge. 3 design awards. Well-designed sub-tropical city Produce a structured collaborative design process Provide innovation in design including Well design sub-tropical city Ensure that HSL is at forefront of sustainable Encourage innovation. Investment in culture. Embrace

Creative City City Creative integration of cultural literacy transport planning and innovation of global history interpretation significance. Connected and engaged Cultural Literacy interpretation owned by local Owned by local community & stakeholders communities community & stakeholders.

- 200 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

Stretch and/or Project Objectives Key Indicator Measurable Target (Minimum Condition of Satisfaction) Outstanding Tools ectives ectives

j Target Corporate Corporate Ob Enhancing social diversity, choice and Learning & informed communities Providing improved access to & from South Brisbane & accessibility West End Connected & engaged Interaction between institutions of regional & World class architecture, engineering & urban design communities international acclaim. Contribute to the effectively servicing Effective Growth Management Traffic congestion Reduced congestion; enhanced access to public high density urban development in transport; South Brisbane, West End and Healthy Economy Improved levels of service Reduction in public transport travel times. Wooloongabba Regional & World City City & World Regional Contribute to effectively servicing Effective growth management Milton, Petrie Terrace, West End, CBD & South Improve access to high density land. urban renewal of inner-city areas Brisbane areas (including enhancing established Healthy economy entertainment, recreational, retail, institutional & employment activities.) Well design sub-tropical built environment Effectively address project Effective growth management Usage rates affordability Healthy economy Attractiveness of proposal; Elasticity in toll.

Effective road networks Toll levels - "good Value" for toll paying user (HSL $2.27 for passenger vehicles in 2006 $s as per Contract) Supplementary Business Case. Minimise impacts on local businesses Effective growth management Satisfaction surveys 15% improvement in local community surveys; & 15% during construction improvement in customer satisfaction surveys from agreed (?) stakeholders (Alliance target) Healthy economy No need for compensation?? Smart city & Prosperous Provide innovation in delivery Cooperative governance Utilise latest thinking in construction, energy Interaction between key medical, technological, academic efficiency, communications and design. & research facilities Healthy economy Utilise latest technology in construction, energy efficiency, communications and design. Facilitate investment of local business Inclusive caring communities in social infrastructure Connected & engaged communities

- 201 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

6.3.2.7 Measurables and targets

Measurables and targets (Table 6.11) have been identified in collaboration with Alliance team participants for each of the project objectives included in the Case 2 value-map. Another key learning from this case is that these measurables and targets should be provided by the various discipline experts on the project team. For Case 2, access to these people was not available due to contractual time commitments. Measurables and targets were thus derived, were possible, from project documentation including HSL Business Case (BCC 2006d), HSL Impact Assessment Statement (BCC 2006e), South Brisbane Precinct Traffic and Mobility Study (BCC & Qld Gov 2005), HSL Newsletter Edition 1 (BCC 2005f), and the HSL Alliance 2007 document (BCC, MacMahon Constructions et al. 2007). These were then verified with alliance project team participants. It was recommended at this time that an additional column for Stretch and Outstanding Targets be added, to reflect contractual obligations. This is considered a valid inclusion which enhances the application of the vale-mapping framework throughout the project life cycle.

6.3.2.8 Review, revision and reporting

This step was not discussed on Case 2. As a ‘test’ case study, it was not intended that any on-going reporting to this framework would occur. The validity of this final step in the value-mapping framework was however agreed with.

6.4. Summary of Case 2 learnings

In addition to the modifications to the value-mapping framework which have been identified in the previous section, five key learnings emerge from this case.

 The framework is not intended as a tool for developing project Key Result Areas (KRAs) and Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). This needs to be clearly communicated at the onset of discussion regarding its purpose and application. As discussed in Section 4.1.7, the value-mapping framework is not intended as a dashboard reporting tool, but rather as a tool which provides a rich narrative with regards to the alignment of project outcomes with corporate objectives and intents.  The project needs to be in its pre-feasibility or early detailed feasibility phase for the most effective outcomes to be achieved. This relates particularly to the establishment of the project objectives, and identification of accountabilities and stakeholders.

- 202 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

 Participants need to be able to commit time to engage with each of the steps in implementing the value-mapping framework. Through integrating the framework into existing processes, benefits of this commitment can be maximised (Section 8.2.1). This includes time for content experts to establish measurables and targets.

This case thus results in the second iteration of the value-mapping framework, for implementation on Case 3 (Chapter 7).

These above issues have been important in informing the selection of the project for the third implementation case study, as presented in the following Chapter.

- 203 - Chapter 6 – Case 2 – Hale Street Link

This page has been left blank.

- 204 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

7. Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Case 2 provides a number of learnings and reflections (Section 6.4) which have resulted in the second iteration of the value-mapping framework. It also highlights the need to engage with a project as early in the project delivery phase as possible. This has informed the selection of the project for implementing the value-mapping framework from which the third iteration has been derived. This iteration was then subject to evaluation and reflection (Chapter 8), from which the final value-mapping framework developed (Figure 4.1)

7.1. Taking action to improve

This step in the modified inquiry cycle (Figure 3.2) is to take action to improve the problem situation, as explored (Case 1) and tested (Case 2) in the previous action- taking rounds. The second iteration of the value-mapping framework has thus been implemented in Case 3. This process includes undertaking each of the eight activities now identifiable as a part of the value-mapping framework. This second action-taking round includes extensive collaboration with project participants on the Northern Link project along with a review of project documentation, as detailed in the following section

7.2. Case 3 description

This project is an outcome of the pre-feasibility work undertaken in the 2005 TransApex review process.

The Northern Link would provide a cross-city tunnel connection between the Western Freeway at Toowong in the west and the Inner City Bypass and Kelvin Grove Road in the north … The Northern Link would have about 4.5km of tunnel and would provide the south-west to northeast element of TransApex. It would reduce traffic congestion on Milton Road and Coronation Drive by providing an alternative for Western Freeway traffic travelling to and from the Inner City Bypass. (BCC 2005b, p.76)

A Preliminary Assessment (BCC 2007f) was carried out for this project from November 2006 til July 2007. Brisbane City Council’s Civic Cabinet has given approval to proceed based on this report. The project timetable has been bought forward from the original by two years in order to take advantage of economic benefits including a potential bidding window for this scale of project in Australia,

-205- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link and to better enable continuity in the project team. Table 7-1 outlines the key milestones as at February 2008.

Table 7-1 – Northern Link Key Milestones (various sources) Initial Advice Statement submitted Sept 07 Preliminary Assessment Report completed July 07 Preliminary Assessment Report approval – proceed to Detail Feasibility Aug 07 Detailed Feasibility Commences Oct 07 Stage 1 Detail Feasibility - Information gathering Nov 07-Mar 08 Draft Terms of Reference (ToR) released Dec 07 Submissions regarding ToRs close Jan 08 Stage 2 Detail Feasibility - Impact Assessment Apr - Dec 8 Business case development Aug - Sep 08 EIS display Sept 2008 Procurement* 2009 Construction Commences* 2010 Operations commence* 2013-2014 * subject to approvals to proceed

The vision statement for this project developed by the joint venture team at workshops held in October 2007, states that ‘Northern Link will be a legacy project dedicated to bettering Brisbane by improving accessibility, connectivity and liveability’ (MIPO 2007a). Complimenting this statement is a set of four of Key Result Areas (KRAs) (Table 7.2) developed to meet Business Case and Environment Impact Statement objectives.

Table 7-2 – Northern Link key result areas (MIPO 2007a) Community and stakeholder engagement Value for money Knowledge Management Health and safety and learning and development.

The Preliminary Assessment Report (BCC 2007f) identified that Northern Link (NL) would:

 Reduce congestion on Milton Road and Coronation Drive by around twenty percent.  As 90% of Brisbane’s freight movements are by road, such a link could contribute to a substantial reduction in freight trips on the inner city and suburban road network.  Provide for express bus routes into the CBD cutting a bus journey from Kenmore to the CBD by 45%.  Allow motorists to travel from the Centenary Highway to the East West Arterial without passing through a set of traffic lights, using Airport Link.

7.2.1. Physical Description

The 2008 project proposal is for a tolled vehicle tunnel extending from the Toowong roundabout in the inner west of Brisbane, to the Inner City Bypass near Kelvin Grove, along a yet-to-be-determined alignment along Milton Road (Figure 7.1). At

-206- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link present, motorists travelling along the Western Freeway do not have a direct, non- suburban link to the City’s north and eastern freeways. It is estimated that 70% of the vehicles using the Milton Road and Coronation Drive route do not have the CBD as their destination (BCC 2007h).

The six kilometre long Northern Link includes five kilometres of tunnel and features:

 two separate parallel tunnels each with two lanes of traffic.  a speed limit of 80km/hr.  a ventilation system to manage air quality.  safety systems including emergency exists, fire protection and monitoring systems.  an electronic tolling system.

-207- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Figure 7-1 - Proposed Northern Link location (BCC Preliminary Assessment Report 2007, p. 24)

7.2.2. Engagement

The Northern Link project has been selected for Case 3 in response to the learnings identified in the previous chapter (section 6.4) and as an outcome of the following key issues:

-208- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

i. Case 3 was just completing the pre-feasibility phase when initial discussions regarding collaboration commenced. This timing, earlier in the project life cycle, aligns with one of the learnings from the previous case. ii. This project presents an opportunity to clarify project key performance indicators (KPIs) and Key Result Areas (KRAs), and establish links to corporate objectives, early in the project life cycle. iii. The use of the accountability and stakeholder mapping as a process for cross-checking existing project findings is beneficial to the project, and could assist in justifying the required time for participation of project team members, through achieving a tangible outcome.

Engagement includes a review of available project documentation; a series of semi- formal interviews; and a workshop with project team members (Section 3.3.3.1).

7.2.2.1. Review of documentation

The information obtained from a review of project documentation is useful for the following purposes:

 to identify project specific delivery processes as part of the organisational context  to establish the first draft of the Project Objectives  to align corporate objectives, TransApex service requirements, and strategic project objectives with the value mapping project objectives and opportunities  to complete the indicators matrix. This also draws upon knowledge gained in the previous two case studies with information being verified by project team members  for input into the value map - including measurables and targets

The following details relevant information and knowledge discovered in the course of this review (listed by project phase).

Phase 1 – Pre-Feasibility

 TransApex Strategic Context Report (BCC 2005a)  TransApex Pre-feasibility Report (BCC 2005b)  Cross River Strategy – Working Paper 2 (Queensland Transport, Main Roads & BCC 2003)  Brisbane City Council Transport Plan 2002-2016 (BCC 2002a)

-209- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Phase 2 – Detailed feasibility

 Northern Link Integrated Project Team Workshop Outcomes (MIPO 2007a)  Northern Link - Initial Advice Statement (MIPO 2007b)  Northern Link Road Tunnel Project - Draft Terms of Reference for an Environmental Impact Statement by (Qld Coordinator General 2007)  Northern Link Preliminary Assessment Report (BCC 2007f)  Northern Link website http://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/BCC:BASE:2108946491:pc=PC_2715  Northern Link Newsletters (various)

TransApex Reports (BCC 2005a and b)

Section 6.2.2.1 outlines the relevance of these two documents to both Cases 2 and 3. With specific relation the Case 3, the TransApex Pre-feasibility Report (BCC 2005b) indicates that the Northern Link project would:

• be used by 10 per cent more traffic with the bored option in place than with the railway option in place • remove a significant amount of traffic from the Toowong roundabout improving its operation.… • significantly increase traffic volumes on the Inner City Bypass where capacity constraints are less of an issue than on Hale Street…. • reduce traffic increases on suburban roads caused by the Hale Street Link and relieve congestion on the Western Arterial (Jubilee Terrace/Wardell Street) but slightly increase traffic on Kelvin Grove Road act as a bypass of Brisbane’s western suburbs together with the Western Freeway and the Airport Link and reduce traffic on the existing ring road known as MetRoad5 • cater for travel to major employment generators outside the CBD • significantly reduce surface road traffic volumes on Coronation Drive and Milton Road providing viable opportunities for priority bus lanes on Coronation Drive and T3 lanes on Milton Road • increase traffic on the Airport Link and decrease traffic on Hale Street Link, compared with the Hale Street Link bridge operating alone. (BCC 2005b, pp.81-82)

These initial objectives, measurables and targets were thus established at the pre- feasibility phase of this project.

In addition, the service level requirements discussed in Case 2 (Table 6.1) are of direct relevance for Case 3 input to the development of the hierarchy of objectives (Step 2).

-210- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Cross River Strategy (Qld Transport, Main Roads and BCC 2003)

The intent of this document was to develop an evaluation framework for cross-river transportation projects acceptable to Queensland Transport (QT), Queensland Main Roads (MR) and Brisbane City Council (BCC). The first step in this process was to establish a set of transport sector objectives (Table 7.3) from which a set of transport principles and evaluation criteria could be established, as the basis for an evaluation framework.

Table 7-3 – Cross-river Strategy – transport objectives (QT, MR and BCC 2003) Objective Sub-objective Project Costs Optimal project specification Project Impacts Safer communities Support economic growth Create liveable communities Ensure environmental sustainability Project Complementarity Efficient use of resources

These remain generic objectives, whose intent is accommodated within the TransApex service level agreements.

Brisbane City Council Transport Plan 2002-2016 (BCC 2002a)

This document includes a set of coordinated plans and strategies intended to highlight and address challenges for the following fifteen year period. These are grouped under a set of six strategic objectives (Table 7.4).

Table 7-4 – Brisbane Transport Plan strategic objectives (BCC 2002a) Quality public transport Managed travel demand Better coordinated transport and land use A safe and efficient road network Delivering the goods on time to the right place More clean and green personal transport

While this plan recognises the role of Living in Brisbane 2010 (BCC 2001a) it states that the particular role of the plan is to address the accessible city theme.

Northern Link Integrated Project Team Workshop Outcomes (MIPO 2007a)

This workshop identified four strategic objectives (Table 7.5), which were subsequently included in the Initial Advise Statement for the project. This information was subsequently published in Northern Link – connecting the western suburbs to the north (BCC 2007n).

-211- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Table 7-5 – Northern Link project objectives (BCC 2007n) Provide an effective and convenient bypass of the Brisbane CBD for cross-city movement of people and freight Address deficiencies in the national freight network to improve freight distribution in and around Brisbane Provide opportunities for additional public transport network capacity Assist the development of a sustainable urban environment for the inner western suburbs

These again become input to the hierarchy of objectives to inform the development of the project objectives required as part of the value-mapping framework (Step 2).

Northern Link Initial Advice Statement (MIPO 2007b)

This document is provided from the project proponent (BCC) to the Queensland State Government to advise them of the project intent, and to obtain a decision on the level of environmental impact reporting required. It identifies potential project benefits (Table 7.6) referred to throughout the documentation.

Table 7-6 – Northern Link project benefits (MIPO 2007b) Bypass of the Brisbane CBD for cross-city trips Improved journey time and reduced traffic accidents and congestion for private vehicles and public transport Improved local surface road network (and connecting arterial roads) including recapturing capacity for public and active transport Reduced noise levels and air quality impacts Increased economic activity through better links between land use and transport planning Direct and indirect employment creation throughout both the construction and operational phases

Potential project impacts referred are also referred to throughout the document (Table 7-7).

Table 7-7 – Northern Link impacts (MIPO 2007b) Traffic disruptions during construction phase Requirements for properties to accommodate the connections between the tunnels and the surface road network Construction impacts such dust, noise, vibration, water quality, night lighting Visual and landscape impacts and effects Environmental impacts during construction Changes in traffic flow and community movement patterns

Northern Link Road Tunnel Project - Draft Terms of Reference for an Environmental Impact Statement by (Qld Coordinator General 2007)

This is the Queensland State Government response to BCC with regards to the Initial Advice Statement. It details the need and draft criteria for an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). The EIS was not completed at the time of Case 3 being

-212- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link undertaken (Draft released in October 2008), thus no EIS objectives were available for this project. Table 7.8 presents the time lines associated with this process.

Table 7-8 – Northern Link Environmental Impact Statement timetable (http://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/BCC:BASE:1109278407:pc=PC_2882) Stage 1: Information gathering and draft Terms of Reference November 2007 - March 2008 COMPLETED Stage 2: Impact assessment April - October 2008 Project design Environmental Impact Business Case Assessment March - April 2008 Existing environment Market sounding and Preliminary concept studies research May - October 2008 Concept design: Impact assessments: Analysis of:  preferred alignment  traffic and  affordability  surface transport  delivery options connections  air quality  financial viability  ventilation system  cultural heritage  toll levels and ventilation  social and  value for money outlet site options community issues  work site options  sustainability Refined concept design: measures Business Case:  preferred  land use and  Council assessment urban design ventilation outlet  If approved, the sites project will move into  preferred work sites tender phase  urban design options Project reference design EIS

Northern Link Preliminary Assessment Report (BCC 2007f)

This report, finalised in August 2007, was required to ‘assess whether it is appropriate that the potential project be progressed to the PPP Business Case Development Stage’ (BCC 2007f, p.1). It lists three strategic objectives for Northern Link, consistent with each government’s strategic direction for the transport corridor (Table 7.9).

Table 7-9 – Northern Link strategic objectives (BCC 2007f) Enhance east-west transport efficiency Provide a motorway standard for freight Create opportunities for enhanced public transport

-213- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Northern Link Newsletters (2007h, 2008a, b and c)

The primary role of these newsletters is to keep the community informed of progress, and to actively encourage feedback. The December 2007 (BCC 2007h) newsletter includes a listing of project benefits (Table 7.10).

Table 7-10 – Northern Link benefits (BCC 2007h) Provide an effective bypass of the CBD for cross-city travel from the western suburbs Carry about the same number of vehicles that currently use Milton Road Reduce traffic on Milton Road and Coronation Drive Reduce the travel time of a return journey between the western suburbs and the airport Reduce freight and general traffic on local surface roads Reduce traffic noise and improve local air quality on roads where congestion will be reduced Provide opportunities to enhance public transport, and pedestrian and cycle networks.

These benefits reflect those discovered the other documentation referred to in this section. These benefits are not however presented to the community in the context of the corporate objectives with which they are familiar (i.e. Living in Brisbane 2026). As previously discussed, (Section 4.1.1.1) the LiB2026 themes were negotiated with the community and would thus provide a suitable platform for informing communities of the benefits of projects developed within this corporate framework.

The October 2008 newsletter (BCC 2008c) additionally details the traffic and transport benefits of this project. This newsletter discusses the role of Northern Link in terms of changes in travel patterns; travel time savings; and reductions in congestion on the road network in the project study zone.

7.2.2.2. Semi-formal interviews

Collaboration commenced in September 2007, with initial meetings with senior project team members (Section 3.3.3.1). Access was provided to fourteen project team members from the Integrated Project Team (IPT) for intensive consultation in November and December 2007. Twelve semi-formal interviews and one project team workshop (Appendix 1.4) were undertaken for Case 3. Interviews varied in duration from thirty to forty-five minutes, and the workshop of thirteen project team members ran for one and a half hours.

-214- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

These interviews were undertaken to in order to implement the value-mapping framework on the Northern Link project. Through a collaborative process Steps 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 of the framework were implemented, and subsequently amended to form the third version of the value mapping framework (as discussed in the following section). In mid-December 2007, the project team took over finalization of the content (i.e. measurables and targets for Step 7). It was agreed a follow-up meeting would be held in early 2008 to discuss further implementation. No further additions to the measurables and targets were provided at this meeting.

7.3. Implementing the value-mapping framework

This case enabled the implementation of the value-mapping framework, prior to detail documentation being prepared as a part of the detailed feasibility phase of project procurement.

7.3.1. Reflections upon implementing the framework

Key reflections as an outcome of this third iteration relate to:

 Project objectives  Accountabilities and stakeholders  Measurables and targets  Process issues

Project Objectives (Step 2)

The review of Case 3 documentation discovered five sets of strategic objectives, in addition to the TransApex service requirements, two sets of benefits and one set of impacts, all from the pre-feasibility phase of the project. This is prior to the detailed feasibility (including the Environmental Impact Statement and Business Case) and implementation phases, wherein additional sets of objectives have been found in the previous two cases. Common ground can be found between each of these sets of objectives. The TransApex document is the only document to refer the BCC Living in Brisbane 2026 themes, and to have any level of measurables of targets assigned to them.

The workshop process to establish the project objectives was invaluable. This engagement highlights the diversity of views within the project team as to (i) what constitutes a project objective, (ii) what contribution a transport project can and/or should make to the broader corporate objectives of the organisation, and (iii) what is

-215- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link the on-going role of project objectives throughout the delivery life-cycle. This is discussed further in Section 7.3.2.2.

Accountabilities and stakeholders (Steps 3 and 4)

The complementary nature of these two steps is acknowledged, and whilst the accountability and stakeholder mapping has been predominantly undertaken by two of the project team participants, the value derived through team members undertaking this process is clear. Through undertaking Step 3 concerns regarding the number of project objectives has been addressed, as this step clearly identified others beyond the project team with responsibilities for delivery on those objectives not traditionally a part of team delivery. Through undertaking Step 4, participants reinforce the value of naming stakeholders as a part of this process (as recommended in Case 2). This negates the need to prioritise the objective to the generic stakeholder group relationship.

Measurables and targets (Step 7)

A key reflection from this step in implementing the value-mapping framework, is the need to extend thinking beyond the business-as-usual paradigm when assigning measurables and targets. The tendency to ascribe known measures to the indicators became apparent. This is further discussed in Section 7.3.2.7.

Process issues

Three process-related issues are raised as an outcome of this case:

i. The application of the value-mapping framework needs to be included as a part of the Project Management Plan, and/or an organisations Project management Tool-kit, and its initial implementation commenced at the pre-feasibility phase of the project, and that time is available for its implementation. ii. The need for a simple user interface for input and reporting is required. iii. The data gathered has significant archival and re-use potential.

These points are discussed further in Chapter 8.

7.3.2. Second iteration of the value-mapping framework

All steps in the value-mapping process (with the exception of Step 8 Reporting) have been subject to active engagement with the collaborative organisation. The

-216- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link third iteration has then subject to further evaluation (Chapter 8) prior to the value- mapping framework being finalised (Section 4.1).

The following details to changes made in the course of Case 3.

7.3.2.1. Organisational objectives, outcomes and processes

As Brisbane City Council (BCC) is again the project owner for Case 3, a detail investigation of the organisational context has not required. Whilst the organisational decision-making process was the same as for Case 1, the delivery process for Case 3 was different. This is captured in a case specific overview process map (Figure 7.2). The generic elements of the map are as discussed in Section 4.1.1. This map was used to highlight points at which performance to the value-map indicators should be reported upon.

Case 3 confirms what was identified in Case 2, that is, that the detailed process maps such as those prepared in Case 1 are not required when those implementing the framework are familiar with the delivery and decision-making environment. Two situations are identified where these detail process maps may be of value:

i. Where a longer-term case study is being undertaken. Benefits would be to develop a better understanding of key process and decision-making; of increasing the transparency of that decision-making; and assisting in communicating the complexities of infrastructure provision in a simple to understand flow-chart. ii. Where a person external to the organization is facilitating the implementation of the framework.

Thus for Case 3, no detail process maps have been prepared.

-217- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Figure 7-2 – Case 3 Overview process map

-218- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

7.3.2.2. Identifying the project objectives

One substantive difference between this and the previous two cases, relates to the determination of the project objectives, and the key role that this activity plays in the implementation of the value-mapping framework. The value mapping process requires a set of objectives, which align with the pre-established corporate objectives. It is against these that indicators, measurables and targets are established, and subsequently reviewed, measured and reported upon.

Identifying the objectives

A first draft of the project objectives for Case 3 has been developed by the researcher based upon the following sources:

 Relevant performance indicators or critical success factors discovered from the literature review (Section 2.4.2).  Relevant critical success factors or project objectives from Case 1 and 2 (Table 5.11 and 6.1.1.4 respectively).  Project objectives identified from Case 3 documentation (Section 7.3.1)

These have then considered in (i) an initial two interviews with project team participants prior to the project team workshop, (ii) the workshop, and (iii) subsequent one-on-one interviews with each of the project team participants. Considerable discussion has been generated at the workshop regarding the identification of the project objectives, aligned to the eight LiB2026 corporate themes. Key points discussed in these sessions related to the definition of a project objective; the number of objectives; and the need to link to corporate objectives.

Contribution to corporate objectives

Project objectives within the value-mapping framework are aligned with corporate responsibilities, and may thus require indicators and measures which are outside (i) the responsibilities of the project team, and (ii) costs associated with the project budget. Options raised by project team members include:

-219- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

i. Separation into two columns, one for project objectives deliverable within the project budget and scope, and a second for project benefits or opportunities to be delivered by others and through other funding sources. ii. Identification of primary and secondary (or sub) objectives, where the primary are those deliverable by the project team iii. Ranking objectives in terms of delivery priority (i.e. primary, secondary and tertiary) iv. Identification of quantitative and qualitative objectives

All the above reflects a project team focus, rather than a broader corporate focus. As the intent of the value-mapping framework is to present a rich narrative for whole-of-project, ranking or prioritization is not considered appropriate (refer below). Similarly the separation of quantitative from qualitative criteria would likely result in the latter not being effectively addressed as a part of the delivery (Section 4.1.7).

The final iteration of the framework thus identifies if an objective is costed or non- costed (i.e. from the project budget), and Step 3 identifies those accountable for delivering on each project objective, thus satisfying practical concerns regarding the extent of objectives and responsibilities to deliver.

The number of project objectives

This issue is highlighted in Case 3, where twenty-three project objectives (with fifty- six indicators) are identified. The strategic indicators identified for Case 3 are intended to communicate broad project intent for several purposes including political and community-based. Implementation-stage dash-board indicators (as used in Case 1 reporting) are intended to quickly communicate project performance to contract parameters for board reporting. As described in Chapter 1, the intent of this framework is to communicate (i) project performance to corporate objectives and (ii) project value/s throughout the project supply chain. This requires a richer narrative than the former in order to (i) effectively communicate these intents to diverse parties; (ii) assign meaningful measures and targets; and (iii) to provide an auditable trail.

Hierarchy of objectives

The value of establishing a hierarchy of objectives as identified in Case 2 (Section 6.3.1) and is confirmed in this case, wherein TransApex and strategic project

-220- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link objectives are an important part of the discussions regarding objectives. The value of this hierarchy is clarified on this case (Table 7.11).

Table 7-11 – Case 3 hierarchy of objectives Objective Hierarchy Northern Link details BCC Living in Brisbane 2026 (ref) – includes Corporate Objectives eight (8) themes and twenty (20) outcomes TransApex Service requirements (ref) and Strategic Objectives four (4) Strategic Project Objectives (team notes) Twenty-three (23) objectives determined in Project Objectives workshop Fifty-four (54) indicators determined in Project Indicators workshop using indicator matrix

As with Case 2, the service requirements as detailed in the TransApex Pre- feasibility Report (BCC 2005b) are relevant for Case 3. These service requirements, aligned with each of the LiB2026 themes, are included in the project objectives map In addition the set of four strategic project objectives identified by the Integrated Project Team are included (Table 7.12).

-221- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Table 7-12 – Case 3 - Project objectives

Project Strategic Objectives Project Objectives TransApex service requirements

Status* Costing Costing Corporate Objectives

1. Provide an effective & Improve cross city and orbital traffic flow C Reduce cross city travel times convenient bypass of the Brisbane CBD for cross-city movement of people & freight 2. Address deficiencies in the Improve freight network efficiency C Provide priority corridors for freight national freight network to improve freight distribution in & around Brisbane 3. Provide opportunities for Improve local traffic accessibility on the local C Reduce CBD traffic congestion & improve local road networks. Remove additional transport network road network. through traffic from local streets capacity Maximise tunnel access without negative C Capture freed road space for public transport, High Occupancy Vehicles & Accessible City impacts on local network active transport incentives Provide opportunity to improve public NC Improve journey time reliability across the network transport service efficiency Provide opportunity to improve NC Improve pedestrian safety by reducing surface traffic pedestrians/cycle accessibility

& See Objective 3. above Provide opportunity to Improve NC Provide opportunities to expand the city's ped. & cycle network pedestrian/Cycle connectivity ve ti

City c Healthy A 4. Assist in the development of Maximise beneficial environmental outcomes Enable high-density housing by reducing traffic congestion & improving a sustainable urban public transport environment in the inner western suburbs Improve Brisbane's liveability Provide & maintain a road system that reflects the city's character & minimises negative impacts on nearby communities

Provide opportunity to improve surface Provide & maintain a road system that reflects the city's character & corridor to enhance sub-tropical local minimises negative impacts on nearby communities. Create urban Sub-Tropical City City Sub-Tropical environment renewal opportunities

See Objective 4. above Effectively manage the impact on local Improve community connectivity e Incl usiv

C community

-222- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Project Strategic Objectives Project Objectives TransApex service requirements

Status* Costing Costing Corporate Objectives

Business as usual indicator Provide a safe project in all project phases Provide a safe road system that considers the needs of all users, complies with appropriate safety and design standards and meets community needs & expectations Business as usual indicator Provide effective stakeholder and community Achieve awareness & support for the project through comprehensive consultation community consultation. Recognise & reflect cultural diversity Objective 4. above Provide best practice environmental outcomes Ensure any negative environmental impacts associated with TransApex are appropriately mitigated or managed. Minimise & manage impacts of air pollutants Improve regional air quality and reduce traffic related noise Minimise & manage impacts of noise and vibration Assist in the development of a sustainable Reduce traffic impact. Create streetscaping & "green space" opportunities urban environment for inner western suburbs Green & Clean City Business as usual indicator Provide high quality, innovative design Stimulate creative project input from private industry. Encourage solutions development & use of smart & innovative technology

City

Creative Objectives 1 and 2 above Deliver a legacy project as per the project Facilitate economic prosperity through strategic transport infrastructure. vision statement Significantly reduce the economic cost of congested road networks Objective 4. above Contribute to the effectively servicing of high Foster continued growth in south-east Queensland density urban development in Toowong & World City City World Regional & Regional Milton Business as usual indicator Provide innovation in delivery Apply leading "smart" technology such as e-tolling, tunnel environmental management. Promote long term asset management principles with a "whole-of-life" focus See Objective 3. above Effectively address project affordability Support the long-term financial sustainability of all levels of government. Ensure affordability & market-place bankability of individual links Smart & See Objective 1 above. Provide infrastructure which facilitates Encourage economic development - create employment, involve local

Prosperous city city Prosperous economic growth and employment industry

-223- Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

7.3.2.3. Map Accountabilities

Input to the accountability map has been substantially provided by project team participants (Table 7.13). As a result of this engagement three changes have been made to this worksheet:

i. The deletion of the column headed ‘through what mechanism’. This was considered to provide no additional value, as the ‘mechanism’ would be identified by the nominated accountable party. ii. The ‘with what outcomes’ column has also deleted. This change is made for a number of reasons including (i) the alignment with a specific project objective means that a desired intent is already specified, (ii) that the outcome will again be decided upon by the accountable party. iii. Re-ordering the columns to be more in line with intuitive thinking process. iv. This map has also been cross-reference to the value-map (Step 7), via an ‘ACTION’ column in the value-map and a ‘TO WHOM?’ column in the accountability map (Section 7.3.2.6).

Items (i) and (ii) may add value to the process if the value-mapping framework is being implemented at a corporate level within an organisation rather than at a project level (Section 8.3.1). However, in the context of application by project team members on a major project, the above changes are considered appropriate.

- 224 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Table 7-13 – Case 3 - Accountability map

To Who shares Project Objectives Accountable for what? whom accountability? ? Corporate Objectives

Improve cross city TransApex TransApex project delivery BCC & orbital traffic flow Board Translink TransApex project delivery State BCC CP Urban planning policy for CBD BCC Improve freight ATC, BCC CP Appropriate size & order of developments & BCC network efficiency matched infrastructure PBC, BCC CP Appropriate size & order of developments & BCC matched infrastructure Fed. Gov. Provision of infrastructure to support economic Fed. development significant to region Gov. State Gov. Provision of infrastructure to support economic State development significant to region Industry Assoc. Appropriate road user behaviour (i) route selection, Mem. (ii) truck/vehicle size DMR Appropriate vehicle type/size & associated State. legislation Improve local traffic DMR Road standards; Infrastructure development in State accessibility on the region Gov. local road network. BCC MIPO Local infrastructure development BCC BCC T&T Traffic management of local network BCC BCC CP Integrated development with land use planning BCC Translink Public transport & infrastructure & service planning State RACQ Lobbying for motorists - improved safety, reduced Mem. congestion, demand m’ment Maximise tunnel Council - E&C Decision on transport mix e.g. T3s, bus lanes, etc BCC access without Council - T&T Traffic management & planning options BCC negative impacts Translink PT service planning State Accessible City on local network BCC M&C Delivery of message, communication to users BCC BCC CP Urban planning - changes to existing environment BCC Councillors Look & feel of neighbourhood - constituents voice BCC Provide opportunity Translink Ticketing & funding State to improve public BCC BT Operations BCC transport service BCC T&T Strategy & network development BCC efficiency Provide opportunity Council - MIPO Development of appropriate pedestrian/cycle access BCC to improve BCC CD Policies & standards for pedestrian /cycle BCC pedestrians/cycle infrastructure accessibility BCC CP Urban planning incorporating pedestrian /cycle BCC access Bicycle Qld Lobbying for cycle access & development Mem. improvements DMR Provision of cycle infrastructure within DMR road State reserves/corridors Councillors Lobbying for safe & effective pedestrian /cycle BCC access Disability Lobbying for disability access & development State Services improvements Provide opportunity BCC CCS Anzac Park - facilitating pedestrian /cycle activities BCC to improve within destination ped./cycle activities BCC CCS Botanic Gardens - facilitating pedestrian /cycle BCC including activities within destination

Active & connectivity

Healthy City Maximise beneficial BCC CCS; Sustainable development of public asset (i) water BCC environmental Botanic Gardens harvesting for self-sufficiency, (ii) facilities to attract outcomes public BCC MIPO Minimising disruption /delay to sustainability BCC initiatives (i) exceeding minimum outcomes (how can NL deliver benefits to Mt Cootha) (ii) facilitate development of DMR bikeway Improve Brisbane's BCC Brisbane Transport Plan, City Shape, TransApex

Sub-Tropical City liveability BCC MIPO TransApex BCC BCC CP Urban Planning

- 225 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

To Who shares Project Objectives Accountable for what? whom accountability? ? Corporate Objectives

Provide opportunity BCC CP Urban planning outcomes, urban look & feel, BCC to improve surface outdoor activity centres corridor to enhance BCC CD Design policies for soft & hard landscaping BCC sub-tropical local PPP Company Urban design treatment Comm environment BCC MIPO Integration with City Planning - proactive BCC coordination BCC CCS Operating issues for parks & gardens BCC Effectively manage BCC MIPO Engineering & EIS reference design - BCC the impact on local constructability, traffic management plans, criteria for community tender evaluation, land impacts - considerate process PPP Company Implementing mitigation measures Comm BCC M&C The message BCC BCC T&T Strategy & network development BCC BCC BT Providing more bus/ferry services BCC QR Providing more trains/carriages State BCC CD Urban planning outcomes, urban look & feel, BCC outdoor activity centres, pedestrian /cycle paths BCC CP Land use planning, Transit Oriented Developments BCC BCC CP Understand desirability of connections to local BCC community (i) resumption impacts & visual amenity, (ii) urban renewal benefits, (iii) connectivity benefits Provide a safe BCC MIPO Feasibility study & procurement phase safety BCC project in all project PPP Company Construction & operation phases (safety) Comm phases . BCC T&T Zero Harm BCC

City of Inclusive Communities BCC BT Driver training, vehicle maintenance etc BCC Translink Zero Harm State Gov. Provide effective BCC MIPO Communicate with claimants - CHMP (indigenous) BCC stakeholder & criteria for tender evaluation community PPP Company Managing CHMP Claima consultation nt Claimants Protecting interests (preserving significant heritage), Comm managing relationships Env. Provide best BCC MIPO Planning for sustainable development - ref design, BCC practice criteria for tender evaluation environmental EPA Noise, AQ, water use-reuse, waste management, State outcomes spoil management /condition Gov. OLMCEO Guidance, direction & support of sustainability BCC initiatives PPP Company Implement BCC requirements & innovation to Comm exceed minimum requirements BCC MIPO Planning for sustainable development - ref design, BCC criteria for tender evaluation EPA Noise, AQ, water use-reuse, waste management, State spoil management/conditions OLMCEO Guidance, direction & support of sustainability BCC initiatives PPP Company Implement BCC requirements & innovation to exceed minimum requirements Minimise & BCC MIPO Identifying existing environment; BCC manage impacts of Forecasting/modelling future state with/without NL; Clean & Green Clean City air pollutants Design - implement AQM facilities & green initiatives/incentives e.g. trees EPA Policies & standards for air quality m’ment from State. ventilation outlets & vehicle emissions, & compliance PPP Company Design & construct innovative solutions Comm Vehicle man. Vehicle emissions reduction Comm Public Vehicle choice Comm Council Vehicle emissions Comm Minimise & BCC MIPO Feasibility study (i) identify & review susceptible BCC manage impacts of structures & proposed mitigation measures, (ii) noise & vibration identify noise impacts & property mitigation

- 226 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

To Who shares Project Objectives Accountable for what? whom accountability? ? Corporate Objectives

measures PPP Company D&C of noise vibration mitigation - insurance Comm EPA Policies & legislation from noise vibration limits & State hours of operations BCC CD Design criteria for road surfaces BCC DMR Design criteria for road surfaces State Assist in BCC CP Delivery on NHP BCC development of Community Involvement & feedback/input into NHP development sustainable urban BCC MIPO Communication with City Planning on NHP BCC environment for development /impacts & vice-versa inner western OLMCEO Adjudication of conflicts BCC suburbs PPP Company Design Development; Culture; Implementation Comm Provide high BCC MIPO Establish culture; include planning in reference BCC quality, innovative design & costings; transfer to PPP Co.; tender design solutions criteria & information memorandum OLMCEO Direction & support regarding cost versus aesthetic BCC trade-offs BCC E&C Approval BCC OLMCEO Direction & support regarding cost versus aesthetic trade-offs BCC E&C Approval BCC

Creative City PPP Company Design Development; Culture; Implementation BCC BCC MIPO Facilitate innovation at all levels; Plan inclusion of BCC Provide high innovative solutions; Transfer to PPP Co. - tender quality, innovative evaluation criteria, data rooms, communications, design solutions international interest; Educate - What is a world city? cont’d Inform & lead project team Deliver a legacy PPP Company Innovative solutions for connections; Implementation Comm project as per – construct & operations project vision OLMCEO Cost/innovation trade-off - affordability BCC statement BCC E&C Approval of business case BCC BCC T&T PT opportunities; T3 BCC BCC CP Regional world city planning policies BCC Translink PT infrastructure & service planning State BCC CP Delivery of NHP incorporating TOD BCC Contribute to the Translink Infrastructure provision & service planning State effectively servicing BCC BT Operation of services & provision of buses BCC of high density

Regional & World City BCC MIPO Liaison with City Planning, Translink & Brisbane BCC urban development Transport in Toowong & Community Involvement in NHP, development & feedback on Milton need for TOD Provide innovation MIPO Reference design - tender evaluation/value for BCC in delivery money - transfer to PPP Co PPP Co Value for Money, experienced team, use of Comm resources, innovations in D&C DMR/CoG/QT/ Government interface agreements, legislation, toll- State Treasury/Transli way approval nk BCC MIPO Reference design - tender evaluation - transfer to BCC PPP Co Effectively address TransApex Guidance, direction & support of recommendation BCC project affordability Board BCC E&C Approval of Recommendation BCC ATC, BCC CP Appropriate size & order of developments & matched infrastructure Fed. Gov. Provision of infrastructure to support economic development significant to region Smart & Prosperous city State Gov. Provision of infrastructure to support economic development significant to region, SEQIPP, SEQRP Industry Assoc. Appropriate road user behaviour (i) route selection, (ii) truck/vehicle size DMR BCC Brisbane Transport Plan, City Shape, TransApex

- 227 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Legend for Table 7-13

ATC Australia Trade Coast Comm Community BCC Brisbane City Council (BCC) DMR Queensland Department of Main Roads BCC BT BCC Brisbane Transport Env. Environment BCC CD BCC City Design EPA Environment Protection Agency BCC CCS BCC Community & Customer Services JV Joint Venture partners BCC CP BCC City Planning Division Mem Members of association BCC E&C BCC Establishment & Coordination Committee OLMCEO BCC Office of Lord Mayor & CEO BCC MIPO BCC Major Infrastructure Project Office RACQ Royal Automobile Club of Qld BCC M&C BCC Marketing & Communications State Queensland State Government BCC T&T BCC Transport and Traffic Division QR Queensland Rail CoG Qld Coordinator General

7.3.2.4. Map Stakeholders

In Case 2 a three-tiered prioritization process was tested for this phase, as per the original stakeholder mapping tool (Holme and Watts 2000). As an outcome of this testing, the prioritization process was limited to primary and secondary relations, with specific stakeholders within the generic groups to be named. Through implementing this on Case 3, the stakeholder map (Figure 7.14 – refer Table 7.13 for legend), provides a comprehensive listing of project stakeholders for each of the ten generic groupings (x axis), against each of the project specific objectives (y axis).

The nature of the engagement with each of these stakeholders is not specified by the value-mapping framework, excepting where they have defined accountabilities identified in Step 3. Case 2 demonstrated a range of formal methods for engagement (Section 6.1.1.1). Clarifying these formal arrangements, to improve stakeholder engagement, is recommended as an area for future research (Section 8.5.3).

- 228 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Table 7-14 – Case 3 - Stakeholder map Stakeholders

Project Objectives Details of Stakeholders Corporate Objectives Ratepayers, constituents Councillors Employees, Executive Customers Business Partners Suppliers Regional Councils State / Fed. Government Lobbyists Communities Environment Improve cross city and orbital traffic flow Bus Partners: TransApex Board, BCC CP State/Fed Govt: Translink

Improve Freight network efficiency Customers: Industry Assoc., ATC, PBC Bus Partners: BCC CP State/Fed Gov: DMR (infrastructure provision) Improve local traffic accessibility on the local road State/Fed Govt: DMR, Translink network. Bus Partners: BCC T&T, BCC CP Lobbyists: RACQ Maximise tunnel access without negative impacts State/Fed Govt: Translink on local network Bus Partners: BCC CP, BCC E&C, BCC T&T, BCC M&C

Provide opportunity to improve pedestrians/cycle Customers: Pedestrians / Cyclists Accessible City accessibility State/Fed Gov: DMR, Disability Services, Elected Reps Lobbyists: Bicycle Queensland Bus Partners: BCC CD, BCC CP, JV Provide opportunity to improve public transport Customers: Public Transport Users service efficiency Bus Partners: JV State/Fed Gov: Translink (funding) Communities: Friends of the Cemeteries Improve opportunities for pedestrian/cycle Bus Partners: BCC CCS

y activities including connectivity

Cit Healthy

Active & Maximise beneficial environmental outcomes Business Partners : BCC CCS, JV

Improve Brisbane's liveability

Provide opportunity to improve surface corridor to Business Partners: JV, BCC CD, PPP Co., BCC CCS enhance sub-tropical local environment Sub-Tropical City

- 229 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Stakeholders

Project Objectives Details of Stakeholders Corporate Objectives Ratepayers, constituents Councillors Employees, Executive Customers Business Partners Suppliers Regional Councils State / Fed. Government Lobbyists Communities Environment Effectively manage the impact on local community Provide a safe project in all project phases Bus Partners: JV, PPP Co., BCC BT, BCC T&T State/Fed Govt: Translink City of

Inclusive Provide effective stakeholder and community

Communities consultation Provide best practice environmental outcomes

Minimise & manage impacts of air pollutants, Customers: Vehicle Manufacturers, Public modal shift from private to public (natural gas Business Partners: JV, PPP Co., BCC BT buses) State/Fed Govt: EPA Suppliers: Vehicle Manufacturers Minimise and manage impacts of noise and Business Partners: JV, BCC CD, PPP Co. vibration State/Fed Govt: EPA, DMR

Green & CleanGreen & City Assist in development of sustainable urban environment for inner western suburbs Provide high quality, innovative design solutions City

Creative Deliver a legacy project as per project vision

statement y Contribute to the effectively servicing of high Cit density urban development in Toowong and Regional and World Milton Provide innovation in delivery

y Effectively address project affordability

cit

Smart and Provide infrastructure which facilitates economic prosperous growth and employment

PRIMARY LINK SECONDARY LINK

- 230 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

7.3.2.5. Indicator development

Brisbane City Council has a clearly defined set of eight corporate objectives with twenty city-wide outcomes (Section 4.1.1) which are used, in part, to both define and measure performance. These outcomes are used to establish indicators for the value-mapping framework (Section 4.1.5). This step in the process remains unchanged from the second iteration of the framework as tested in Case 2. A total of fifty-four primary linkages have been identified with the relevant outcomes becoming the key performance indicators. These then transfer to the final value map, and measurables and targets established (Figure 7.15).

- 231 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Table 7-15 – Case 3 - Indicators matrix City-wide Outcomes for Brisbane

ectives Project Objectives Indicators j Corporate Ob onsive built env. onsive built p Active & healthy communities Connect-ed & engaged communities Green & active trans- port Clean air Food in the City Safe communities Sustainable water use Healthy river & bay Effective growth management waste zero Towards Inclusive, caring communities Out-standing city profile Cooperative governance Cleaner sustainable energy use Healthy economy Green & bio-diverse city Better public health Learning & informed communities Effective road networks Well-designed res

Improve cross city and Effective Growth M’ment; orbital traffic flow Effective Road networks

Improve Freight network Effective Growth M’ment; Clean & efficiency sustainable energy use; Effective Road networks Improve local traffic Effective Growth M’ment; accessibility on local Clean & sustainable energy use; road network. Effective Road networks

Provide opportunity to Effective Growth M’ment; Cleaner improve public transport sustainable energy use; Green & service efficiency active transport

An Accessible City Maximise tunnel access Effective Growth M’ment; Effective without negative impacts Road networks on local network

Provide opportunity to Safe Communities; Active and improve ped./cycle Healthy Communities accessibility

y Improve opportunities Better public health; Active & for ped./cycle activities healthy communities; Green & including connectivity active transport Health

Active &

- 232 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

City-wide Outcomes for Brisbane

ectives Project Objectives Indicators j Corporate Ob onsive built env. onsive built p Active & healthy communities Connect-ed & engaged communities Green & active trans- port Clean air Food in the City Safe communities Sustainable water use Healthy river & bay Effective growth management waste zero Towards Inclusive, caring communities Out-standing city profile Cooperative governance Cleaner sustainable energy use Healthy economy Green & bio-diverse city Better public health Learning & informed communities Effective road networks Well-designed res

Maximise beneficial Sustainable water use; environmental outcomes Cooperative governance; Green & bio-diverse city Improve Brisbane's Inclusive caring; Active & healthy; livability Connected & engaged Opportunity to improve Green & bio-diverse city; Well- surface corridor to designed & engaged Sub-tropical City enhance s-t local env. Effectively manage the Effective Growth M’ment; Healthy impact on local economy; Connected engaged community Provide a safe project in Safe; Better Public health all project phases Provide effective Inclusive caring; Communities stakeholder and Learning & informed City of Inclusive community consultation Provide best practice Sustainable water use; Zero environmental outcomes waste; Clean sustainable energy use; Well-designed responsive built env.; Green & Active transport Minimise & manage Clean air; Towards zero waste; impacts of air pollutants Better public health Minimise & manage Effective growth M’ment; Better impacts of noise & public health vibration

Green & CleanGreen & City Assist to develop Learning & informed; Connected & sustainable urban env. engaged; Well designed for inner west suburbs responsive built env.

- 233 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

City-wide Outcomes for Brisbane

ectives Project Objectives Indicators j Corporate Ob onsive built env. onsive built p Active & healthy communities Connect-ed & engaged communities Green & active trans- port Clean air Food in the City Safe communities Sustainable water use Healthy river & bay Effective growth management waste zero Towards Inclusive, caring communities Out-standing city profile Cooperative governance Cleaner sustainable energy use Healthy economy Green & bio-diverse city Better public health Learning & informed communities Effective road networks Well-designed res

Provide high quality, Outstanding city profile; Well-

y innovative design designed responsive built env.

Cit solutions

Creative Deliver a legacy project Effective growth M’ment; as per project vision Outstanding city profile statement

y

Cit Contribute to effective Effective growth M’ment; servicing of high density Outstanding city profile; Well- urban dev. in Toowong designed responsive built env.

Regional & World & Milton Provide innovation in Healthy economy; Effective road delivery networks

Effectively address Effective growth M’ment; Healthy project affordability economy; Effective road networks

Provide infrastructure Effective growth M’ment; Healthy which facilitates economy; Effective road networks economic growth &

Smart & prosperous city employment

SECONDARY KEY PRIMARY LINK LINK

- 234 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

7.3.2.6. The value-map

This second iteration of the value-map includes two changes:

i. the stretch target column for measurables, as identified in Case 2 (Section 6.4.7), is added. As found in project documentation for each of the cases, stretch targets are often included in contractual and alliance documentation. This addition enhances the usability of the value- mapping framework throughout the project life-cycle. ii. an action column, as identified as valuable in this case to enable the review and reporting process (Section 7.4.8), and to link to the accountability mapping in Step 3, is added. This further enhances accountabilities, which is a key intent of this framework. This column was not however implemented.

In addition, information was gathered from sources other than the interviews and project documentation for the measurables and targets. This is discussed further in the following section.

- 235 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Table 7-16 – Case 3 - Value-map Measurables Tools Project or Corporate Target Stretch Target Project Objectives Project Indicator

Quantitative - Monetised Quantitative - Physical Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative Corporate Objectives Improve cross city Effective Growth Reduce through traffic from CBD MIPO expert input and orbital traffic Management network flow Effective Road Decrease total & heavy vehicles from MIPO expert input networks with the local & suburban road network Improved Freight Effective Growth Net economic benefit of usage Effective liaison with other agencies (i.e. Achieve SEQ growth, Economic modeling network efficiency Management Auslink) import/export targets. Trade statistics

Effective Road Reduced congestion costs Reduced travel times Improved travel time reliability (reduced MIPO expert input; networks congestion, improved connectivity & Changes in energy legibility) intensity (S&L Chap 15) Cleaner sustainable Reductions in life cycle cost for freight % saving in freight vehicle life Direct and Indirect; energy energy use movements cycle costs. consumption (S&L Chap 15) Improve local traffic Effective Growth Reduced travel costs and travel times Effectiveness and resilience of network. Impact on network of MIPO expert input accessibility on the Management through reduced congestion accidents; Directness of Fuel consumption changes local road network. required route of travel (S&L Chap 15) Cleaner sustainable Reduction in congestion MIPO expert input; Fuel energy use consumption changes and energy intensity (S&L Chap 15) Effective Road Ability to dedicate surface road network MIPO expert input; networks to transit & bus lanes due to reduction in Energy consumption by freight & private vehicle use of surface alternatives (S&L Chap 15) networks

Improved Effective Growth Increase in number of services Enhance community accessibility to x% of mode share Brisbane Strategic;

Accessible City opportunities for Management Improved network efficiency i.e. public transport for a wider range of New services? transport Model with add public transport Reduction in travel times travel patterns/trip purposes. on similar to Toll choice service model Cleaner sustainable % of latest technology buses serving this MIPO expert input; Energy energy use route. Reduced congestion for radial intensity (S&L Chap 15) routes. Reduction in private vehicle use.

Green and active Reduction in GGE emissions from fleet. Free flow; Condition of fleet Traffic counting transport Air quality monitoring

Maximise tunnel Effective Growth Usage rates for tunnel access without Management negative impacts on local network Effective Road LOS for local network. networks

Provide opportunity Safe Communities Reduced ped/.vehicle conflict in road Km of travel on dedicated to improve system ped./bike routes; reduction in pedestrians/cycle Reductions in extraneous traffic. interface with road network accessibility Active and Healthy Usage rates Improvements in ped/cycle facilities on % increase in usage Mode share; counting Surveys Communities inner surface roads with reduced traffic demand Improve Better public health Reduced ped/vehicle conflict in road Modal choice Baseline noise levels Housing opportunities for system characteristics - light pedestrian/Cycle Traffic/Construction Noise weight construction; connectivity ventilation requirements for summer Active & healthy Improved signal phasing for pedestrian MIPO expert input communities Green & active Provide potential of on-road cycle MIPO expert input transport facilities in key radial corridors with Active & Healthy City surface road traffic reductions.

- 236 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Measurables Tools Project or Corporate Target Stretch Target Project Objectives Project Indicator

Quantitative - Monetised Quantitative - Physical Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative Corporate Objectives Maximise beneficial Sustainable water Contribution to harvesting Engagement with Mt Cootha Botanic Water contribution? environmental use Gardens on stormwater harvesting outcomes project. Green and Environmental impacts - ecological Engagement with Mt Cootha Botanic Monetised environmental biodiverse city losses/gains where land is paved or Gardens. impacts (S&L) where green space is preserved. Improve Brisbane's Active and healthy Ped. & Cycle path accessibility for x km of connect ped/cycle x km of connect Counting Surveys liveability communities recreational & trip to work. path ped/cycle path Connected and Participation rates Community survey response Counting Surveys engaged - % of population & communities satisfaction levels

Sub-tropical City Provide opportunity Green and Description of significant impacts of Shade in the city Sub tropical planting Increase in shade; plant to improve surface biodiverse city activities on lands in protected or high selection corridor to enhance biodiversity value areas sub-tropical local Well-designed and Enhance Microclimate - heat maps Enhance Microclimate Heat maps Expert panels, environment engaged Surveys communities Effectively manage Effective Growth Changes in traveler costs Provide opportunity for better community Community survey response Changes in traveler costs; Expert panels; Delphi the impact on local management Changes in transportation choice and integration. Community cohesion. - % of population and Changes in transportation process; interviews; community accessibility Cultural influences on aesthetic satisfaction levels choice & accessibility surveys; comparative appreciation. case studies Healthy economy Business community Community acceptance of visual Community survey response Surveys; Visual elements. Extent of exposure and viewer - % of population and Impact Assessments sensitivity. Removal/ replacement of satisfaction levels existing pleasing or repulsive views. Provision of visually pleasing features.

Connected engaged Provide better connectivity for local Indirect effects - psychological impact of Community survey response Assessment of direct Expert panels; Delphi communities communities. Direct impacts including reduced social interaction in the - % of population and impacts process; interviews; relocations effects; barriers and community; noise; dust; debris; reduced satisfaction levels. surveys; comparative integrative features. road safety; parking impacts. Cumulative case studies effectives - combined impact of seemingly minor impacts.

Provide a safe Safe Communities Cost of crashes declines due to MIPO Expert input project in all project decrease in forecast kms traveled due to phases more efficient network Reduction in freight vehicles in urban & MIPO Expert input suburban traffic corridors Improved response times for emergency MIPO expert input vehicles. High-quality cross-city road network beneficial for security and emergency vehicle strategies

Better Public health Zero harm during construction - LTIFR; Zero harm during construction. Life cycle Zero harm during construction WHS reporting

City of Inclusive Communities training stages in which health & safety impacts of products and services.

Provide effective Inclusive caring Average hours of training per year per Programs for skills management & Effects of impacts on differing socio- Corporate reports Expert panels; Delphi stakeholder and community employee by employee category by lifelong learning that support continued economic or ethnic groups (access to process; interviews; community project phase employability of employees by project community services, unique practices; surveys; comparative consultation phase. % of employees receiving regular intricate social fabric) case studies performance & career development reviews. Composition of governance bodies & breakdown of employees per category (gender, age, minority group membership & other)

Learning and Involvement with Toowong Nature, scope & effectiveness of any Participation numbers Community Informed Neighborhood Plan development programs & practices that assess & engagement communities manage impacts on operations of community

- 237 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Measurables Tools Project or Corporate Target Stretch Target Project Objectives Project Indicator

Quantitative - Monetised Quantitative - Physical Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative Corporate Objectives Provide best Sustainable water Water management plan including Water management plan including Water Management Plan Expert panels practice use efficiency targets and benchmarks efficiency targets & benchmarks. Water Corporate Reports environmental withdrawal by source. Water discharge outcomes. by quality & destination Towards zero waste Waste management plan including Waste management plan including Waste Management Plan efficiency targets & benchmarks efficiency targets & benchmarks. Weight Corporate reports of waste by type & disposal method. Cleaner sustainable Energy management plan including Energy management plan including Energy Intensity energy use efficiency targets and benchmarks efficiency targets & benchmarks. Direct Energy Impact Analysis Energy Intensity modeling energy consumption through (S&L Chap 15) Energy Impact Analysis construction by primary energy source Minimise and Clean air Tunnel ventilation. Modal shift from MIPO expert input manage of impacts private to public (natural gas buses). of air pollutants Potential improvement in air quality impact in inner suburbs due to traffic relief on surface roads. Better public health Direct & indirect GGE by weight by project phase. Reduction in GGE due to reduction in overall vehicle kms traveled & lessening of travel in congested conditions ($'s & carbon trading).

Green & CleanGreen & City Minimise and Better public health Traffic and construction noise Deviations to base line Account for housing manage of impacts noise assessment characteristics - light of noise and weight construction; vibration ventilation requirements for summer Assist in the Learning and Involvement with Toowong Involvement with Toowong x% community satisfaction x plus y % Nature of engagement Surveys development of Informed Neighborhood Plan development. Neighborhood Plan development. community sustainable urban communities satisfaction environment for Connected and Involvement with Toowong Involvement with Toowong x% community participation x plus y % % of community engaged inner western engaged Neighborhood Plan development. Neighborhood Plan development. community suburbs communities participation Well designed Land use conversion costs Reduction in surface traffic enabling Modal choice Land use conversion costs. responsive built Land use impact cost estimates other ped./cycle friendly activities Land use impact cost environment estimates (S&L Chap 16) Provide high quality, Outstanding city Design community awards x number of national and x plus y number of Design Awards innovative design profile international design awards national and Expert Panels solutions international design awards Well-designed Blocking of existing pleasing views Community acceptance of visual x% community satisfaction x plus y % Community and visual responsive built env. Additional visual clutter elements. community impact surveys Extent of exposure and viewer sensitivity satisfaction Expert Panels

Creative City Removal/replacement of existing pleasing or repulsive views Provision of visually pleasing features Deliver a legacy Effective growth Innovation in delivery Innovation in delivery Expert panels; Delphi project as per management Accessibility and Connectivity process; interviews; project vision surveys; comparative statement case studies Outstanding city Innovation in design - livability - livable Livability - Improvement in legibility of Expert panels; Delphi profile city rankings network (Cultural sensitivity) process; interviews; surveys; comparative case studies Contribute to the Effective growth Uptake of high density development Improved amenity for high density Social and cultural impacts; Long term demographic Surveys and effectively servicing management opportunities development (street frontages; environmental justice (community data; tracking key interviews of high density pedestrian access) cohesion; changes in accessibility costs indicators Regional & World City urban development and choice. in Toowong & Milton

- 238 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Measurables Tools Project or Corporate Target Stretch Target Project Objectives Project Indicator

Quantitative - Monetised Quantitative - Physical Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative Corporate Objectives Contribute to the Well-designed Changes in market valuations; Quality of high density developments; Expert panels; Delphi effectively servicing responsive built accessibility community, social and cultural resources process; interviews; of high density environment and infrastructure; surveys; comparative urban development case studies in Toowong & Milton Provide innovation Healthy economy Attractiveness of project to potential MIPO expert input in delivery partners

Effective road % of cross city & orbital traffic captured % of cross city and orbital traffic x% of cross city and orbital x plus y% of cross MIPO expert input networks captured traffic captured city and orbital traffic captured Project affordability Effective growth Viability for BCC Changes in traveler costs Cost benefit achieved beyond MIPO expert input management PSC

Healthy economy Attractiveness of project to potential MIPO expert input partners

Effective road Usage rates for freight, public, private Usage rates for freight, public, private x % of user in relation to x plus y% of user in MIPO expert input networks User pays projections relation to projections

Economic growth Effective growth Environmental impacts - ecological Total number & rate of employee Social impacts. Anti-corruption policies & Decision rules; gravity Expert panels; Delphi and employment management losses/gains where land is paved or turnover by age group & gender by procedures models; analytical process; interviews; facilitated where green space is preserved. Direct project phase methods? Land surveys; comparative workforce by employment type by Conversion Costs. Land case studies project phase. Value of financial & in- Use impact cost estimates kind contributions to political parties, (S&L Chap 16) politicians & related institutions Smart & Prosperous city

Healthy economy Economic impacts - direct & indirect. Development and impact of MIPO expert input Financial implication & other risks & infrastructure investments provided opportunities re climate change. Policies primarily for public benefit & practices relating to spending on locally-based suppliers. Effective road Improved accessibility from western x% of freight using routes MIPO expert input. networks corridor to Australian Trade Coast & Changes in energy airport (tourism, trade & industry) for intensity to $ (S&L Chap freight; home to work; home to leisure 15).

Legend MIPO Major Infrastructure Projects Office – Brisbane City Council S&L Sinha and Labi 2007

- 239 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

7.3.2.7. Measurables and targets

The process of identifying measurables and targets for each of the value-mapping indicators was undertaken in conjunction with project team members, and where possible with content experts, though time commitments of project participants was limited this stage of the collaboration.

It was apparent, upon reflection at the time, that the process of identifying measurables and targets results in business-as-usual outcomes. The academic and industry literature previously reviewed was thus revisited, with the intent of finding leading edge rather than business-as-usual measurables and targets. Issues further explored related to the physicalisation and monetization of indicators (e.g. Bein 1997, Sinha and Labi 2007 and Litman 2007 as in Section 2.5), and sustainability and corporate social responsibility related indicators and measurables (e.g. Global Reporting Initiative 2002, as in Section 2.4.1). In addition measurables identified in the TransApex Strategic Context Report (BCC 2005a) were also used, where applicable.

Measurables

Measurables for the final iteration of the value-mapping framework (Table 7.16) have been formerly identified according to three groupings (Section 4.1.7):

 Quantitative - monetised  Quantitative - physical  Qualitative

Monetised measures

Sinha and Labi (2007) provide a number of examples of how monetised measurables can be determined for use in decision-making related to transportation projects.

Land-use impacts can be difficult to monetize, in part because it is difficult to predict changes in land use patterns resulting from a particular transportation policy or planning decision, and also because the various related impacts (economic, social and environmental) are mostly difficult to monetize. (Sinha and Labi 2007, p.406)

They provide the following example (Table 7.17) of the land conversion costs.

- 240 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Table 7-17 - Land use conversion costs per hectare per year* (Sinha and Labi 2007 p.408 Adapted from Bein 1997. * Original costs expressed in 1994 dollars, converted to 2005 dollars using the National Association of real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs) Historical Price Index ) Land-Use Wetlands Pristine Second Pasture / Settlement/ Pavement Categories Wildland / Growth Farmland Buffer Urban Forest Greenspace Wetlands 0 -11,000 -22,000 -33,000 -44,000 -55,000 Pristine Wildland / 11,000 0 -11,000 -22,000 -33,000 -44,000 Urban Greenspace Second Growth 22,000 11,000 0 -11,000 -22,000 -33,000 Forest Pasture / 33,000 22,000 11,000 0 -11,000 -22,000 Farmland Settlement/ Buffer 44,000 33,000 22,000 11,000 0 -11,000 Pavement 55,000 44,000 33,000 22,000 11,000 0

A further contribution is for cost estimates in cents per vehicle mile travelled (Figure 7.18 below).

Table 7-18 - Land-use Impact Cost Estimates (cents per Vehicle-mile) (Sinha and Labi 2007, p.409 – Adapted from Litman 2002) Cost Category Estimate (cents/VMT) Environmental costs of paving land for roadways 2.5 Aesthetic degradation and loss of cultural sites 0.5 Social costs 2.5 Municipal (or public service costs) 2.3 Transportation (both user and external costs) 6.2 Total sprawl cost 14.0 Automobile sprawl costs (total reduced 50% for other 7.0 contributing factors to urban sprawl)

A major difficulty in identifying and implementing such measurables on Case 3 is that such data for Australia, or for the South-East Queensland region is unavailable. The outcome is thus that the benefit and need for such measures is identified in Case 3, but the specific measurables are subject to further research (Section 8.5.3).

Physicalised measures

Sinha and Labi (2007) also provide an example of how some of the more complex interactions within the project supply chain can be effectively physicalised in order to more completely analyse and quantify project inputs and impacts (Figure 7.3). This example illustrates how the contributions to the energy impacts of a transportation project can be broken down into component parts.

- 241 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Figure 7-3 - Energy Impact Analysis Categories (Sinha and Labi 2007, p. 385)

Again physicalised measures for such a break-down are not readily available for the Australian or South-east Queensland context. This is again the subject of future research (Chapter 8.5.3).

Qualitative indicators

Additionally Sinha and Labi (2007) provide an extensive listing of qualitative criteria for use in measuring impacts of major economic infrastructure projects, than is typically applied in the course of measuring and reporting on these projects in the Australian public sector. They consider socio-cultural impacts as including ‘impacts on social interaction; on community cohesion; on pedestrian and bicycle safety; displacement or relocation impacts; environmental justice; … impacts on historic properties; impacts on archaeological resources’ (Sinha and Labi 2007, p.438). Indicators which they have identified for community cohesion include:

- 242 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

Interaction among neighbours; use of community facilities; long-serving community leadership; participation in local organizations; identification with the community; desire to stay in the community; satisfaction with the community; homogeneity (income, ethnicity, age etc); family versus singles orientated community; length of residency). (Sinha and Labi 2007, p.438)

They also provide a listing of environmental justice criteria which includes changes in traveller costs; transportation choice; accessibility; community cohesion; air quality; traffic noise; and visual quality (Sinha and Labi 2007, p.433). Some of these issues are currently assessed as part of major infrastructure development, in the context of environmental and social impact assessments (for example impacts on air quality and visual quality are assessed in environmental impacts statements, and accessibility and community cohesion are assessed in social impact studies.) There is however a greater opportunity to highlight these in the context of the value- mapping framework, wherein regular reporting is made on such topics, in the context of corporate reporting.

The work of Sinha and Labi, along with that of Bein (1997) and Litman (2002), is therefore used to expand upon the measurables and targets for Case 3. Due to the lack of regionalized data however, it is difficult to quantify such measures at this time. It remains important however, in the context of corporate reporting, that these issues are highlighted for on-going attention.

In addition, the Standards Disclosures: Profiles of the Global Reporting Initiative (2002) have been used to provide additional, relevant measures for inclusion in the value-map for Case 3.

Targets

The addition of a column for stretch targets (as per the outcomes of Case 2), was agreed as valuable, particularly in the delivery phase of the project. The setting of targets has been left for the project team to determine, pending corporate discussions as to resourcing for the on-going implementation of the value-mapping framework on this project.

- 243 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

7.3.2.8. Review, report and revise

This is the first case on which discussions occurred regarding future reporting using the value-mapping framework. Whilst it was not possible due to time limitations (Section 1.2) to undertake a reporting round, a number of issues have been discussed:

 the benefits an Action column, cross-referenced with that included in the Accountability Map, and cross-checked to the Stakeholder Map.  Enhancing the final reporting format, with suggestions being made regarding traffic light or spider-graph outputs or similar.  Integration into the Project Management Plan at the Pre-feasibility phase, so that ongoing resourcing is available to implement the value-mapping framework.  Embedding the framework into the organization’s Project Management Tool- kit as a web-based data gathering, reporting and archival tool.

These will be addressed in the proposed longitudinal case studies intended as a part of future research (Section 8.5.3).

7.4. Case 3 learnings

There are several key learnings from this iteration of the value-mapping framework:

Detail process maps

The initial process mapping (Step 1) is important as a step to identifying points at which reporting (Step 8) is be undertaken. The need for detail process maps however is dependent on who is undertaking the process. If it is being applied by project team members as a part of the Project Management Plan, the delivery processes will be well-known. If it is to be undertaken by a person external to the organisation, then some initial process mapping will ensure that the organisational and project delivery processes are correctly understood.

Project Objectives

Identifying the project objectives (Step 2) of the framework is a complex activity, which requires consideration beyond the traditional project responsibility boundaries. It is important to contextualise these objectives in a hierarchy with the corporate and strategic objectives which inform project needs, and to which the project will be

- 244 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link reporting. This needs to be an iterative process with Steps 3 and 4, to ensure effective and meaningful outcomes.

Accountabilities

The spheres of influence tool (Step 3) plays only a minor role as a warm-up tool for the workshop associated with the accountability mapping (Step 3). It can be used to broaden the perspective of workshop participants beyond the traditional project footprint.

In Step 3, accountabilities need to be identified by those persons or organisations to be engaged with outside traditional project team. This highlights responsibilities for delivery on project opportunities outside the project team. To this end the action column highlights how these broader responsibilities are to be addressed. This is then linked to the final value-map action items (Step 6) for reporting (Step 8).

Stakeholders

Identifying a list of stakeholders (Step 4) provides a tangible and practical outcome from this activity, and provides a more rigorous and auditable trail for stakeholder identification. Once identified, the relationship with each needs to be clarified. In conjunction with Step 3, those with direct accountabilities can be highlighted. The nature of engagement with each stakeholder then needs to be defined.

Leading-edge measures and targets

Measurables and targets need to be gathered from information and knowledge beyond the current, business-as-usual knowledge of content experts (Step 7). This is required in order to fulfil original intent of engaging with the precautionary principal; enhancing corporate and professional responsibilities; and delivery enhanced resource efficiency (Section 1.3).

7.5. Chapter Summary

This chapter has presented fieldwork activity undertaken on Case 3, to implement the value-mapping framework as a part of taking ‘action to improve the problem situation’.

- 245 - Chapter 7 – Case 3 – Northern Link

This implementation has resulted in the learnings presented above, and in the third iteration of the value-mapping framework. It is upon this iteration of the framework, that feedback has been obtained in a series of eight interviews detailed in the following chapter (Section 8.1). Combined with this feedback, and reflections by the researcher, the final value-mapping framework has been refined and presented in the following chapter (Figure 8.1), along with the various data sets which have been compiled in the course of the three case studies.

- 246 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

8. Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

This research seeks to address a gap in both academic knowledge and industry practice, with regards to tracking project performance to corporate objectives. This is important to enable the communication and reporting of organisational intent, impacts and outcomes, throughout the project supply chain, and to project stakeholders (Chapter 1).

The gap identified in academic literature has been discovered as a result of a review of literature across the four themes of corporate responsibility, project value/s, performance indicators, and measurables (Chapter 2). As an outcome of this review, a wealth of literature has been found relating to assessing the performance of projects in the construction sector, with specific regards to project success. Similarly considerable literature exists in a number of fields, focussed on corporate responsibility in the context of sustainability reporting, ethical frameworks and the like. Limited literature exists however when these themes are reviewed together, in the context of the provision of major economic infrastructure projects. Through establishing the validity of the link between project success and corporate responsibility, the literature is used, combined with the case study activity, to demonstrate how this can enhance project value, and how performance (in the broader context of corporate responsibility) can be effectively measured.

In order to develop a framework that can report on economic, environmental, social and ethical issues in the corporate context, a qualitative research methodology is required, that can capture and reflect the complexity of the topic. The research method established is an adapted inquiry cycle (Figure 3.2) drawing upon the Soft System Method (Checkland 2000), and integrated with collaborative, practice-based case studies, in an action research based environment (Chapter 3). This research method includes three cases through which the research problem is explored, and the value-mapping framework (Chapter 4) developed (Chapter 5), tested (Chapter 6) and implemented (Chapter 7).

As per this adapted inquiry cycle, a final evaluation of the framework is presented in this chapter. This is informed by (i) eight evaluation interviews undertaken subsequent to the case study activity, with other Australian organisations involved in the provision of infrastructure projects (Section 3.3.3.1), and (ii) from researcher reflections undertaken throughout the inquiry cycle. The outcomes of this final- round evaluation are presented in the following sections (Section 8.1.1 and 8.1.2).

- 247 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Three principal outcomes of this research are also presented in this chapter, by way of conclusions.

Firstly there is the generic value-mapping framework (Figure 8.1), as developed, tested, and implemented in the course of this research. The associated generic worksheets, as refined in the three cases, are also presented (Section 8.2.3). In providing a trackable, auditable and reporting link between project performance (with associated objectives, indicators, measures and targets) and corporate objectives, outcomes and values, this framework addresses the gap identified both in the literature, and in practice via the three case studies.

Secondly, the transport-based data-sets are presented. These are compiled from information gathered from the three cases, and include project objectives (Section 8.4), and measurables and targets (Appendix 5). Whilst these are specific to the case studies undertaken, they demonstrate a key outcome of the application of the value-mapping framework. The availability of such data-sets will better enable organisations to highlight the link between project performance and corporate reporting, through providing access to reportable data and information. It is envisaged that these data-sets will be further developed on an organisational or sector basis over time, with a focus on leading edge, rather than business-as-usual performance measures (Section 8.4.3).

Finally, there is the contribution that this research has already made, and expects to make to both academic research and industry practice (Section 8.4). Three peer- reviewed academic papers have been presented in 2008 (Section 8.4.1). These papers detailed the review of literature; the research methodology; an example of how the value-mapping framework can be used to address regional distinctiveness; and the framework evolution. Future potential contribution to industry practice (Section 8.4.3.1) relates to the potential commercialisation of the framework as an online CSR reporting tool. The future potential contribution to academic knowledge (Section 8.4.3.2) relates to (i) how value/s can be used to better inform project performance; (ii) how and what contextualised research needs to be undertaken for qualitative objectives to be better integrated into decision-making; and (iii) the role of stakeholder engagement in ensuring that both the above issues are more effectively addressed.

- 248 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

8.1. Final evaluation and specification of learnings

As per the final step in the adapted inquiry cycle, and subsequent to the three cases, evaluation of the research and its outcomes has been undertaken based on:

 external feedback interviews with eight stakeholders, from organisations across Australia, involved in the delivery of major projects.  reflections by the researcher on the overall research process and outcomes, and on the results of the above interviews.

This evaluation was also important in terms of validating the framework, and ensuring its generalisability in contexts other than that in which it was developed.

 Validation is evidenced through recognition in the course of evaluation interviews of the perceived benefits of applying the value-mapping framework, both in its intended form, and also as a potential tool for determining project success.  Generalisability is evidenced through feedback regarding the integration potentials for the value-mapping framework into existing risk and Gateway processes in both Queensland and Victoria, at a State Government level (the three cases where for local government projects).

Each of these issues is detailed in the following section.

8.1.1. External feedback

This was undertaken in order to refine the value-mapping framework, as developed in the course of the three cases. These interviews took place from February to May 2008. The participants were not involved with any of the three case study projects. The organisations with representatives include:

 Australian Procurement and Construction Council  Leightons Australia  Queensland Department of Infrastructure and Planning  Queensland Department of Public Works  Southern and Eastern Integrated Transit Authorities (Victoria)  Victorian Department of Education and Training  Victorian Major Projects Office  Victorian Department of Finance - Gateway Unit

Further detail of the selection of these people and organisations has been provided in Section 3.3.3.1.

Following content analysis of the interview transcripts, the key points to emerge from these semi-formal interviews are as follows.

- 249 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Process integration

Five interviewees identified the benefit of the value-mapping framework in linking with, and adding value to, existing risk management systems (e.g. Australian Risk Management Framework) and the Gateway process as currently implemented in both Victoria and Queensland.

This is addressed in Step 1 of the framework (refer to Figure 8.1 for Step numbers), which includes the development of a process map of the organisation’s decision- making environment. This is intended to ensure that the value-mapping framework is integrated into an organisation’s decision-making structure (e.g. the project management framework or toolkit). This enables integration of the value-mapping framework into an organisation’s risk management system, gateway processes, and the like.

Application benefits

Five of the interviewees indicated that the framework could add benefit to the delivery of projects. Four different reasons were identified:

 Implementing the framework places additional rigour on initial project justification.  Steps 1 to 3 of the framework provide greater focus on the development of project objectives and the identification of accountabilities and stakeholders.  The comprehensive assignment of measurables to project objectives and indicators is not currently business-as-usual (as found in each of the three cases) and is considered an important characteristic of the value-mapping framework.  The framework could be used to inform the selection of critical success factors (CSFs) of key performance indicators (KPIs). This is not an intended outcome of the framework, however costed objectives (Step 2) could be extracted for this purpose, and used to measure project rather than corporate success. This concept will be investigated as part of proposed longitudinal case studies in the future (Section 8.5.3).

Project success

Three interviewees indicated that they consider the number of objectives should be limited (e.g. six to eight) in order to enable the potential use of the framework as a tool for measuring project success. The intent of the value-mapping framework to describe the rich narrative associated with communicating and reporting on corporate value/s has been reinforced throughout this thesis. It is not intended as a dash-board reporting tool or the like. As with the above item regarding the derivation of CSFs, those project objectives which are deliverables from the project

- 250 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions budget (i.e. as identified as costed items in Step 2), could be extracted for this purpose, though this is not supported by research to date.

Layers of Government

Australia has three layers of government including the federal level representing a commonwealth of the States and Territories; six States and two Territories as the mid level of government; and then 673 local government authorities representing city and regional interests in 2008. The three cases were undertaken with local government participants. Two interviewees considered that the value-mapping framework could be translated for State Government use, whilst a third interviewee thought this might be problematic. The area of concern was with regards to the lack of a direct link with stakeholders (i.e. community), as is the case with Local Government agencies. This difference of opinion may reflect the difference in culture between the state bureaucracies; though this would need to be tested further in future proposed research (Section 8.5.3).

The ability to apply the value-mapping framework in differing environments is addressed specifically in Step 1, wherein the organisational decision-making environment is mapped, enabling the framework to be applied in differing environments, through the initial identification of corporate objectives and outcomes. For State Governments, the decision will need to be made between whole-of- governmental or Departmental level objectives and outcomes.

Time commitment

Concern was expressed by one interviewee regarding the time required to establish and assign measurables. It was also suggested that base-line conditions would need to be established for some of the measurables.

Assignment of measurables for each project type will initially take time and effort to determine. This is due to the lack of relevant data for the Australian context, for example, land use impact costs such as those identified by Sinha and Labi (2007, p. 409) are not readily available across Australia. This has been identified by the author an area of future academic research, for which seed funding has already been obtained from the Construction Industry Institute of Australia (Section 8.5.3).

- 251 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Bureaucracy

One interviewee was concerned that the value-mapping framework may impose another layer of bureaucracy. The key to the effective implementation of the framework is integration with other organisational processes, and the potential for the value-mapping framework to save time through (i) clarification of objectives, accountabilities and stakeholders early in the project life-cycle, (ii) more effectively communicate project objectives, aligned with corporate intent, along the project supply chain, and (iii) providing readily accessible data regarding project objectives, indicators, measurables and targets, which are updated quarterly throughout the project’s life. This will be tested in the proposed longitudinal case studies (Section 8.5.3).

Tradition procurement

One interviewee works in an agency which delivers projects via traditional procurement processes. Potential difficulties in applying the framework in a non- partnering contract environment were discussed. The framework was been developed for use in partnering-based environments, so use in a traditional, contestatory environments was not been explored in the context of this current research. One intent of the framework however, is to better communicate the original corporate intentions of the project proponent, as determined at the pre- feasibility phase of the project. Through establishing an explicit set of objectives and indicators, this intent may be able to be better communicated along the supply chain, regardless of the nature of the contractual environment. It is anticipated that this aspect will form part of the future proposed longitudinal case studies with the Sustainable Built Environment Cooperative Research Centre (Section 8.4.3).

8.1.2. Reflections on the process

The following presents the reflections by the researcher on the process undertaken.

The draft value-mapping framework (Chapter 5) explored the problem situation and developed a model for addressing it. This iteration included the development of a set of seven process maps (including those for organisational decision-making), and five worksheets in order to:

 identify corporate processes and decision-making.  capture project objectives from documentation and interviews.

- 252 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

 adapt the accountability map (Engen and Di Piazza 2005) for use in the value-mapping framework.  adapt the stakeholder footprinting tool (Holme and Watts 2000) for use.  develop a matrix for identifying project Indicators which aligned with both project objectives and corporate responsibility needs.

The first iteration (Chapter 6) tested all the aspects of the draft value-mapping framework (excepting the accountability map - Section 6.3.2). This case was used to test:

 the role of the process maps. This was determined as minor, when the organisation processes were understood, as would occur if the framework were applied by project team members.  the role of strategic objectives; and the contribution of project objectives to quantifying corporate success.  the use of the stakeholder map for identifying individual stakeholders.

This case also highlights:

 the value of including stretch targets for measures identified in the value map.  The effectiveness of measurables and targets being derived from documentation only.

The second iteration of the value-mapping framework was then implemented on Case 3 (Chapter 7). This resulted in the development of the value-mapping framework with eight activities with fourteen inputs, as presented to the eight interviewees for final evaluation, and reflection. This case highlights:

 the key role of identifying project objectives and the benefit of establishing the hierarchy of objectives.  the value of both the accountability and stakeholder mapping processes to the project team.  the need to approach the identification of measurables and targets from a leading-edge rather than a business-as-usual focus.

This adapted inquiry cycle enabled a consistent and logical progression from exploration, testing and implementation through the three case studies, with the knowledge base being expanded and verified as each case was undertaken.

The only limitation proved to be the limited time available for engagement on each case, as was recognised in the initial discussion regarding the research method (Section 3.2.4). The benefits of conducting longitudinal case studies applying the value-mapping framework are apparent, particularly with regards to developing Step 8 Reporting, revision and reviewing (Section 8.5.3).

- 253 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

8.2. The value-mapping framework

The final version of the value-mapping framework (Figure 8.1) is the result of both the feedback interviews as presented in the previous section and reflections by the researcher in Section 8.2.2, as a part of the final evaluation and reflection phase of the inquiry cycle.

The framework comprises eight activities with fourteen inputs and is the result of research carried out in accord with the adapted inquiry cycle (Figure 3.2). The evolution of these activities and inputs has been presented in detail in each of the cases (Chapters 5, 6 and 7).

Figure 8.1 illustrates the activities and inputs involved in the final iteration of the value-mapping framework. It is a framework which enables organisations to map each of their corporate objectives to project objectives in a manner which is trackable and reportable for the life of the project.

- 254 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Figure 8-1 – The final value-mapping framework

A generic version of the worksheets associated with the value-mapping framework’s inputs and maps are presented in Sections 8.2.2.

8.2.1. Reflections by the researcher

A number of key reflections by the researcher informed the final iteration of the value-mapping framework.

- 255 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Context

It is important that the strategic nature of the framework is understood by participants when the process is initiated. It is important to highlight that:

 It is primarily a corporate reporting framework, with pursuant benefit for project reporting. It is not primarily intended as a tool to assist with Environmental Impact Statement assessment, tender evaluation, CSF development and implementation.  It is a collaborative process which seeks to engage with all stakeholders with accountabilities for delivering on project objectives and opportunities.  It is complementary to other corporate and project processes including project management, Gateway, risk management, and project success reporting processes.

Stakeholders

One issue which has arisen in the course of this research is how to achieve more effective engagement with project stakeholders who are not party to a contract with the project owner. For Cases 1 and 2 this was in part addressed in part through establishing Memorandum of Understanding with key stakeholders in this category. Stakeholders with whom this occurred were large or influential organisations (e.g. the University of Queensland in Case 1 and the Queensland Theatre Company and others in Case 2). Smaller and less-influential stakeholders can be equally impacted however, and may have less opportunity for active engagement. Through engaging with Steps 2 & 3 of the value-mapping framework, the need to further explore how these less influential stakeholders can be more actively engaged with is apparent. Funding has been obtained for future academic research in this area (Section 8.4.3.2).

Measurables

Current data-sets for the transport-related measurables and targets are limited in the Australian context (Section 7.3.2). Litman (2007) provides a summary of relevant literature (Appendix 5). This table illustrates that in the Australian context only four of the seventeen cost categories present has data ascribed to it. This reinforces the need for future academic (regarding methodology) and practice- based research (regarding data gathering and application) in this field (Section 8.4). This will initially involve a review of what other sources of such information may exist in the Australian and international contexts (e.g. other government agencies or industry associations). As this summary indicates, some measurables may be

- 256 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions costed whilst others described. As discussed in Chapter 4, the lack of ability to quantify some indicators does not diminish their status (Section 4.1.7).

Implementation process

Two approaches to the application of this value-mapping framework have been identified. The first is for the framework to be implemented by the pre-feasibility project team, responsible for the design and delivery of the project (as in Cases 2 and 3). As a part of Steps 1, 2 and 3 of the value-mapping framework, they are required to collaborate with other stakeholders throughout the organisation (and externally) to identify project objectives and opportunities. A second approach could be that the value-mapping framework is implemented at the corporate level within an agency, and passed down the organizational structure to the project team. This approach may be explored in as part of future research (Section 8.5.3).

8.2.2. Generic value-mapping worksheets

Following are the set of generic worksheets, used to capture inputs to the value- mapping framework. It is intended that these will become a part of an on-line tool when the framework is commercialized, thus significantly enhancing the user interface, and data capture and storage potentials of the framework (Section 8.5.3).

Step 1 – Organisational context

This first step addresses the issue which emerged in each of the three case studies, that is, the lack of linkages between corporate objectives and project objectives and indicators. In establishing this as the first step in the application of the value- mapping framework, a focus on performance to corporate objectives and outcomes is established.

This step requires the identification of both corporate objectives and outcomes, along with project phases and key project milestones. The overview process map (Figure 8.2) is a useful tool to consolidate corporate information into a single diagram. Depending on complexity of, and familiarity with corporate decision- making process, additional detail process maps may be required (Section 4.1.1).

- 257 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Figure 8-2– Generic overview process map

- 258 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Step 2 – Identify Project Objectives

This second step acknowledges the key role of establishing project objectives. It seeks to apply a transparent process to the establishment of these objectives, along with creating a defined (and thus reportable) link to relevant corporate objectives (identified in Step 1). This link was lacking in each of the case studies undertaken. In addition, it establishes a set of objectives which remain constant throughout the projects, thus enabling both original corporate intent and values for the project to be communicated along the project supply chain in a transparent and auditable manner. This again addresses a key finding of each of the three case studies, where several sets of objectives were discovered for each case, which clouded accountabilities with regards to project performance to original project (and corporate) intent, and made reporting to these a complex undertaking.

Section 4.1.2 discusses the importance of identifying the project objectives. These are derived in workshops with key project team members and stakeholders. They are identified in the context of a hierarchy of objectives from corporate, to strategic, to project-based objectives, along with their costing status (Section 7.3.2). This generic worksheet is presented in Table 8.1.

Table 8-1 – Generic project objectives worksheet (Step 2) Strategic Project Objectives Costing Relevant objectives Project Status* derived from other Objectives corporate documentation Objective Objective Corporate Corporate

# 1

# 2

# 3

and so forth

Legend C - Costed NC - Not Costed

- 259 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Step 3 – Map accountabilities

Step 3 addresses the need to enhance accountabilities for corporate responsibilities, in the context of the delivery of major projects, as justified in Chapter 1. This step is central to the embedding corporate responsibility in project delivery in this sector, and reflects how learnings from other sectors have been applied to the problem situation (identified in Chapter 5) in the course of this research.

In this step, the accountabilities to deliver on the identified project objectives are clarified (Section 4.1.3). This mapping exercise may assist in leveraging funding for ‘non-costed’ project objectives (Step 2). The ‘To whom’ column cross-references to the ‘action’ column in the final value map (Step 7), to assist with ensuring delivery in line with accountabilities (Table 8.2).

Table 8-2 – Generic accountability mapping worksheet (Step 3)

Project Who shares Accountable for what? To whom? Objectives accountability? Corporate Corporate Objectives Objectives

# 1

# 2

# 3

and so forth

- 260 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Step 4 – Map stakeholders

This fourth step links directly to the previous issue of accountability, through establishing a process for both mapping and engaging with stakeholders as a part of pre-feasibility activity in the delivery of major economic infrastructure projects. This link was identified in the literature (Section 2.2.3) It was identified in each of the case studies that substantial stakeholder engagement was occurring. What was discovered in both Case 2 and 3 however, was that a more transparent framework for the early identification of stakeholders could be beneficial to the delivery process.

To this end, eleven stakeholder groups have been identified for the generic stakeholder map (Table 8.3), as relevant for the Australian public sector. When being applied to other sectors, it will be appropriate for these generic groups to be review. A column including the details of stakeholders is included in this map based on feedback in Case 2 (Section 6.3.2). Case 3 reinforced the benefits of this inclusion, with the project team members using this to establish a more complete listing of relevant stakeholders (Section 7.3.2).

Table 8-3 – Generic stakeholder mapping worksheet (Step 4) Stakeholders

Details of Project Stake- Objective holders Corporate Corporate Objectives Partners Councils Councils Regional Regional Business Suppliers Suppliers Executive Lobbyists Lobbyists Customers State / Fed. Councillors Councillors Employees, Ratepayers, Government constituents Environment Communities Communities

# 1

# 2

# 3

and so so and forth

Key Primary Link Secondary link

Step 5 – Identify project indicators

The fifth step crucially identifies indicators for each of the above project objectives, which then allow measures (either qualitative or quantitative) to be assigned. This step addresses the general lack of measurables associated with project objectives

- 261 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions and indicators discovered in the course of each of the three case studies. The lack of measures makes reporting to both corporate and project objectives problematic from a practical point of view. In addition, when no such indicators and measures exist, accountability is compromised through the lack of a transparent audit and report trail throughout the project life cycle.

It is thus at this step in the value-mapping framework that the indicators which form the final link in the value-mapping narrative are established (Table 8.4). Through using pre-existing corporate outcomes, the link between project outcomes and corporate intent is further strengthened. If being applied at State or Federal levels of government, a decision will need to be made in Step 1 as to what layer of outcomes is appropriate for use (i.e. whole-of-government, Departmental or the like).

- 262 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Table 8-4 – Generic indicators matrix worksheet (Step 5)

Corporate Outcomes Project Objectives Project Indicators #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11 #12 Objective Objective Corporate Corporate

# 1

# 2

# 3 and so forth

Key Primary Link Secondary Link

- 263 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Step 6 - Build the value-map

At this stage in the implementation of the value-mapping framework, corporate objectives, project objectives and indicators have been identified and the value-map is ready for detailed input regarding measures and targets (Table 8.5).

This map distils knowledge gathered in the course of both the review of literature related to process mapping and performance indicators (Section 2.3.3 and 2.4 respectively), into an output which can present substantial information in a manner which is still accessible. The key contribution of this step is to enhance accountability and provide a tool for greater corporate responsibility. It achieves this through presenting a value-mapping narrative which links project indicators, project objectives, and corporate objectives. In so doing it provides a rich description of both corporate and project intent, for communication and reporting along the project supply chain.

Step 7 - Measurables and targets

Step 7 then requires the assignment of measurables and targets to each of the project indicators.

The use of the value-mapping framework promotes the identification of leading- edge rather than business-as-usual measurables and targets (Section 4.1.7 & 8.5.3). This has been identified as a key benefit of the value-mapping framework by those both involved in the collaborative research and those interviewed for external evaluation of the framework.

Whilst content experts can be responsible for inputting this data, a commitment to a level of research and development activity will be required to ensure project delivery is leading edge. A corporate data-base of knowledge can be developed through effective on-going implementation of the framework, wherein project-based data- sets are captured an utilised on future projects (Section 8.4).

- 264 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Table 8-5 – Generic value-mapping worksheet (Steps 6 & 7)

Measurable Project / Actions Project Project Stretch Corporate Tools (links to Objective Indicator Target Quantitative Quantitative Target Step 3) Objective Objective Corporate Corporate Qualitative Monetised Physical

# 1

# 2

and so forth

- 265 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Step 8 – Review, report and revise

The final step in the implementation of the framework is to undertake quarterly reporting as to performance to each of the indicators. This reporting was not possible as part of this research, due to time limitations associated with doctoral research, and the time frame for delivery of major projects (Section 3.2.4). It is expected that this feature of the framework will be further developed as part of both commercialisation opportunities and future research (Section 8.4).

8.3. Transport-related data-sets

Two preliminary data-sets have been developed from the data gathered in the course of Cases 1, 2 and 3:

i. a set of transport-related project objectives (Table 8.6) ii. a set of transport-related measurables and targets (Appendices 5.1 - 5.7)

Whilst these data sets are specific to the case studies undertaken as a part of this research, they are presented here in order to indicate one example of the benefit which can be gained from implementing the value-mapping framework. They are thus specific to transport-related projects being procured by local government in the south-east Queensland region. They will however be of direct benefit to this organisation when delivering future transport projects in this region. Additionally, such data-sets may be of value, to other organisations delivering transport projects in this region. Thus, the use of the on-going use of the tool, within an organisation, can be used to build a potentially valuable resource. Alternately, and the subject of future research, such data-bases may be able to be developed on a sector-wide basis (potentially by governmental agencies with responsibilities for urban transport networks), to underpin possible future research relating to environmental and social costs of transport (Litman 2007).

These current data-sets have been compiled under seven generic headings. These have been adopted as they (i) represent a spread across economic, environmental, social and ethical considerations, and (ii) are representative of the both the sector and project types from which this data has been gathered. These headings include accessibility, health and well-being, inclusiveness, regional distinctiveness, environment, creativity and economic.

- 266 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

The measurables and targets have been compiled from both expert knowledge of the participants in each of the cases, and from the review of literature by the researcher, to ensure a leading-edge approach.

It is proposed that these data-sets can now be used in a two ways:

i. as archived data which can be easily retrieved for use on subsequent projects ii. as the basis for future research (Section 8.4) to establish more complete data-sets for the Australian context.

The opportunity exists for these data-sets to be built by either an organisation with on-going responsibilities for delivery a specific project type (e.g. transport, water etc); or for an industry sector to collaborate in the development of such a data-base for sector-wide use. This is to be investigated as part of the potential future academic and commercial activities (Section 8.4).

- 267 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Table 8-6 – Transport data-sets - project objectives

Improve cross city and orbital traffic flow Improve freight network efficiency Improve local traffic accessibility on the local road network Maximise tunnel access without negative impacts on local network (Provide opportunity to) improve public transport service efficiency (Provide opportunity to) improve pedestrians/cycle accessibility Improve accessibility in CBD through additional cross-river capacity Improve level of service on existing road network Provide safe, legible & equitable integrated transport (ped. & cycling linkages)

Accessibility Improve competitiveness to public transport, cycling/walking Improve access to the Brisbane River, CityCat & ferry services Enhance integration/connectivity between ped./cycle/rail/bus & ferry infrastructure Improve travel times and reliability for bus patrons, pedestrians & cyclists Reduce demand for on-street parking

Provide opportunity to improve pedestrian/cycle connectivity Improve opportunities for walking & cycling for 'journey to work' & recreation Increase opportunities for ped./cycle network linkages to major land uses Manage traffic flow to enhance traffic safety for pedestrians & cyclists Health & wellbeing Provide a safe project in all project phases

More closely align public transport products with travel needs Help build social capacity by encouraging networks & connectivity Create spaces and places that provide value to the community Effectively manage the impact on local community Avoid disturbing areas of significance (cultural/religious/indigenous/local community) Provide effective stakeholder & community consultation

Inclusiveness Inclusiveness Provide safe, legible & equitable integrated transport incl. associated amenities Promote community capacity building & events Assist local area to accommodate social, economic and technological changes.

Provide opportunity to improve surface corridor & enhance local environment Provide a sense of spaciousness, context, & site responsive to the region Manage relationship between built forms, urban edge, & surrounding terrain Improve city’s liveability Deliver a legacy project Contribute to the effectively servicing of high density urban development

Regional Regional Enhance social diversity, choice and accessibility Provide for shade, outdoor recreation & drinking water distinctiveness distinctiveness Improve the vitality of the local area Preserve and enhance existing flora and fauna

Provide best practice environmental outcomes Minimise and manage impacts of air pollutants, noise and vibration Assist in the development of a sustainable urban environment Contribute to a reduction in vehicle emissions Support increase in proportion of persons travelling using sustainable transport Utilise sustainable design /construction practices

Environment Create an energy neutral bridge Harvest stormwater & recycle for use on adjacent greens pace continued overpage

- 268 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

Table 8.6 – Transport data-sets cont’d

Provide high quality, innovative design solutions Improve access to key city and regional features

ivity Achieve high quality aesthetics of bridge and approaches Creat- Integrate cultural literacy interpretation

Provide innovation in delivery Effectively address project affordability Provide infrastructure which facilitates economic growth and employment Contribute to effectively servicing urban renewal of inner-city areas Minimise impacts on local businesses during construction Facilitate investment of local business in social infrastructure Promote/enhance regional significance through appropriate transport infrastructure Economic Economic Improve access to/between activities which contribute to prosperity Maximise the financial viability of the project Improve employment and skills base

8.4. Contribution of this research

The contribution of this research is three-fold. Firstly, a contribution to academic research has already been made through the three academic papers presented at international conferences in 2008. Secondly, a contribution to industry has been achieved as detailed below (Section 8.5.2). And finally the potential contribution of this research, as already under investigation, is detailed in Section 8.5.3.

8.4.1. Contribution to academic research

This research has contributed to the current academic knowledge base in a number of ways. Firstly it has identified a credible avenue through which to link corporate responsibilities and project performance. This has been justified through the use of academic literature in the fields of corporate responsibility (Section 2.2) and performance indicators (Section 2.4). Additionally, it has demonstrated that this link can be used to (i) provide additional project value; and (ii) communicate project values through the project supply chain, through drawing on existing literature in relevant areas (Section 2.3). Finally, this research has revealed, through demonstrating the link between corporate responsibility and project performance (and associated accountabilities), the key role of stakeholders.

Each of these three areas has established a basis from which future research can be undertaen, both to refine the academic knowledge base, and enhance the practical application of outcomes. Initial steps in this direction are further discussed in Section 8.4.3.2.

- 269 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

In addition, the contribution to the academic debate in this area has been made through three papers presented in 2008.

The first of the three papers is that presented at the Cooperative Research Centre for Construction Innovation’s 3rd international conference ‘Clients Driving Innovation – Benefiting from Innovation’ (Kraatz, Kajewski and Manley 2008a). This paper discusses the research methodology, literature review and anticipated case study projects. It highlights the gap found in the literature, and highlights the adapted inquiry cycle proposed for undertaken the three cases, to develop a framework to address this gap in both the literature and practice.

The second paper is that presented at the Centre for Sub-tropical Design international conference, from ‘fault-lines to sightlines – sub-tropical urbanism 20- 20’ (Kraatz, Kajewski and Manley 2008b). This paper demonstrates how the gap identified between corporate reporting and project outcomes, can be addressed. The example provided by this paper is in the context of how Brisbane City Council can report on one of its eight corporate themes (i.e. city designed for sub-tropical living), with regards to major projects currently being delivered.

The final paper is that presented at the International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB) ‘Transformation through Construction’ conference (Kraatz, Kajewski and Manley 2008c). This paper gives an overview of the development, testing and implementation of the framework on the three cases, and adds to the knowledge base by presenting the final value-mapping framework for further academic consideration.

8.4.2. Contribution to industry

The contribution to industry, to date, of this research is through (i) fieldwork interaction on each of the three cases, (ii) the evaluation interviews and (iii) the partial application of the framework for an external agency via the Cooperative Research Centre for Construction Innovation.

Case study agency

Feedback from senior management within the Major Economic Infrastructure Projects Office within Brisbane City Council, with whom the three collaborative case studies were undertaken, is as follows:

- 270 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

This interactive process and (the researchers) outputs have had a positive impact on the projects, particularly Northern Link due to the timing in parallel with the project feasibility study. This impact has resulted from: - the research outputs themselves, as well as - the interactive research process has enhanced the team focus on targeting project outcomes that deliver on broader organisational objectives. (11 March 2008)

External agency application

A partial application of the value-mapping framework occurred in September 2008. This included the application of Steps 1, 2, 5 and 6 of the value-mapping framework in a commercial environment. The outcome of this work is a set of relevant corporate objectives and outcomes; and a set of project objectives and indicators, with initial measurables and indicators. The agency involved is an alliance between the Queensland State Government and the private sector, engaged in the delivery of a water infrastructure project in south-east Queensland. The reason for the partial application was due to (i) time restraints for the researcher, and (ii) the specific need of the organization to develop a set of performance indicators for their project. It is anticipated that this work will be followed up in 2009.

8.4.3. Future contribution

The future contribution of the research to industry is expected to occur through two avenues, including (i) commercial activity, and (ii) further research activities (both academic and industry based) with the Construction Industry Institute of Australia (CIIA), and the Sustainable Built Environment Cooperative Research Centre (SBE CRC), as discussed below.

8.4.3.1. Commercial activity

Future commercial activity is likely in three areas:

i. the commercialisation of the framework itself ii. implementation of the framework in a commercial and/or governmental environment iii. integration of the framework into corporate training programs

Commercialisation of the framework

It is intended that the commercialisation of the value-mapping framework will result in an interactive, on-line facilitation tool and data-base which (i) guides the organisation through the steps required to implement the value-mapping framework (Figure 4.1), (ii) provides a user-friendly interface which enables data to be

- 271 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions accessed on an as-needs basis (this would replace the current excel worksheets as presented in Section 8.3.2), (iii) provide an automatic report generation capacity and (iv) provide an archival capacity where by organisational-specific data-sets could be compiled and accessed for future projects.

Initial discussions are underway with a private company to commercialise the framework in 2009. This would result in the framework becoming a part of an existing suite of management reporting tools currently in use by a global mining company. An anticipated release date of December 2009 is planned.

Implementation in a commercial and/or government environment

Two avenues for the commercial applications of the value-mapping framework have become apparent. Firstly for use as intended, that is, as a process to report on project performance to corporate objectives; and secondly as a process for use at a strategic level within both commercial and government organisations to enhance reporting on corporate responsibilities.

Relevant to the framework’s intended application, initial implementation of the value-mapping framework (in-part) has occurred (September 2008) on a regional water-grid project in south-east Queensland. The draft value-mapping framework was used in this situation to:

 identify both corporate objectives and outcomes for a new government agency (Step 1 of the value-mapping framework)  identify project objectives for the alliance-based project (Step 2)  establish the value-mapping indicators (Step 5)  build the project-based value-map (Step 6)  initiate the process of identifying measurables and targets (Step 7) for future reporting

The partial implementation was due to the author’s limited availability due to the time commitments to this doctoral work. The intent is for follow-up engagement in 2009. Further work would potentially contribute to an expansion of the project objectives and measurables data-sets for water-grid infrastructure projects (pending an agreement is put in place between those involved).

Relevant to the second opportunity, the value-mapping framework has a potential use as a strategic corporate reporting tool. Discussions held to date point to the possible application of the value-mapping framework in both corporate and governmental environments needing to enhance their corporate reporting mechanisms. This is evidenced in the interviews undertaken for Case 3, and in the

- 272 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions subsequent evaluation interviews, reflecting both corporate and government interest in further exploring this possibility.

Integration into corporate education programs

A discussion has also taken place regarding the integration of the value-mapping framework into corporate education programs focusing on enhancing procurement systems for the Commonwealth government (i.e. Department of Defense) and for the construction sector. The potential is for the value-mapping framework to fill a gap in existing systems, through providing a system for assuring greater accountability in procurement systems. Further discussions are scheduled following submission of this current research.

8.4.3.2. Future research activities

Building upon the contribution to academic research to date (Section 8.4.1), two opportunities for future academic research have already been identified. The first is through the Construction Industry Institute of Australia (CIIA) from whom seed funding has been obtained for work in 2009. The second is proposed via the Sustainable Built Environment Cooperative Research Centre.

Construction Industry Institute of Australia

Two areas for future research have received 2009 seed funding from the CIIA. These relate to (i) stakeholder engagement and (ii) establishing measurables for the Australian environment.

The question posed by research in the first area is how can non-contractual stakeholders be more effectively identified and engaged with on major economic infrastructure projects? This is subject to extensive literature (including Carroll (1991) and Cooper and Owen (2007). The proposed research will seek to identify relevant literature which can help clarify these issues, and identify new approaches to stakeholder engagement (e.g. tri-sector partnerships as discussed by Warhurst 2001) and values-based engagement as discussed by Boutilier (2009). This for example, may result in a formalised agreement between the project proponent, the contractor, and a non-contractual stakeholder to maximise outcomes for all parties. Both Cases 1 and 2 demonstrated this approach to a limited extent (Sections 5.4.1 and 6.3.2 respectively), though this applied to engagement of large institutional stakeholders in both instances. The focus for this proposed future research is thus

- 273 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions to extend and improve engagement with non-contractual stakeholders. This is considered important for three reasons:

 To ensure non-contractual obligations and objectives are more effectively managed and integrated into project decision-making.  To better enable non-monetised project objectives (which are often the social objectives linked to community and other non-contractual stakeholders) to be integrated into project decision-making.  To facilitate continuity of effective engagement throughout the life span of engagement.

The second area of future research, already funded by the CIIA, asks how can quantitative and qualitative measures be better determined and considered, when monitoring the alignment between corporate and project-based objectives, in the delivery of major projects? Current industry practice is to monetise measurables and targets for project objectives, where-ever possible, in order to provide a definitive method of comparison and reporting (Chapter 4.1.7). When not possible, the status of the objective can be either consciously or inadvertently down-graded. Whilst methodologies do exist to integrate the assessment of descriptive qualitative objectives into decision-making (e.g. cost benefit analysis, multi-criteria analysis), there still remains a strong tendency to more effectively manage those objectives that can be monetised. Extensive literature relevant to this topic exists including that by Litman (2007), Bein (1997), and Sinha and Labi (2007). This research is however based on conditions in Canada and the United States. Similar measures for the Australian context could be established based upon the methodologies of these researchers, such as Bein’s environmental cost flow chart (1997, p.2.14) which maps the process of delivery from initial activities and sources through to the total monetized cost of impacts in order to provide a methodology for the monetisation of environmental factors. Proposed research thus seeks to consider this field further, to develop a research environment in which this can be further explored in the Australian context, and to provide the basis for developing a practical methodology whereby monetised, physically quantifiable, and descriptive qualitative measures are more effectively integrated into corporate reporting frameworks for the delivery of major economic infrastructure projects within the Australian public sector.

Part of this current activity for the CIIA is to identify a potential Australia-wide cohort of academic, industry and government partners to seek further funding for on-going research in these areas.

- 274 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

8.4.3.3. Sustainable Built Environment Cooperative Research Centre

The final area of future research identified in the course of this current research is to undertake a set of longitudinal case studies to:

 further implement and refine Steps 1-7 of the value-mapping framework.  develop and implement an effective reporting mechanism for the framework (i.e. Step 8).  further develop the project objectives and measurables data-sets for Australian conditions, and on diverse project types.

The proposed duration (i.e. three years) would be such that it will enable the implementation of the framework to be tracked from the establishment of the project objectives and indicators in the pre-feasibility stage of the project, through to the initial stages of the procurement phase. Possibilities to extend the case studies into the implementation phase will be further explored at that time. It is also currently proposed that this research is undertaken on projects in different states of Australia (the current proposal is for projects in Queensland, Victoria and Western Australia), and with different layers of government (most likely by State and Local government). To this end a proposal has been submitted to the Sustainable Built Environment CRC (formerly the Cooperative Research Centre for Construction Innovation). This CRC will be advised of their funding status in June 2009.

8.5. Chapter summary

This current research thus contributes to the current academic knowledge-base relating to the delivery of major economic infrastructure projects in the Australian public sector as discussed in Section 8.4.1; makes a contribution to industry knowledge in this field (Section 8.4.2); and has mapped a path for ensuring that on- going academic research continues to explore the key issues relating to corporate responsibility and project performance, in the context of enhancing project value/s (Section 8.4.3). This contribution has been achieved through a number of steps including:

- 275 - Chapter 8 – Discussion and conclusions

 the identification of existing relevant academic literature (Chapter 2),  the development of a research methodology (Chapters 3) and model (Chapter 4) which enabled the academic basis to be used to address a real- world problem (Chapter 5),  testing and implementing a model developed to address this problem situation (Chapters 6 and 7 respectively), and finally  evaluating and presenting the findings resulting in the development of the final value-mapping framework presented in Section 8.2 of this dissertation.

- 276 - Appendix 1 – Interview documentation

1. Appendix 1 – Interview documentation

This appendix provides the details for the semi-formal interviews undertaken as part of the field-work for the three cases associated with the current research.

Prior to the interviews, interviewees were emailed a description of the research being undertaken, and the required QUT Ethical Clearance forms. Signed copies of these forms were obtained at the time of interview. Interviews were conducted on a semi-formal basis. Those for Cases 2 and 3 were audio-recorded, with the explicit permission of those being interviewed. One person declined to be recorded. Notes from the interviews were transcribed within forty-eight hours of the interview (typically within twenty-four). These were then emailed back to the interviewee for review and comment, to ensure the information captured was an accurate reflection of the discussion. Information from the interviews has been used as detailed in each of the relevant chapters.

1.1. BCC Corporate Interviews

Date Length Meeting type Role Organ- Purpose isation 29/03/07 30mins Semi-formal Manager Corporate BCC Data Gathering interview Improvement; and on corporate Principal Project Office processes Strategy 23/4/07 40mins Semi-formal Principal Project Office BCC Feedback on interview Strategy; and draft corporate Project Officer Strategy flow chart 10/5/07 30mins Semi-formal Principal Project BCC Data gathering interview Coordinator; & on sub-agency Project Officer Strategy processes MIPO 17/5/07 30mins Semi-formal Project Officer Strategy BCC Verification of interview corporate flow chart 25/07/07 30mins Semi-formal Project Officer Strategy BCC First round interview MIPO evaluation of draft value maps 28/05/08 45mins Presentation 8 x City Planning & BCC Brief on research Sustainability Divisional & explore future Management Team options

- 277 - Appendix 1 – Interview documentation

1.2. Case 1 Interviews – Eleanor Schonell Bridge

Date Length Meeting Role Organ- Purpose type isation 24/10/06 45mins Semi-formal Project BCC Data gathering for interview Manager process maps & CSFs 24/10/06 40mins Semi-formal Administration BCC Data gathering for interview process maps & CSFs 9/11/06 45mins Semi-formal Engineering JHG Data gathering for interview Manager process maps & CSFs 9/11/06 45mins Semi-formal Construction JHG Data gathering for interview Manager process maps & CSFs 9/11/06 45mins Semi-formal Engineering JHG Data gathering for interview Manager process maps & CSFs 13/11/06 45mins Semi-formal Design JHG Data gathering for interview Manager process maps & CSFs 22/11/06 35mins Semi-formal Superintendent BCC Data gathering for interview ’s CSFs Representative ’s delegate 24/11/06 45mins Semi-formal Project JHG Data gathering for interview Manager and CSFs Commercial Manager 24/11 30mins Semi-formal Commercial JHG Data gathering for interview Manager CSFs 6/12/06 40mins Semi-formal Community BCC Data gathering for interview Liaison CSFs 6/12/06 35mins Semi-formal Superintendent Data gathering for interview ’s CSFs Representative 7/12/06 35mins Semi-formal Policy Manager BCC Data gathering for interview CSFs 7/12/06 30mins Semi-formal Ex Manager BCC Verification of draft interview process maps to date 11/12/06 30mins Semi-formal Councillor BCC Data gathering for interview CSFs 12/12/06 30mins Semi-formal Councillor and BCC Data gathering for interview PEG member CSFs 15/12/06 15mins Semi-formal PEG member JHG Data gathering for interview CSFs 15/12/06 30mins Semi-formal PEG member JHG Data gathering for interview CSFs 15/12/06 30mins Semi-formal PEG member JHG Data gathering for interview CSFs 10/07/07 30mins Semi-formal Manager MIPO BCC Feedback & case study interview selection 12/07/07 1hr Semi-formal Project BCC Verification of draft interview Manager; & maps two Community Liaison persons 01/08/07 1hr Semi-formal Pre-feasibility Ex Verification of process interview team member BCC maps

- 278 - Appendix 1 – Interview documentation

1.3. Case 2 Interviews – Hale Street Link

Date Length Meeting type Role Organ- Purpose isation 27/07/07 45mins Semi-formal Project Director BCC Set up case interview study 27/07/07 1 hr Semi-formal Project Manager BCC Set up case interview study 27/08/07 1 hr Semi-formal Community BCC Data gathering interview Consultation Manager and Officer 25/09/07 1 hr Semi-formal Community BCC Feed-back on interview Consultation draft process and Manager and Officer value maps 13/12/07 50mins Semi-formal Community BCC Verification of interview Consultation Officer value map indicators & measurables 18/12/07 45mins Semi-formal Project Manager BCC Evaluation of interview learnings; feedback

- 279 - Appendix 1 – Interview documentation

1.4. Case 3 - Northern Link Interviews

Date Length Meeting Role Organ- Purpose type sation 21/09/07 1.3 hrs Semi- Project Manager BCC Introduction & data formal gathering interview 8/10/07 2hrs Semi- 2 x Project BCC Develop project formal Managers objectives interview 12/10/07 1.5hrs Semi- 2 x Project BCC Consider formal Managers measurables, interview targets & tools 14/11/07 1.5 hrs Workshop 13 x Project team BCC & Collaboration on members Alliance Value Maps team members 21/11/07 30mins Semi- 2xProject team Alliance Discuss project formal members (finance) team objectives; interview member feedback 21/11/07 30mins Semi- Project team Alliance Discuss project formal member - team objectives; interview consultation member feedback 23/11/07 30mins Semi- Project team Alliance Discuss project formal member (land use) team objectives; interview member feedback 26/11/07 30mins Semi- Project team Alliance Discuss project formal member (Strategy) team objectives; interview member feedback 26/11/07 30mins Semi- Project team Alliance Discuss project formal member team objectives; interview (Engineering) member feedback 27/11/07 30mins Semi- Project team Alliance Discuss project formal member (Environ. team objectives; interview & Urban M’ment) member feedback 30/11/07 30mins Semi- Project team Alliance Discuss project formal member (Environ. team objectives; interview & Urban M’ment) member feedback 30/11/07 30mins Semi- Project team Alliance Discuss project formal member (Environ. team objectives; interview & Urban M’ment) member feedback 13/12/07 1 hr Semi- 2 x Project BCC Discuss feedback formal Managers from one-on-one interview interviews 15/05/08 1 hr Semi- 2 x Project BCC Discuss formal Managers implementation interview subsequent to active engagement

- 280 - Appendix 1 – Interview documentation

1.5. Evaluation and Feedback Interviews

Date Length Meeting type Role Organ- Purpose sation 13/02/08 25mins Semi-formal Manager Qld Dept Evaluation of and interview Infrastructure feedback on framework 10/04/08 1hr Semi-formal Manager APCC Evaluation of and interview feedback on framework 11/04/08 1hr Semi-formal Manager Victorian Evaluation of and interview Treasury feedback on framework 11/04/08 30mins Semi-formal Manager Major Project Evaluation of and interview Victoria feedback on framework 20/05/08 1hr Semi-formal Manager Dept of Evaluation of and interview Education & feedback on framework Training Vic. 21/05/08 40mins Semi-formal Manager Leightons Evaluation of and interview feedback on framework 21/05/08 1hr Semi-formal Manager South. & Evaluation of and interview East. feedback on framework Integrated Transit Authority 27/05/08 1hr Semi-formal Manager Dept of Evaluation of and interview Public Works feedback on framework Qld

- 281 - Appendix 2 – Case 1 critical success factors

2. Appendix 2 – Case 1 critical success factors

This appendix presents the summary of critical success factors as derived in the course of Case 1 fieldwork, as part of the exploratory phase of the initial action- taking round.

- 282 - Appendix 2 – Case 1 critical success factors

CSF theme CSF sub-theme Notes Financial / Economic Risk Risk Allocation – Both parties (client and contractor) shared in a loss, gain or break-even outcome. The Contractor took the risk of losing profit margin, but had the Management Pain share / Gain contractual basis that actual project expenditure would be paid. share Risk Assessment Initial allocation made at the contract execution. Risk Management Key issues included (i) the need for the bridge to be open for the 2007 University year, and (ii) construction on the river. As evident in the project documentation monitoring and managing the risk profile of the project, throughout construction, was a critical activity. Target Price Establishment and inclusion of a Target Price in procurement documentation, along with detailed performance specifications, assisted with limiting scope creep. Environment No specific critical success factors were identified by those interviewed. People The People Persistence Persistence was required to deliver project to cost, time, quality and safety targets. Commitment Integrated Accessibility Benefits flowed from the senior project management team working as one team, with one goal, under one roof; with client, independent verifier and Project Team builder in the same office. The Open Door Policy was important to informal resolution of differences. The BCC site representatives were the project’s (One Team) conduits to the other various BCC Departments, to assist with turn-around times on queries. This did however lead to an ongoing avenue for other Council “wishes” to be continually incorporated resulting in a considerable extension of time frames for decision-making. This had impacts on cash flow and the budget for the design phase. The client was able to see the value being added, which assisted with understanding requests for change.

Team Recognition Team recognition was central to success, for example, in celebrating safety goals. These celebrations included the entire site workforce.

Team Empowerment Initial team building occurred at project inception with a facilitated session, in which all parties agreed to the “Common goal of preserving the Target Price and good will.” Team empowerment followed from this with outcomes early in the project (e.g. the change in lifting mechanisms for the 38 structural steel decking frames). From there the team kept on thinking of better ways of achieving project aims. The team adopted a coaching approach, that is, if someone puts up their hand, the team came together to support them. The important link to accountability was also stressed. Project outcomes were a result of a combination of the team driving innovation through a strong integration between construction management, engineering management and construction programming. Integrated Relationships Relationships in the Project Executive Group were matter-of-fact and pragmatic. They did what was needed, and nothing was hidden. Issues were put Project Team on the table and discussed openly in order to get the right result for the project. (One Team) Good relations were maintained between the contractor and their design team. Previous experience between JHG and BCC on the Brisbane Water Cont’d Enviro Alliance project helped to engender good relationships on this project also.

Experience and There were comments from all interviewed about the importance of getting the right people, with the right experience (i.e. partnering) and the right Expertise expertise (e.g. cable stay bridges). The Project Manager skills set was cited by a number of interviewees for being critical, in that he was able to “win the support of the workforce; can get into the detail of the project; and mix it with both boardroom executives and the site workforce. He was responsible for setting the culture and getting on with the job.” The ability of team members to establish relationships, both on-site and with external stakeholders was important. Having the right tools for the project was critical (e.g. the cable stay bridge design tools) and the ability of those responsible to be in a position to make decisions without further approvals. Additionally the contractor’s access to timely resources in terms of people (staff, wages employees and sub-contractors), supplies and plant was considered critical.

- 283 - Appendix 2 – Case 1 critical success factors

CSF theme CSF sub-theme Notes Values and The PEG laid the foundation for how the project was to be delivered and the values of the group (Refer Appendix B). Team understanding and Behavioural acceptance of project behaviours and values supported by a ‘no blame’ philosophy, was critical. A “Monthly Health Check” was put in place to monitor Expectations how delivery was going, with everyone in management participating, and any issues which arose were addressed internally as soon as possible.

Respect The approach of “putting the project in front of your ego” was important to decision-making, with a “$1M to spend each week you can’t spend time revisiting decisions”. “Everyone was empowered to make decisions and participate at a higher level than normal, resulting in innovation”. It was recognized that the key to empowerment was through a mix of accountability, authority and responsibility, with the team collectively making the best decisions, to the best of their ability. Differences were expected, as BCC was looking to deliver the project with the least community impact, while JHG had a different focus (as a contractor and company). Both parties respected the others’ objectives and abilities. Safety Every facet was considered from a safety perspective. Both the client and the contractor took a keen interest in this issue. Some decisions regarding design changes were easier due to this. Safety was a key driver for construction programming and detailed engineering planning also. Examples where safety drove decision-making included (i) The design of the pile caps, literally to “keep feet dry”, were designed so that non-one would need to go underneath to remove falsework at any stage; (ii) The pre-assembly of the reinforcement in the towers was an issue as precast was not an option due to limitations on the lift weights. The way in which reinforcing was to be lifted and placed was critical to the detailing; (iii) The detail of the soffit formwork to the precast deck edge to the bike and pedestrian was another example. A more economic solution might have been found but the priority was in not needing people to go over the edge to place or remove formwork for the in-situ stitch concrete; (iv) Subcontractors were required to show safety records as a part of the selection process, therefore the sub-contract did not always go to the lowest subcontractor dependent on a sound safety record. Management / Business Project Delivery Relationship-based The decision was taken by Council, and adopted by both parties at award of contract to deliver this project as a Relationship-based contract. The view delivery of both parties to the contract was not confrontational, but very co-operational. This took the financial and contractual issues out of the design and construction discussions due to the way in which the relationship and the contract was managed. Flexibility in delivery The contract gave flexibility to determine project completion time. An extra $3M in work has been done in the same time. The contractor had the flexibility to deliver on time and to budget through adjustments to design (negotiated with the client), within the TP (Target Price). The ‘Design Development’ clause in the contract enabled design improvement opportunities to be proposed and assessed in a collaborative and best-for-project manner and resulted in a number of improvements. The costs of these changes were absorbed within the Target Price. This did require a balance in decision-making throughout the project was required. Variations arose where changes were made outside the PMG as a result of requests (political, landowners and stakeholder). Usually cash flow for the Contractor lags actual costs by the time payment is received. On this project BCC paid against invoices, accruals and what had been delivered on site, therefore the Contractor remained cash positive. This enabled JH to pay their suppliers in thirty (30) days. Also, if JH are cash negative they get charged interest by their parent company (Leighton Holdings) presenting an additional project cost. An independent audit was undertaken of the project on a monthly basis to validate progress claims.

Project Executive The charter of the PMG was to make the best decisions for the project. If the group was unable to agree then the issue was required to be raised to the Group / Project Project Executive Group (PEG). One dissenting voice would result in this elevation. Rarely were issues escalated to the PEG from the PMG. The PEG Management Group was then accountable to the Major Projects Review Committee (BCC). Additionally this working relationship was underpinned by the PEG members Structure each being champions for one aspect of the project (i.e. community stakeholder relations, design, safety, program cost etc). This delivery model was previously used on BCC’s Inner City Bypass project when the project was converted from a traditional D&C project to a relationship-based D&C. Clear Project The Impact Assessment statement was completed in 2003. Council issued the Request for Tender that outlined primary and secondary project Objectives objectives (Refer Appendix C) including (i) Maintaining the Target Price (RFT); (ii) An integrated project team who maintain agreed values and behaviours (RFT); (iii) Progress monitored via a Dashboard Report which is part of Monthly PM Reports. (Developed post?); (iv) Clear community benefit (for example a trip from 8 Miles Plain and Carindale will be reduced from 45 minute trip to 15 minutes, due to both a reduction in travel time and high frequency of services, and an estimated reduction in traffic of both Coronation Drive and Sir Fred Schonell Drive of 3%). (Impact Assessment Statement).

- 284 - Appendix 2 – Case 1 critical success factors

CSF theme CSF sub-theme Notes Independent This was required by BCC as a part of the delivery model. The Independent Verifier also acted as a Clerk of Works for construction verification; Verification sometimes provided advice to the contractor; and participated in the value engineering process.

Programming Forward planning on fabrication was important due to the amount of work currently in the market-place. Whilst the project was delivered within time, there was ongoing review and adjustment of the program by the Project Management Group throughout the construction period to manage program issues and achieve the optimum time management strategy. The decision to build on both sides of the river in parallel overcame slippages, though resulted in the need for extra resources and costs. There was a small dedicated team of skilful construction planning consultants and an on-site drafter who considered how everything went together (i.e. will it fit; how to reach it etc). One hundred and fifty-seven stages were structurally modelled by IBT (Bridge Designers) for the construction methodology process. The detailed programming and use of the structural modelling during construction was also required by the nature of the project (i.e. cable-stay bridge). The work breakdown was done down to the smallest detail – then drawn in 3D. Every step of the project is visualised in 3D including how it goes together and what sort of temporary works are required for construction. Contractor Ethical Behaviour Behaviour in industry is typically driven by commercial outcomes as balance sheets have a significant impact on performance. John Holland’s Philosophy philosophy is different from the industry norm as they are prepared to take the hit if it is theirs to take. Their motivations include (i) operate to ethical standards; (ii) constructability, safety and budget; and (iii) group of professionals driven by delivering a good job at a good margin. Co-operational not The contractor had a genuine respect for the client and their commitment to share in the risk profile. JH made a decision pre-tender as to who they will Confrontational work with. Their approach is not automatically confrontational, and they aim to resolve issues well before litigation considered. Skilled Client Consistent Credible JH were interested in tendering on this project as they had worked with BCC on the Brisbane Water Enviro Alliance. BCC were logical, consistent, client credible, demonstrated leadership, and had an agenda of getting things done, and delivering the best outcome for all parties. The attitude of the client was one of trust and relationship building. The client demonstrated an understanding that the contractor’s primary driver is to do a good job; to add value; and then to get rewarded for doing so. MIPO Processes The rigor of the MIPO processes proved successful, with the project demonstrating the value of the MIPO concept as they have “got it right” on this project. MIPO’s focus on project definition and delivery has been important. Value These occurred immediately after the award of the contract so that design could proceed. The timing of the workshops was critical to success. The Engineering client was open minded, and willing to participate, and consider options. This was mirrored by JH’s openness to look at savings driven by the Sessions collaborative contract structure, In order to achieve the project for budget, a lot of things changed. JH proposed a number of design changes, which questioned why things were being done a certain way. The savings from the value management process then paid for the extra things that have been delivered. Sessions included both technical and contract people including JH, GHD (lead designers), IBT (cable stay bridge designers), KBR (independent verifier) and BCC. The structural sessions were most valuable, with gains being made in bridge loading and width and tower construction (which became a design saving). Changes were driven by JH with BCC participation to make project “smarter and safer”. One example of this is that there was thirty-eight, twenty tonne structural steel deck supports. In pre-tender documentation, these were to be placed by crawler crane from the deck. The team, including engineers and works supervisors, then developed a smarter method of lifting with “beams and winches” which were specified, designed and certified for the project. Placement went seamlessly. This change was a reason for coming in 3 months early. Design Pre-tender Process JH resources were available for pre-planning and pre-tender processes. The bid management process was handled well. This involved work-shopping Construct of constructability with the designers. From within JH, there was input from operational people which was vital in coming up with a cost effective bridge. Process Liaison between the bid and construction teams flowed through to demonstrate benefits later in the contract. JH went through an options analysis which included eighteen (18) different bridge solutions including two, three and four span bridges, each in structural steel, composite steel, precast concrete and in-situ concrete. They took each of these options to a concept design stage, with pricing, programming, and an assessment of benefits, risks and opportunities. JH had done considerable analysis in the pre-tender phase. When they won the job, the team was readily able to take it to another level.

Contractor Innovative thinking resulted from early involvement and enabled them to get on-site quickly and to do very detailed programming. They started with a Involvement in 30% design head-start as a flow on from the pre-tender phase work. The boats on the pile caps are a good example of benefits of contractor Design responsibility for design process.

- 285 - Appendix 2 – Case 1 critical success factors

CSF theme CSF sub-theme Notes Aesthetic Outcomes The Architect’s brief focused on form rather than embellishments to achieve design outcome. Examples of this are with the extended tower caps, which are not required structurally; and the spread of the cable stays. Alternates to the ‘harp’ spread are ‘semi-fan’ and ‘fan’. The latter two are both cheaper to construct but did not achieve the desired aesthetic results. Temporary Works Weekly or bi-weekly meetings were held to come up with options for the temporary works. Method Statement Review Meetings (which included engineers, consultants and field supervisors) resulted in a consensus on methods and produced documentation including 3D models of the temporary works and a program of activities. One example of the outcome of this approach is the mast climbing system (self-raising systems) - around the world it is usual to use scaffolding to build towers, incurring hours and hours of crane time (including erection and dismantling). As a result of the focus on construction method and planning, four platforms were installed providing immediate access without stairs (and resultant lost productivity, trip and fall hazards). Costs were about the same for both options. 3D Graphical Model This was prepared by on-site draftsman as a construction (not a design) tool. For first year of site activity there was a full-time draftsman on site who built a 3D image of the whole bridge. Work crews participated in the process of drawing up the rigging etc. Job Safety Analyses (JSAs) were undertaken on all aspects of the work with the involvement of the crew, with particular focus on time and safety. Structural Model IBT developed the structural model and used it throughout the project and monitored the design in real time. KBR (the independent verifier) used a different structural package for verification process. Survey data was taken at all stages of construction, then fed into structural model and verified in real time. Survey data was compiled at 5am, and by 9am they had new data on structural performance and construction updates. Intelligent Transport This includes the CCTV, help points, lighting etc (i.e. the non civil component of project). At the time of procurement BCC was not fully able to detail System needs, so they entered into the contract with a process in place to achieve required outcomes. This liaison was with a large number of external stakeholders including Main Roads, Queensland Transport, Translink, and BCC. Construction Construction Methodology was brainstormed every step of the way from April to December 2005. This investment in planning paid off enormously. One example is Methodology sequence that the original method, as per the tender, was to build one side of the bridge, and then the other. This was based on efficiency in crew, and ability to transfer the learnings from one side to the other. It was decided post-tender that this wouldn’t work in the time frame available. A method was then developed which lagged construction on the St Lucia side by 6 weeks, and carry the learnings from one side to the other. This would save on labour costs (the same crew plus 30-40% more people were needed). The crew could pour concrete on one side and while it cured work on the other side. Some additional costs were however incurred for additional floating equipment, piling equipment and cranes. Degree of off-site This is targeted as a general trend by JH with the aim to achieve reduced site effort in general. This is more economic as site labour is more expensive, fabrication and the project makes faster progress. Political Support Bipartisan political support was required due to the Council election mid-way through the tender process. A second round of consultation was required for the city-wide benefits to be considered. A brochure was sent out with four bridge options asking residents to vote, or have their say. This was complemented by telephone research. Support came in between 65-70%, aligned with the pre-election support was of 66%. This process was important in gaining political confidence. The project thus had bipartisan support which resulted in limited media back-grounding. Stakeholder Internal Stakeholder Outstanding issues for BCC stakeholders were able to be addressed in the course of the project delivery, wherein add-ins were managed as a part of Management Management the process. This followed a rigorous financial review in the latter part of the project, were some risk contingencies were able to be released, and formerly excluded items included. Community Originally there were two community groups, the St Lucia residents group and the Dutton Park/Fairfield group. These groups combined into a city-wide Consultation anti-bridge lobby called CRABB – Combined Residents Against Bus Bridge at the time of the March 2004 Local Government elections. Post award JH engaged a communications consultant to provide support for the project. Due to the nature of the local issues, BCC considered the level of resourcing for this activity to have been under-estimated, and placed a full-time liaison person on the project. A part of this role was to look at construction to see what the residents would need to be advised of. The team was able to reduce community complaints and concerns through the establishment of an effective Community Liaison Group. Media Interface There was limited negative media coverage excepting some initial ones in the local newspaper (QUEST). Legend MIPO Major Infrastructure Projects Office JH John Holland Group

- 286 - Appendix 3 – Case 1 process maps

3. Appendix 3 – Case 1 process maps

Project-based process maps, as discussed in Chapter 5, are used to better understand the project planning, design and delivery processes, to enable the identification of key decision-making points at which the value-mapping framework should be implemented, reviewed and reported on.

The following are the process maps associated with Case 1 fieldwork.

 Appendix 3.1 - Community Consultation Overview  Appendix 3.2 - Design decision-making example  Appendix 3.3 - Economic analysis overview  Appendix 3.4 - Impact Assessment Statement overview  Appendix 3.5 - Business Case overview  Appendix 3.6 - IAS impacts overview  Appendix 3.7 - Tender process outline

287 Appendix 3 – Case 1 process maps

Appendix 3.1 – Case 1 – Community consultation overview process map

288 Appendix 3 – Case 1 process maps

Appendix 3.2 – Case 1 Design decision-making example process map

289 Appendix 3 – Case 1 process maps

Appendix 3.3 – Case 1 Economic analysis overview process map

290 Appendix 3 – Case 1 process maps

Appendix 3.4 – Case 1 Impact Assessment Statement overview process map

291 Appendix 3 – Case 1 process maps

Appendix 3.5 – Case 1 Business Case overview process map

292 Appendix 3 – Case 1 process maps

Appendix 3.6 – Case 1 Impact Assessment Statement – Impacts overview process map

293 Appendix 3 – Case 1 process maps

Appendix 3.7 – Case 1 – Tender process outline process map

294 Appendix 4 – Case 2 process maps

4. Appendix 4 - Case 2 process maps

The following are the process maps developed in the course of Case 2 fieldwork.

Appendix 4.1 - Community consultation overview Appendix 4.2 - Design decision-making example Appendix 4.3 - Impact Assessment Statement overview Appendix 4.4 - Business Case overview

- 295 - Appendix 4 – Case 2 process maps

Appendix 4.1 – Case 2 Community consultation overview process map

- 296 - Appendix 4 – Case 2 process maps

Appendix 4.2 – Case 2 Design decision-making example

- 297 - Appendix 4 – Case 2 process maps

Appendix 4.3 – Case 2 Impact Assessment Statement overview process map

- 298 - Appendix 4 – Case 2 process maps

Appendix 4.4 – Case 2 Business Case overview process map

- 299 - Appendix 5 – Transport costs in current literature

5. Appendix 5 – Transport costs in current literature Current data-sets for the transport-related measurables and targets are limited in the Australian context (Section 7.3.2). Litman (2007) provides a summary of relevant literature (overpage). This table illustrated that in the Australian context only four of the seventeen cost categories present has data ascribed to it.

- 300 -

Appendix 5 – Transport costs in current literature

Appendix 8 - Transport Costs in Current Literature (C = Costed; D = Described) Litman (2007 p.2.11) Study No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Cost a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. n. o. p. q. r. s. t. u. v. w. x. y z. aa ab Categories . . Vehicle Costs C D C C C C C C C C C C C C C C Travel Time C D C C C C C C C C C Accidents C D C C C C C D C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C Parking C D C C C C C C C C C C C C C C Congestion C D C D C C C D C C C C C D C C C C C C C C C C C C Facilities C D C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C Roadway Land C D D C D C C C D C C C C C C Mun. Services C D C D C C C C C C C C D C C C C C C C Local Air C D C C C D C C D C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C Pollution Global Air D C C D C C D C C C C D C C C C C C C C C C Pollution Noise & C D C C C D C C D C C C C D C C C C C C C C C C C C Vibration Resources/ D C C D C C D C C C C D D C C C C Energy Barrier Effect D D D C D Land D C D D D C D D D D C C C Use/Sprawl Inequity D C D D D Water D D C D C C D C C C C D D C C C Waste Disposal D C C C D D C C a. Keeler; b. Hanson; c. McKenzie; d. Kageson; e. KPMG; f. Works N.Z.; g. Miller & Moffat; h. Apogee, CLF; i. US DOT,FRA; j. CEC; k. EPA, Aust; l. OTA; m. CDTC; n. Lee; o. IBI; p. Black; q. Maddison; r. IIEC; s. Delecchi; t. FHWA; u. DS & JF; v. Elwanger; w. INFRAS; x. Samsom et al; y. Quinet; z. NZMOT; aa. TC; ab. CE.

- 301 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

6. Appendix 6 – Transport data-sets

This appendix includes the tables of transport-related data sets under the x generic headings as discussed in Chapter 8. These have been derived from the three cases undertaken as part of the fieldwork for this current research. It is intended that these form the beginning of more extensive data-sets to be developed as a part of future, proposed research (Chapter 8.5.3)

Appendix 6.1 - Accessibility Appendix 6.2 - Health and well-being Appendix 6.3 - Inclusiveness Appendix 6.4 – Regional Distinctiveness Appendix 6.5 – Environment Appendix 6.6 – Creativity Appendix 6.7 - Economic

- 302 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Appendix 6.1 Accessibility Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Quantitative - Monetised Quantitative - Physical Qualitative Corporate Target Improve cross Effective Growth Reduce through traffic from CBD city & orbital Management network traffic flow Effective Road Decrease total & heavy vehicles from networks with the local & suburban road network Improved freight Effective Growth Net economic benefit of usage Effective liaison with other agencies Achieve SEQ growth network Management (i.e. Auslink) and import/export efficiency targets Effective Road Reduced congestion costs Reduced travel times Improved travel time reliability (reduced networks congestion, improved connectivity and legibility) Cleaner Reductions in life cycle cost for freight % saving in freight sustainable energy movements vehicle life cycle costs use Improve local Effective Growth Reduced travel costs & times through Effectiveness and resilience of network. Impact on network of traffic Management reduced congestion accidents. Directness accessibility on of required route of local road travel to desired network. destination

Cleaner Reduction in congestion sustainable energy use Effective Road Ability to dedicate surface road network networks to transit/ bus lanes due to reduction in freight & private vehicle use of surface networks

Improve opport- Effective Growth Increase services Enhance accessibility to public x% of mode share unities for public Management Improved network efficiency transport for a wider range of travel transport service purposes. Cleaner % of latest technology buses serving sustainable energy route; Reduced congestion for radial use routes; reduction in private vehicle use

Green & active Reduction in GGE emissions from fleet Free flow transport Condition of fleet

- 303 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Quantitative - Monetised Quantitative - Physical Qualitative Corporate Target Maximise tunnel Effective Growth Usage rates for tunnel access without Management negative impacts on local network Effective Road Level of service for local network networks

Provide Safe Communities Reduced ped./vehicle conflict in road Km of travel on opportunity to system dedicated ped./bike improve Reductions in extraneous traffic routes; reduction in pedestrians/cycle interface with road accessibility network Active & Healthy Usage rates Improvements in ped./cycle facilities on % increase in usage Communities inner surface roads with reduced traffic demand Improve access Effective Growth Additional cross-river carrying capacity Evenly distribute cross-river traffic on in city through Management available crossings additional cross- river capacity. Healthy Economy Cost benefit of travel time reductions

Effective Road Manage competing demands between Networks local & through traffic Improve level of Cleaner Base measure on travel time values Savings in vehicle hours per day: Total service (LOS). sustainable energy (July 2008); Private users - $10.22 per 286hrs (2011); 953hrs (2016); 1,897hrs use person hour; Business users - $32.68 (2026). Other Network users: Total per person hour; Commercial (heavy) 3436hrs (2011); 5,687hrs (2016); users $17.17 per vehicle hour including 16,982hrs (2026); Saving in vehicle km allowance for per day: Total 5675km (2011); freight value of time; Average private 28,479km (2016); 31,206km (2026). occupancy - 1.45 persons; Average Other Network users: Total 5544km commercial occupancy - 1 person (2011);419,988km (2016); 195,458km (2026) Effective Road Base measure on unit crash costs (July Networks 2008): Motorway -: $14,100 / million VKT; Expressway - $14,100 / million VKT; Arterial road - $45,200 / million VKT; Suburban road - $62,100 / million VKT; Local road - $62,100 / million VKT

- 304 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Quantitative - Monetised Quantitative - Physical Qualitative Corporate Target Provide Cleaner Improvements in % usage opportunities for sustainable energy % of new services - natural gas buses improvement in use public transport Effective Road Maintain accepted LOS on shared road Western busway Networks network to enable efficient & effective project) public transport service Green and Active Improve environments & connectivity to Transport bus & rail services Provide safe, Safe communities Safe adequate lighting; clear views for legible & surveillance; designated circulation equitable routes; equitable access for all users integrated transport, ped. Inclusive caring Enhance safety for after hours services Enhance safety for after hours services Enhance safety for after hours services linkages & communities associated Effective road Manage conflicts of use between amenities networks cyclists & pedestrians Improved Effective road Public transport trips up 5,5500 competitiveness networks: trips/day; number of walk/cycle trips up to public between 2,800 & 4,300/day; decrease transport, in vehicle kms/public transport cycling/walking passenger; improved public transport reliability Connected and Increased inter and intra model engaged interchanging communities: Improve Healthy economy: connectivity Effective road between CBD & networks: major urban Connected & centres engaged communities: Improve access Safe communities: to river & ferry services Connected & engaged communities: Green & active transport:

- 305 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Quantitative - Monetised Quantitative - Physical Qualitative Corporate Target Enhance Cooperative integration & governance: connectivity between ped., Active & healthy cycle, rail, bus & communities: ferries Green and active transport: Reduce private Clean air: vehicle Effective growth Improved integration; location of Reduced parking intrusion. movements management: transport nodes closer to higher through CBD; residential densities Reduce Effective road Reduced congestion congestion on networks: the inner western road network Improve travel Healthy economy: times & reliability Effective road for bus patrons, networks: ped. & cyclists Reduce demand Safe communities: for parking & on- street intrusions in suburbs

- 306 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Appendix 6.2 Health and well-being

Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Corporate Target Quantitative Monetised Quantitative Physical Qualitative Improve opportunities Safe communities Separated pedestrian & cyclist for walking & cycling facilities connecting into existing for 'journey to work' & network recreational purposes Enhance personal security around parks & in isolated areas

Green and Active Integrate precincts to ensure Transport improved linkages & connectivity Increase Well designed Attractive access to the community to opportunities for responsive built walking & cycling ped./cycle network environment linkages & Connected and Links communities immediately Connections to recreational and connection to major Engaged north & south of river cultural precincts land uses. Communities Green and Active Cross river cycle groups Transport Manage traffic flow to Safe communities Safety around schools enhance traffic safety Crime Prevention Through for ped. & cyclists Environmental Design principles integrated

Better Public Health

Effective Road Improved pedestrian wait times Smart design for pedestrians Networks Improve opportunities Better public health Reduced ped./vehicle conflict in Reduced ped./vehicle conflict in for pedestrian/cycle road system (accident costs) road system connectivity Active & healthy Improved signal phasing for communities pedestrian

Green & active Provide potential of on-road cycle transport facilities with surface road traffic reductions.

- 307 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Corporate Target Quantitative Monetised Quantitative Physical Qualitative Complete inner-city Outstanding city pedestrian/cycle profile: circuit Better public health: Analyse existing air quality; Analyse existing air quality; Analyse existing air quality; dispersion dispersion models & mitigation dispersion models & mitigation models & mitigation strategies strategies strategies Noise and vibration impacts during Noise and vibration impacts during Noise and vibration impacts during construction & operation construction & operation construction & operation Active & healthy communities: Better pedestrian & Well-designed cycle linkages; responsive built Expand opport- environment: unities for current / Active & healthy Improve public access to leisure planned cycle/ communities: facilities walking paths Provide for the safety Safe communities: & well-being of workers & affected Better public health: Minimise noise disruption Complaints to 1800 number and 1800 number for community Zero complaints public throughout construction & councillor issues/complaints operations Complaints to local member Satisfy occupational Safe communities: LTIFR during construction LTIFR during construction health & safety Security in operations Security in operations requirements: manage risks

- 308 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Appendix 6.3 Inclusiveness Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Quantitative Monetised Quantitative Physical Qualitative Corporate Target Provide a safe Safe communities Continuous health & safety Zero harm (No Lost Time Injuries) project in all project improvements for employees phases Better Public Health During delivery - Lost Time injury rates Active & Healthy Acknowledge person well-being Acknowledge person well-being Acknowledge person well-being Communities improvement improvement improvement Provide safe, legible Safe communities & equitable Well-designed sub- integrated transport, tropical city including amenities. Assist local area to Inclusive caring Improved access & opportunities for accommodate social, communities cycle & ped. Movement. economic & Increased traffic volume through technological improved connectivity changes. Learning & informed communities Effective stakeholder Inclusive caring Cultural & heritage management Manage expectations of the consultation communities plans. No impacts to sites of cultural custodians of heritage / heritage significance Learning & Informed Involvement with neighbourhood communities planning processes Cooperative Establish design performance governance standards with respect to heritage Effectively manage Inclusive caring the impact on local communities community Learning & informed (homelessness) communities Promote community Inclusive caring 15% improvement in capacity building communities relevant local community surveys Learning & informed communities Connected & engaged communities

- 309 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Quantitative Monetised Quantitative Physical Qualitative Corporate Target Effectively manage Effective Growth Provide opportunity for better Community survey - % the impact on local management community integration response & satisfaction community Healthy economy Business community satisfaction Community survey - % response & satisfaction Connected engaged Provide better connectivity for local Community survey - % communities communities response & satisfaction Provide a safe Safe Communities Cost of crashes declines due to project in all project decrease in forecast kms traveled phases due to more efficient network Reduction in freight vehicles in urban and suburban traffic corridors Improved response times for emergency vehicles Better Public health Zero harm during construction Zero harm during construction Zero harm during construction More closely align Effective growth public transport with management: travel needs; Clean sustainable energy use: Effective road networks: Help build social Learning & informed Build community networks during capacity by communities: planning and construction phase encouraging Connected & Use of local supply chains during networks & engaged construction connectivity communities: Create spaces & Well-designed Universal access design Universal access design places that provide responsive built env: value to the Connected & Consultation - calls to 1800 number community engaged communities: Avoid disturbing Inclusive caring Cultural heritage management areas of significance communities: strategies for cultural, religious , Cooperative Liaison with local indigenous and Liaison with local indigenous and indigenous peoples, governance: other community groups other community groups or community Learning & informed Evaluate and monitor influences on Evaluate and monitor influences on purposes communities: the demographic profile the demographic profile

- 310 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Appendix 6.4 Regional Distinctiveness Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Quantitative Monetised Quantitative Physical Qualitative Corporate Target Provide Outstanding city Recognisable precinct character Legibility improvements to profile footpaths & Well designed Enhanced desirability through better streetscapes responsive built design environment Provide a sense of Outstanding city Sub-tropical boulevards spaciousness, profile context, & site responsive to the Green & biodiverse Implement passive design Implement passive design region. city strategies strategies Well designed Enhanced streetscaping responsive built environment Manage relationship Green & biodiverse between built forms, city urban edge, & Well designed Community acceptance Community acceptance Design awards surrounding terrain responsive built Community satisfaction environment Maximise beneficial Sustainable water Engagement with local agencies & Engagement with local agencies & environmental use businesses on stormwater businesses on stormwater outcomes harvesting harvesting Green & biodiverse Streetscapes city Improve city's Active & healthy Ped. & cycle path accessibility x km of connect liveability communities ped/cycle path Connected & Participation rates Community survey % engaged response & satisfaction communities levels Provide opportunity Green and biodiverse Shade in the city Sub tropical planting Heat maps to improve surface city corridor to enhance Well-designed & Enhance microclimate Enhance microclimate Heat maps local environment engaged communities Provision for shade, Green & biodiverse outdoor recreation & city: drinking water Well designed Improvements in micro-climate and responsive built env: air quality

- 311 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Quantitative Monetised Quantitative Physical Qualitative Corporate Target Harvest stormwater Sustainable water % of on-site stormwater capture for use on use: during construction and operation surrounding parklands Healthy river and Environmental incidents during Environmental incidents during bay: construction construction

Green and biodiverse On-site stormwater capture to On-site stormwater capture to city maintain local vegetation maintain local vegetation

Improve vitality of Effective growth local area management:

Well designed Enhance quality of public space Visual Impact Assessment - Enhance quality of public space responsive built landform; structures; tree cover; environment: edge condition; harmony; variety Preserve & enhance Food in the city: existing flora & fauna Green and biodiverse Existing flora & fauna audits & city: management of impacts

- 312 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Appendix 6.5 Environment Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Quantitative - Monetised Quantitative - Physical Qualitative Corporate Target Contribute to a Clean air Establish design performance reduction in vehicle standards with respect air quality emissions e.g. more Clean sustainable Decreasing trip/capita consumption (10% of benefits according to energy efficient energy use of non-renewable energy; enhance economic assessment see IAS transport movement opportunities for cycle & ped. Section C Economic) movement. Unit emissions costs (air pollution and GGE) - $0.103 / VKT for light vehicles and $0.831 / VKT for heavy vehicles Minimise & manage Inclusive caring Reduction in noise - Reportable events during 100% community issues impacts of noise & communities Unit traffic noise costs - $0.00672 / construction managed within project; vibration VKT for light vehicles; $0.01568 / 100% notification rate for tonne km for heavy vehicles planned traffic movements; Project education attendance of 4000; No impacts on ferry timetable; No reportable noise or vibration incidents Better Public Health Acceptable noise level change from Max. acceptable 3 dBA road corridor Minimise & manage Inclusive caring Reportable events Reportable events During Construction: 100% impacts of air communities community issues pollutants managed within project. 100% notification rate for planning traffic movements. Project education attendance of 4000. No impacts on ferry timetable; No reportable air quality incidents Better Public Health

Provide best practice Sustainable water Water consumption benchmarks Water consumption benchmarks environmental use and targets and targets outcomes Towards zero waste Cleaner sustainable Energy consumption & generation KW energy production energy use benchmarks and targets

- 313 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Quantitative - Monetised Quantitative - Physical Qualitative Corporate Target Provide best practice Healthy river & bay Establish design performance No worsening of existing environmental standards -drainage, erosion & water quality outcomes cont’d sedimentation & water quality; flora & fauna; measurement & monitoring. Green & biodiverse No loss of vegetation city marked for retention Provide best practice Sustainable water Water consumption benchmarks Water consumption benchmarks & environmental use and targets targets outcomes. Towards zero waste Waste management efficiency Waste management efficiency targets & benchmarks targets & benchmarks

Cleaner sustainable Energy consumption, production & Energy consumption, production & energy use efficiency targets and benchmarks efficiency targets & benchmarks Minimise & manage Clean air Modal shift from private to public; of impacts of air Air quality impact due to traffic relief pollutants on surface roads Better public health Reduction in GGE due to reduction Reduction in GGE due to reduction in vehicle kms traveled & lessening in vehicle kms traveled & lessening of travel in congested conditions of travel in congested conditions Minimise & manage Better public health of impacts of noise & vibration Contribute to Learning & Informed Involvement with neighbourhood Involvement with neighbourhood x% community satisfaction development of communities planning planning sustainable urban Connected & Involvement with neighbourhood Involvement with neighbourhood x% community environment engaged planning planning participation communities Well designed Reduction in surface traffic enabling responsive built other ped/cycle friendly activities environment Promote sustainable Clean air: Reduction in vehicle emissions transport Cleaner sustainable energy use: Effective Road networks: Green & Active transport:

- 314 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Quantitative - Monetised Quantitative - Physical Qualitative Corporate Target Utilise resource Sustainable water Management of waste potable & No environmental incidents efficient practices use: recycled water consumption during construction

Towards zero waste Utilise recycled materials used in construction

Manage waste generation during construction

Cleaner sustainable Use of low-embodied energy energy use: materials (i.e. fly ash concrete)

Create energy Sustainable water Account for embodied energy in neutral infrastructure use: construction materials

Account for annual operational Energy neutral energy expenditure

Towards zero waste: Eliminate contamination caused by operational activities

Cleaner sustainable On-site power generation capacity Meet operational capacity energy use: Minimise operational consumption (low energy lighting)

- 315 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Appendix 6.6 Creativity Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Stretch Generic Indicator Objectives Quantitative - Monetised Quantitative - Physical Qualitative Corporate Target Target Improving access to Learning & Informed key city & regional communities features Connected & engaged communities Achieve high quality Outstanding city Customer satisfaction Customer satisfaction Industry recognition 95% customer aesthetics of bridge & profile satisfaction survey approaches results; Achieve 3 industry awards Well-designed sub- Produce a structured Produce a structured Produce a structured tropical city collaborative design process collaborative design process collaborative design process

Provide innovation in Well design sub- Demonstrate sustainable Cultural and historical Cultural & historical expression Global recognition design including tropical city transport planning & innovation expression of innovation integration of cultural literacy interpretation Connected & Cultural Literacy interpretation engaged owned by community & communities stakeholders Provide high quality, Outstanding city International design awards x design awards x + y design innovative design profile awards solutions Well-designed Community acceptance x% community x + y % responsive built env. satisfaction satisfaction

Promote Brisbane Outstanding city through innovative profile: planning, policy & design Healthy economy:

Well designed responsive built environment:

- 316 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Appendix 6.7 Economic Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Quantitative - Monetised Quantitative - Physical Qualitative Corporate Target Enhance social Learning & informed Provide improved access between diversity, choice & communities key centres accessibility Connected & Enhance interaction between key World class design engaged institutions communities Contribute to Effective Growth Reduce traffic congestion; improve Reduced congestion; enhanced effectively servicing Management amenity; urban consolidation access to public transport. high density urban Healthy Economy Improved levels of service Reduction in public transport travel Reduction in public transport travel Customer satisfaction centres times times Well-designed Quality of high density developments Quality of high density developments Uptake responsive built Satisfaction environment Effectively service Effective growth Improve access to high density land Improve access to high density land urban renewal of management inner-city areas Healthy economy Well design sub- tropical built environment Effectively address Effective growth Usage rates; viability for project Cost benefit achieved project affordability management proponent beyond PSC Healthy economy Attractiveness of proposal; Elasticity in toll Effective road Toll levels - "good value" for user Usage rates for freight, public, private $cost for passenger networks vehicles in 2006; x % of user in relation to projections Minimise impacts on Effective growth Impact on businesses Stakeholder satisfaction 15% improvement in local businesses management community surveys; during construction 15% improvement in customer satisfaction surveys Healthy economy No need for compensation Provide innovation in Cooperative Utilise latest thinking in construction, Interaction between key medical, delivery governance energy efficiency, communications technological, academic and research and design (HSL Contract) facilities Healthy economy Utilise latest technology

- 317 - Appendix 5 – Transport data-sets

Generic Project Generic Measurables Generic Project or Generic Indicator Objectives Quantitative - Monetised Quantitative - Physical Qualitative Corporate Target Provide innovation in Effective road Capture cross city and orbital traffic Capture cross city and orbital traffic x% of cross city and delivery cont’d networks orbital traffic captured

Facilitate investment Inclusive caring of local business in communities social infrastructure Connected & engaged communities Deliver a legacy Effective growth Innovation in delivery Innovation in delivery project as per project management vision statement Outstanding city Innovation in design Innovation in design Improvement in legibility of network profile Economic growth and Effective growth employment management facilitated Healthy economy

Effective road Improved accessibility between x% of freight using networks primary transport arteries & trade routes centres Promote/enhance Effective growth regional significance management: of key centres through transport Outstanding city infrastructure profile:

Cooperative governance:

Maximise the financial Healthy Economy: Reduction in congestion, improve viability of the project travel times. Effective Road Increase bus service frequencies; Provide real time information Networks: ensure convenience, comfort, safety & accessibility. Improve employment Healthy economy: CDEP labour during construction. and skills base Boost to local employment during operation.

- 318 - Bibliography

Bibliography

ABN AMRO (2006). Australia Strategy, ABN AMRO.

AccountAbility (2006). AA1000 Guidance Note. London, AccountAbility.

Alves, T. d. C. L., I. D. Tommelein, and G. Ballard (2005). Value Stream Mapping for make-to-order products in a job shop environment. Construction Research Congress 2005, San Diego.

Amalric, F. and J. Hauser (2005). "Economic drivers for corporate responsibility activities." The Journal of Corporate Citizenship 20: 2739.

Anderson, V. (1991). Alternative Economic Indicators. London, New York, Routledge.

Arbulu, R. J., I. D. Tommelein, K.D. Walsh, and J.C. Hershauer (2003). "Value stream analysis of a re-engineered construction supply chain." Building Research and Information 31(2): 161-171.

Arts, J. and F. V. Lamoen (2005). "Before EIA: Defining the scope of infrastructure projects in the Netherlands." Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management 7(1): 51-80.

Asafu-Adjaye, J. (2005). Tools for Environmental Policy Analysis. Environmental Economics for Non-Economists ; Techniques and Policies for Sustainable Development. Singapore, World Scientific Publishing Co.

Avison, D., F. Lau, M. Myers, and P.A. Nielsen (1999). "Action Research." Communications of the ACM. 42(1): 94-97.

Badshah, A. (1998). Good Governance for Environment Sustainability, UNDP Public-Private Partnerships for the Urban Environment: 15.

Barrett, P. (2008). Revaluing Construction, Blackwell.

Barrett, P., M. Sexton, and A. Lee (2008). Case study investigation. Innovation in Small Construction Firms, Taylor and Francis: 24-27.

Baskerville, R. L. and A. T. Wood-Harper (1996). "A critical perspective on action research as a method for information systems research." Journal of Information Technology. 11: 235-245.

Bein, P. (1997). Monetization of Environmental Impacts of Roads. M. o. T. a. Highways, [Victoria, B.C.]. Highway Planning and Policy Branch, Information Management Section, 1997.

Bell, S. and S. Morse (1999). Sustainability indicators : measuring the immeasurable? London : Earthscan Publications.

Bertelsen, S. and L. Koskela (2002). Managing the Three Aspects of Production in Construction. 10th Annual Conference in the International Group for Lean Construction, Brazil.

- 319- Bibliography

Bertlesen, S. and L. Koskela (2004). Construction Beyond Lean: A new understanding of construction management. 12th annual conference in the International Group for Lean Construction, Elsinore, Denmark.

Birkin, F. and D. Woodward (1997). "Management Accounting for Sustainable Development Part 3: Stakeholder Analysis." Management Accounting (UK) 75(8): 58-60.

Black, J. A., A. Paez, and P. A. Suthanaya (2002). "Sustainable Urban Transportation: Performance Indicators and Some Analytical Approaches." Journal of Urban Planning and Development 128(4): 184-209.

Bourne, L. (2005). Project Relationship Management and the Stakeholder Circle, RMIT.

Bourne, L. and P. Weaver. (200?). "Stakeholder Circle - A Visualisation Tool." from http://www.mosaicprojects.com.au/PDF_Papers/P027_The%20Stakeholder%20Circ le.pdf.

Boutilier, R. (2009). Stakeholder Politics - Social capital, sustainable development and the corporation, Greenleaf Publishing.

Bringezu, S. (1993). "Towards Increasing Resource Productivity: How to measure the total material consumption of regional or national economies." Fresenius Environment Bulletin 2: 437-442.

Bringezu, S. (2002). Construction ecology and metabolism. Construction Ecology. C. J. Kibert, J. Sendzimir and G. B. Guy. London and NY, Spon Press.

Brisbane City Council (1996). BCC Council File - Bridges - Proposed St Lucia Bridge - Green Bridge Project - Part 1 of 4. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2001a). "Living in Brisbane 2010." BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2001b). Green Bridge Economic Analysis. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2002a). Transport Plan for Brisbane 2002-2016. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2002b). BCC Urban Management C&Q File Project Delivery Services. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2003a). Green Bridge Link - Impact Assessment Study. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2003b). Contract No. K40081-03/04. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2003c). Business Case Green Bridge Link - Commercial in Confidence. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2003d). BCC File - UM - Contracts and Quotations - Green Bridge Link.

Brisbane City Council (2003e). BCC Urban Management File - Contracts and Quotations Green Bridge. BCC.

- 320- Bibliography

Brisbane City Council (2003f). BCC Urban Management File - Registration of Interest - Green Bridge. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2004-06). BCC Council File - Bridges - Proposed St Lucia Bridge - Green Bridge Project - Part 2 of 4. BCC.

Brisbane City Council and Qld Government (2005). South Brisbane Precinct - traffic and mobility study - Newsletter Edition 1. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2005a). TransApex - Strategic Context Report. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2005b). TransApex – Pre-feasibility Report. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2005c). Tender Evaluation Criteria. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2005d). BCC Corporate Plan 2006-2010. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2005e). Review of Green Bridge Mission, Objectives and Targets. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2005f). Hale Street Link Newsletter - Edition 1 - October 2005. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2006a). Our shared vision - Living in Brisbane 2026. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2006b). Brisbane City Council Corporate Plan 2006-2010. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2006c). Annual Report 2005-2006. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2006d). Hale Street Link Business Case and Addendum. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2006e). Hale Street Link Draft Impact Assessment Statement. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2006f). Hale Street Link Impact Assessment Statement Supplementary Report. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2006g). Hale Street Link Newsletter - Edition 2. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2006h). Hale Street Link Newsletter - September 2006. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2006-07). BCC Council File - Bridges - Proposed St Lucia Bridge - Green Bridge Project - Part 3 of 4. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2007a). Contract No. MIPO70095-06/07 (Hale Street Link Contract) Annexure 2. BCC.

Brisbane City Council. (2007b). "Hale Street Link project overview." from http://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/BCC:BASE:686255094:pc=PC_2114.

Brisbane City Council (2007c). Draft Kurilpa Structure Plan. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2007f). Northern Link Preliminary Assessment Report. Major Infrastructure Projects Office, BCC.

- 321- Bibliography

Brisbane City Council. (2007g). "Northern Link" Retrieved 16/01/008, 2008.

Brisbane City Council (2007h). Northern Link Newsletter - November/December 2007. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2007i). Transport Plan for 2006-2026 Draft. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2007k). Business Capability Program - Strategic Setting Context. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2007m). Brisbane City Council Corporate Plan 2007-2011. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2007n). Northern Link - connecting the western suburbs to the north. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2007p). BCC Council File - Bridges - Proposed St Lucia Bridge - Green Bridge Project - Part 4 of 4.

Brisbane City Council, MacMahon Construction, et al. (2007). Hale Street Link Alliance.

Brisbane City Council. (2008). "Positive Work Environment." Retrieved 28/04/08, from http://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/BCC:CAREERS:388856444:pc=PC_2957.

Brisbane City Council (2008a). Northern Link Newsletter April 2008. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2008b). Northern Link Newsletter June 2008. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (2008c). Northern Link Newsletter October 2008. BCC.

Brisbane City Council (200x). Northern Link - the missing link. BCC.

Carroll, A. (1991). "The Pyramid Of Corporate Social Responsibility: Toward the Moral Management of Organisational Stakeholders." Business Horizons (USA) 34(4): 39-48.

Carson, R. (1963). Silent spring London, Hamilton.

Chan, A. and A. P. L. Chan (2004). "Key performance indicators for measuring construction success." Benchmarking: An International Journal 11(2): 203-221.

Chan, A., D. Chan, Y.H. Chiang, B.S. Tang, E. Chan, and K. Ho (2004). “Exploring Critical Success Factors for Partnering in Construction Projects." Journal of Construction Engineering and Management 130(2): 188-198.

Chan, A., D. C. K. Ho, and C. M. Tam (2001). "Design and Build Project Success Factors: Multivariate Analysis." Journal of Construction Engineering and Management 127(2): 93-100.

Chan, A., D. Scott, E. W. M. Lam (2002). "Framework of Success Criteria for Design/Build Projects." Journal of Management in Engineering 18(3): 120-128.

Checkland, P. (1992). Information systems and systems thinking: time to unite? New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

- 322- Bibliography

Checkland, P. and S. Holwell (1998). Information, Systems and Information Systems. New York, John Wiley and Sons.

Checkland, P. (2000). "Soft Systems Methodology: A Thirty Year Retrospective." Systems Research and Behavioral Science 17(S1): 11-58.

Cheng, E., H. Li, and P.F.D. Love (2000). "Establishment of Critical Success Factors for Construction Partnering." Journal of Management in Engineering 16(2): 84-92.

Chi, G. and J. B. Stone (2005). "Sustainable Transport Planning: Estimating the Ecological Footprint of Vehicle Travel in Future Years." Journal of Urban Planning and Development 131(3): 170-180.

Chua, D. K. H., Y. C. Kog, and P. K. Loh (1999). "Critical Success Factors for Different Project Objectives." Journal of Construction Engineering and Management 125(3): 142-150.

City Design (2003). Green Bridge Link - SPeAR Assessment. City Design, BCC.

Cooper, S. M. and D. L. Owen (2007). "Corporate social reporting and stakeholder accountability: The missing link." Accounting, Organisations and Society in press.

Corbin, J. and A. Strauss (1990). "Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria." Qualitative Sociology 13(1): 3-21.

Corporations and Markets Advisory Committee (2005). Corporate Social Responsibility Discussion Paper. Corporations and Markets Advisory Committee. Canberra, Australia.

Costanza, R., R. d’Arge, R. de Groot, S. Farber, M. Grasso, B. Hannon, K. Limburg, S. Naeem, R. V. O’Neill, J. Paruelo, R. G. Raskin, P. Sutton, M. van den Belt (1998). "The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital." Ecological Economics 25: 3-15.

Cox, E. (1995). A truly civil society. Sydney, Australia. ABC Books.

Dasgupta, S. and E. K. L. Tam (2005). "Indicators and framework for assessing sustainable infrastructure." Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 32(1).

Deakin, E. (2007). Equity and Environmental Justice in Sustainable Transport: Toward a Research Agenda. Institutions and Sustainable Transport: Regulatory Reform in Advanced Economies. Edward Elgar.

Dul, J. and T. Hak, Eds. (2008). Case Study Methodology in Business Research. Elsevier.

Elkington, J. (1998). Cannibals with forks : the triple bottom line of 21st century business. Gabriola Island, BC ; Stony Creek, CT, New Society Publishers.

Ellingham, I. and W. Fawcett (2006). New Generation Whole-Life Costing - Property and construction decision-making under uncertainty. London and New York, Taylor and Francis.

- 323- Bibliography

Emmitt, S., D. Sander, and A. K. Christofferson (2005). The Value Universe: Defining a value based approach to lean construction. International Gathering Lean Construction - 13, Sydney Australia.

Engen, T. and S. DiPiazza (2005). Beyond Reporting : Creating Business Value and Accountability. World Business Council for Sustainable Development.

Engineers Australia (2008). Australia's Infrastructure Requirements - Submission by Engineers Australia, Engineers Australia.

Fisher, T. B. (2002). "Strategic Environmental Assessment Performance criteria - the same requirements for every assessment." Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management 4(1): 83-99.

Fox, T., H. Ward, and B. Howard (2002). Public Sector Roles in Strengthening Corporate Social Responsibility: A Baseline Study. C. S. R. Practice, World Bank.

Freeman, R. E. (1984). Strategic Management - A Stakeholder Approach. Boston, Pitman.

Gutteridge Haskin Davies (2005). Hale Street Link Impact Assessment Statement - Draft Terms of Reference. Brisbane City Council.

Gifford, J. L. (2004). Flexible Urban Transportation, Elsevier Science.

Glaser, B. G. (2002). "Conceptualisation: On Theory and Theorising Using Grounded Theory." International Journal of Qualitative Methods 1(2): 31.

Global Reporting Initiative (2002). GRI Sustainable Reporting Guidelines. Boston, USA, Global Reporting Initiative.

Graedel, T. E. and B. R. Allenby (2003). Industrial ecology. Upper Saddle River, N.J., Prentice Hall.

Green, S. D. (1997). "A participative research strategy for propagating soft methodologies in value management practice." Construction Management and Economics 17: 329-340.

Group of 100 (Australia) (2003). Sustainability : a guide to triple bottom line reporting. Melbourne, Vic, Group of 100 Inc.

Hahn, T. and M. Scheermesser (2006). "Approaches to Corporate Sustainability among German Companies." Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management 13: 150-165.

Harmaajarvi, I. (2000). "EcoBalance model for assessing sustainability in residential areas and relevant case studies in Finland." Environmental Impact Assessment Review 20(3): 373-380.

Hawken, P., A. Lovins, L. H. Lovins (1999). Natural capitalism: creating the next industrial revolution. Boston Little, Brown and Company.

Hines, P. and N. Rich (1997). "The seven value stream mapping tools Introduction." International Journal of Operations & Production Management 17(1): 46-64.

- 324- Bibliography

Holme, R. and P. Watts (2000). Corporate social responsibility: making good business sense. World Business Council for Sustainable Development.

Huang, S-L. and W-L. Hsu (2003). "Materials flow analysis and emergy evaluation of Taipei’s urban construction." 2003.

Huang, S-L., J-H. Wong, and T-C Chuen (1998). "A framework of indicator system for measuring Taipei's urban sustainability." Landscape and Urban Planning 42(1): 15-27.

Husted, B. W. and D. B. Allen (2007). "Strategic Corporate Social Responsibility and Value Creation among Large Firms - Lessons from the Spanish Experience." Long Term Planning 40(6): 594-610.

Hutchins, M. J. and J. W. Sutherland (2008). "An exploration of measures of social sustainability and their application to supply chain decisions." Sustainability and Supply Chain Management 16(15): 1688-1698.

Illinois Institute of Technology. (2007). "The Delphi Method - Definition and historical background." Retrieved 30 January, 2007, from www.iit.edu/~it/delphi.html.

International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (1996). Local Agenda 21. Toronto. The International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives.

International Organisation for Standardisation (2004). ISO 14001:2004 - Environmental management systems. International Organisation for Standardisation.

International Organisation of Standardisation. (2008). "ISO and social responsibility." International Organisation for Standardisation.

Irwin, F. and J. Ranganathan (2007). Restoring Nature's Capital - An action agenda to sustain ecosystem services. W. R. Institute. Washington DC.

Jefferies, M., R. Gameson, and S. Rowlinson (2002). "Critical success factors of the BOOT procurement systems: reflections from the Stadium Australia case study." Engineering Construction and Architectural Management 9(4).

John Holland and Brisbane City Council (2003). Green Bridge - Project Values and Behavioural Expectations.

Jones, D. and J. Womack (2002). Seeing the Whole - Mapping the Extended Value Stream. Brooklyn, Massachusetts, The Lean Enterprise Institute.

Klotz, L., M. Horman, M. Bodenschatz (2007). "A Lean Modelling Protocol for Evaluating Green Project Delivery." Lean Construction 3(1).

Kovacs, G. (2008). "Corporate environmental responsibility in the supply chain." Sustainability and Supply Chain Management 16(15): 1571-1578.

Kraatz, J. A., S. Kajewski, and K. Manley (2008a). Value mapping for major economic infrastructure projects for the Australian public sector. Clients Driving Innovation - Benefiting from Innovation. D. K. Hampson. Gold Coast, Australia, CRC Construction Innovation.

- 325- Bibliography

Kraatz, J. A., S. Kajewski, and K. Manley (2008b). Mapping value/s - aligning project outcomes with Brisbane City Council’s “Living in Brisbane 2026” themes. faultlines to sightlines - sub-tropical urbanism 20-20. Brisbane, Australia. Centre for Sub-Tropical Design, QUT.

Kraatz, J. A., S. Kajewski, and K. Manley (2008c). Value-mapping for urban infrastructure projects: mapping project outcomes to corporate objectives. Transformation through Construction. D. K. Carter, P. A. Kaka and P. S. Ogulana. Dubai, Harriot Watt University.

Li, B., A. Akintoye, P.J. Edwards and C. Hardcastle (2005). "Critical Success Factors for PPP/PFI projects in the UK Construction industry." Construction management and Economics 23(5): 459-471.

Liker, J. K. (2001). Mapping your value stream. Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Michigan, Dearborn.

Litman, T. A. (2007). Transportation Cost and Benefit Analysis. Victoria Transport Policy Institute.

Lu, S-L. and M. Sexton (2006). "Innovation in small construction knowledge- intensive professional service firms: a case study of an architectural practice." Construction management and Economics 24: 1269-1282.

Major Infrastructure Projects Office (2007a). Northern Link Integrated Project Team Workshop Outcomes MIPO, Brisbane City Council.

Major Infrastructure Projects Office (2007b). Northern Link - Initial Advice Statement. MIPO, Brisbane City Council.

Major Infrastructure Projects Office (2007c). Identified Project need - From strategic and business requirements. MIPO, Brisbane City Council.

Maldonado-Fortunet, F. (2002). Sustainable development criteria for the evaluation of highway projects. United States. Georgia Institute of Technology. Manley, K. (2008). "Against the odds: small firms successfully introducing new technology on construction projects." Research Policy 37(10): 1751-1764. Mardigian, S. (2004). "Precautionary Principal." Timeline 73.

Marton, F. (1981). "Phenomenography - Describing conceptions of the world around us." Instructional Science 10: 177-200.

Mayer, A. L. (2008). "Strengths and weaknesses of common sustainability indices for multidimensional systems." Environment International 34(2): 277-291.

McIntosh, M. (2004). "Corporate Responsibility: the UN Global Compact, Complexity and Corporations." New Academy Review 3(2).

Meadows, D. H. (1974). The limits to growth : a report for the Club of Rome's project on the predicament of mankind. New York, Universe Books.

Metri, B. (2005). "TQM Critical Success factors for Construction Firms." Management 10: 61-72.

- 326- Bibliography

Morledge, R. and K. Owen (1998). Critical success factors in PFI projects. 14th Annual ARCOM Conference.

Nicolas, J.-P., P. Pochet, and H. Poimboeuf (2003). "Towards sustainable mobility indicators: application to the Lyons conurbation." Transport Policy - Urban Transport Policy Instruments 10(3): 197-208.

O'Connor, M. and J. H. Spangenberg (2008). "A methodology for CSR reporting: assuring a representative diversity of indicators across stakeholders, scales, sites and performance issues." Journal of Cleaner Production 16(13): 1399-1415.

Odum, H. T. (1996). Environmental Accounting - Emergy and Environmental Decision-making. New York, John Wiley and Sons.

Odum, H. T. (2002). Material circulation, energy hierarchy, and building construction. Construction Ecology. C. J. Kibert, J. Sendzimir and G. B. Guy. London and NY, Spon Press.

Oskarsson, K. and F. von Malmborg (2005). "Integrated Management Systems as a Corporate Response to Sustainable Development." Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management 12: 121-128.

Palme, U. and A.-M. Tillman (2008). "Sustainable development indicators: how are they used in Swedish water utilities?" Journal of Cleaner Production 16(13): 1346- 1357.

Panapanaan, V. M., L. Linnanen, M-M. Karvonen, and V. T. Phan (2003). "Roadmapping Corporate Social Responsibility in Finnish Companies." Journal of Business Ethics 44: 133-148.

Parfitt, M. K. and V. E. Sanvido (1993). "Checklist of Critical Success Factors for Building Projects." Journal of Management in Engineering 9(3): 243-249.

Pojasek, R. B. (2004). "Quality toolbox - Mapping information flow through the production process." Environmental Quality Management 13(3): 89-97.

Porter, M. E. (1995). "Green and Competitive - Ending the Stalemate." Harvard Business Review (Sept-Oct 1995):120-134.

Qiao, L., S. Q. Wang, R. Tiong and T-S. Chan (2001). "Framework for critical Success Factors of BOT Projects in China." The Journal of Project Finance(Spring 2001): 53-61.

Queensland Coordinator General (2007). Northern Link Road Tunnel Project - Draft Terms of Reference for an Environmental Impact Statement. Coordinator General's, Queensland Government.

Queensland Transport, Main Roads, and Brisbane City Council (2003). Cross River Strategy - Working paper 2 - Evaluation Framework. Queensland Transport, Main Roads, and Brisbane City Council.

Rainbird, M. (2004). "Demand and supply chains: the value catalyst." International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management 34(3/4): 230-250.

- 327- Bibliography

Reason, P. and W. R. Torbet (2001). "The Action Turn - Toward a Transformational Science." Concepts and Transformations.

Rogers, M. (2001). Engineering Project Appraisal, Blackwell Science.

Rother, M. and J. Shook (2003). Learning to See - Value-Stream Mapping to Create Value and Eliminate Muda - A Lean Tool Kit Method and Workbook. Brookline, Massachusetts, USA, The Lean Enterprise Institute.

Rowlinson, S. and F. Cheung (2004). Project Procurement for Infrastructure Construction. International Symposium of the CIB W92 on Procurement Systems, Chennai, India.

Rudd, K. (2008). Nation Building for Australia’s Future. An address by the Prime Minister to the Australian Davos Connection Infrastructure 21 Summit.

Sanvido, V., F. Grobler, K. Parfitt, M. Guvenis, and M. Coyle (1992). "Critical Success Factors for Construction Projects." Journal of Construction Engineering and Management 118(1): 94-111.

Saunders, M. J., T. Kuhnimhof, et al. (2008). "Incorporating transport energy into urban planning." Transportation Research Part A in press.

Schmidt, M. and R. Schwegler (2008). "A recursive ecological indicator system for the supply chain of a company." Sustainability and Supply Chain Management 16(15): 1658-1664.

Scipioni, A., A. Mazzi, B. Chlond and A. N. R. da Silva (2008). "The ISO 14031 standard to guide the urban sustainability measurement process: an Italian experience." Journal of Cleaner Production 16: 1247-1257.

Sims, R. (2007). Revitalising Australian Infrastructure. Business Council of Australia.

Sinclair Knight Merz and Cardno Eppell Olsen (2006). South Brisbane Precinct Traffic and Mobility Study - Executive Summary.

Sinha, K. C. and S. Labi (2007). Transportation Decision Making - Principals of Project Evaluation and Programming, John Wiley and Sons.

Smith, N. J., T. Merna, and P. Jobling (1999). Managing Risk in Construction Projects, Blackwell.

Social Accountability International (2008). Social Accountability 8000. Social Accountability International.

Spangenberg, J. H. (2008). "Second Order Governance: Learning Processes to Identify Indicators." Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management 15: 125-139.

Stevens, J. D. (1996). "Blueprint for Measuring Project Quality." Journal of Management in Engineering.

Stirling, A. (1997). Multi-criteria mapping: Mitigating the problems of environment valuation. Valuing Nature? J. Foster. London and New York, Routledge.

- 328- Bibliography

Svensson, L. (1997). "Theoretical Foundations of Phenomonology." Higher Education Research and Development 16(2): 159-171.

Taylor, M. C. (2001). the moment of complexity - emerging network culture. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press.

Three Plus (2007). Hale Street Link - Detailed Design and Construction Phase - Community Engagement Plan.

Three Plus (2007). Hale Street Link Community Engagement Plan.

Tricker, R. C. (2007). "Assessing cumulative environmental effects from major public transport projects." Transport Policy 14(4): 293-305.

United Nations. (1999). "The Global Compact." from http://www.unglobalcompact.org/AboutTheGC/TheTenPrinciples/index.html.

United Nations. (2007). "The Millennium Development Goals report." from http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/.

Vassallo, J. M. (2007). "Implementation of Quality Criteria in Tendering and Regulating Infrastructure Management Contracts." Journal of Construction Engineering and Management August: 553-561.

Vella, J. (2008). Infrastructure spending set to increase. KPMG.

Vietch Lester Consulting (2004). Green Bridge Economic Analysis.

Waddock, S. (2007). "On Ceres, the GRI and Corporation 20/20." The Journal of Corporate Citizenship 26: 38-42.

Wandahl, S. (2004). Value Carriers in a Construction Project - How Different are they? Lean Construction Helsinger.

Warhurst, A. (2001). "Corporate Citizenship and Corporate Social Investment - Drivers of Tri-Sector Partnerships." Journal of Corporate Citizenship 1: 57-73.

Warhurst, A. (2005). "Future roles of business in society: the expanding boundaries of corporate responsibility and a compelling case for partnership." Futures 37(2-3): 151-168.

Welford, R., C. Chan, and M. Man (2007). "Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility: a Survey of Businesses and their Stakeholders." Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management 15: 52-62.

Wingspread conference participants. (1998). "Wingspread Statement on the Precautionary Principle". Retrieved 29 Dec 2008.

World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2002). Corporate Social Responsibility - the WBCSD Journey, World Business Council for Sustainable Development.

Yin, R. K. (1989). Case study research : design and methods. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications.

Yin, R. K. (2003). Applications of Case Study Research, Sage.

- 329- Bibliography

Zhang, X. (2005a). "Critical Success Factors for Public–Private Partnerships in Infrastructure Development." Journal of Construction Engineering and Management 131(1): 3-14.

Zhang, X. (2005b). "Criteria for Selecting the Private-Sector Partner in Public– Private Partnerships." Journal of Construction Engineering and Management June 2005: 631-644.

- 330-

KRAATZ, Judy Ann BDesSt(Hons) UQ, BArch(Hons) UQ Thesis Title: Value‐mapping for major economic infrastructure projects Supervisors: Professor Stephen Kajewski (Principal) Dr Karen Manley (Associate) Mr Scott Stewart (Industry) Citation: This research investigated how project outcomes can be better reported against the corporate objectives and values of organisations procuring major projects. The research targeted transport projects such as bridges and tunnels, though it is equally relevant to other sectors, for example, the provision of water infrastructure. A key outcome of this research was the development of a value‐ mapping framework which can be used to enhance the monitoring and reporting of environmental, social and economic impacts throughout project life cycle.