A Bering Strait Indigenous Framework for Resource Management: Respectful Seal and Walrus Hunting

Home , Bearded seal, Hunting, Spotted seal, Walrus

Lily Gadamus and Julie Raymond-Yakoubian

Abstract. Western resource management is often contentious in northern indigenous communities, as it is can be poorly matched with local resource-use traditions. Expert seal and walrus hunters in the Bering Strait region of Alaska requested that Kawerak, Inc., a local tribal consortium, document seal and walrus hunting through the lens of the locally preferred framework of respect. We conducted semistructured interviews and focus groups with 84 expert elders and hunters regarding seal and walrus hunting and use. Local respectful hunting and use practices focused on appropriate relationships between humans and between humans and animals; traditional values; knowledge of seals, walruses, and environmental conditions; hunting and process- ing skills; and avoiding pollution. Experts explained this system was best transmitted through hands-on activities that build youth skills, values, and relationships with elders and adults. The respect framework and positive system of transmission through education differs markedly from Western resource management frameworks based on regulation and enforcement.

Introduction Raymond-Yakoubian 2012). Although community- based natural-resource management and coman- Although indigenous communities and govern- agement attempt to bring together indigenous ment agencies generally share the goal of healthy resource-use strategies and Western management, populations of wildlife persisting into the future, many studies have found that there are no easy Western-style government resource management is solutions, usually due to conflicting goals, knowl- often contentious in northern Indigenous commu- edge, and values (e.g., Agrawal and Gibson 1999; nities. There are various reasons for this tension, Kellert et al. 2000; Kofinas 1998; Nadasdy 1999). including fundamental philosophical differences Often, communities must meet nonlocal objectives about human–animal relationships, different ap- and translate their customs into Western terms, proaches to environmental knowledge, and desires which biases projects against resource knowledge for tribal sovereignty and the right to follow tradi- and use patterns that do not fit neatly into Western tional ways of life, as well as Western management paradigms (e.g., Nadasdy 1999; Rocheleau and policies that do not match well with local envi- Slocum 1995). ronments or use patterns (e.g., Cruikshank 2000; Many tribes and indigenous comanagement Fieunup-Riordan 1990; Osherenko 1988; Ray 2011; groups have expressed a desire for traditional

Lily Gadamus, Kawerak, Inc., P.O. Box 948, Nome, AK 99762; [email protected]

Julie Raymond-Yakoubian, Kawerak, Inc., P.O. Box 948, Nome, AK 99762; [email protected]

ARCTIC ANTHROPOLOGY, Vol. 52, No. 2, pp. 87–101, 2015 ISSN 0066-6939 © 2015 by the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System 88 Arctic Anthropology 52:2 indigenous knowledge and resource-use strategies difficult or impossible to continue their traditional to be better documented on their own terms, for marine-mammal hunting. One of the more com- environmental policies to better support indig- mon concerns is that government regulators por- enous practices even when these differ from tray indigenous hunting as a harmful influence on Western approaches, and for tribes to have greater marine-mammal populations and stigmatize hunt- control over their resource use in their own home- ers. For a description of indigenous approaches lands (e.g., Gadamus 2013; Houde 2007; Metcalf to the first concern, marine-mammal protection and Krupnik 2003; Raymond-Yakoubian 2012). in the face of increasing development, see Gada- These goals have legal and moral support: general mus et al. (2015). To address the second concern democratic values, the Intra-American Commis- elders and tribal leaders in Alaska’s Bering Strait sion on Human Rights, the United Nations Dec- region requested that social scientists working laration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, and for Kawerak, Inc., the region’s tribal consortium, the U.S. National Strategy for the Arctic Region document indigenous approaches to sustainable all affirm indigenous communities’ rights to their seal and walrus hunting using the locally preferred traditional resource use and to participation in framework of respect. This framework reflects environmental decision making (e.g., Howitt 2001; local philosophies that abundant future seals and United Nations General Assembly 2007; Western walruses come from respectful seal and walrus and Wright 1994; White House 1994; White House hunting. 2013). Additionally, numerous studies have doc- In this study, Kawerak social scientists umented the sustainability of various indigenous collaborated with nine Bering Strait region tribes, resources-use traditions (e.g., Acheson et al. 1998; using qualitative and participatory methods, to ad- Berkes 1999; Berkes et al. 2000; Howitt 2001). dress the question, “What are current Bering Strait In the Bering Strait region of Alaska, seal and region indigenous strategies for respectful seal and walrus hunting is a major part of culture, identity, walrus hunting?” nutrition, and food security (Ahmasuk et al. 2008; Throughout this paper, we describe the indig- Gadamus 2013; Inuit Circumpolar Council Alaska enous approach using words such as “belief” and 2014; Raymond-Yakoubian et al. 2014). Currently, “philosophy.” These terms are not meant to imply environmental changes in the Arctic have led to that indigenous approaches are more subjective increased marine transportation and development or less “real” than Western resource management, and have prompted changes in marine mammal but rather to emphasize that indigenous resource and ocean management. For example, due to re- use is driven by a different ontology than Western ceding sea ice, several populations of bearded and resource management, and to describe that on- ringed seals have been listed as threatened under tology to the best of our ability. Western resource the Endangered Species Act, walruses are currently management is also driven by specific beliefs and listed as warranted but precluded from listing, philosophies, although a detailed description of offshore resource exploration is expanding, vessel these is beyond the scope of this paper. traffic in the region is increasing, the U.S. Coast Guard is proposing a ship-routing scheme, and conservation groups are delineating important marine Study Area and Cultural Context areas for possible protections (Ayers et al. 2010; Na- Alaska’s Bering Strait region is home to three major tional Marine Fisheries Service 2010, 2012a, 2012b, cultural groups: Inupiaq, Yup’ik, and St. Lawrence 2013; U.S. Coast Guard 2010; U.S. Fish and Wild- Island Yupik. All three of these groups are highly life Service 2011). These changes have alarmed dependent on marine resources, and marine- many tribes in the region, who are concerned that mammal harvests provide nutrition as well as increasing presence of nonlocal people and activi- cultural identity and community well-being (Ah- ties, government oversight, and arctic industrializa- masuk et al. 2008; Gadamus 2013; Inuit Circum- tion could threaten traditional ways of life. polar Council Alaska 2014; Raymond-Yakoubian Tribal leaders and hunters have two main et al. 2014). Nine (of 20) Bering Strait region tribes areas of concern about government regulations participated in this research project and partici- and the protection of indigenous marine mam- pating communities represented all three cultural mal harvesting. First, many tribes have expressed groups (Fig. 1). concern that government regulations do too little Seal and walrus hunting in the Bering Strait to protect marine mammals, their habitat, and their region follows the seasonal cycle of the sea ice. prey from increasing noise, pollution, and indus- During the winter, the Bering Sea is a frozen patch- trial fishing in arctic waters (Gadamus et al. 2015). work of sea ice and small areas of open water. Sea Second, many tribal members have had negative ice is an important habitat component for ice seals experiences with government regulation of indig- (ringed [Phoca hispida], bearded [Erignathus bar- enous hunting and fishing and are concerned that batus], ribbon [Histriophoca fasciata], and spotted increased government regulations could make it seals [Phoca largha]) and walruses [Odobenus A Bering Strait Indigenous Framework for Resource Management: Respectful Seal and Walrus Hunting 89

will have food, shelter, and clothing. In return, humans treat the animals in a respectful manner. Respect for animals can take various forms, including using good hunting technique, handling harvested animals properly, avoiding certain kinds of thought and speech, following taboos, perform- ing ceremonies, and sharing (e.g., Brightman 1973; Fienup-Riordan 1990; Nelson 1983; Oquilluk 1973; Raymond-Yakoubian and Angnaboogok in press; Scott 1989). According to many traditional beliefs, when treated properly, animals can be reborn after harvest, and animal populations will not be depleted by high harvests unless they are treated improperly (Fienup-Riordan 1990, 1999). Improper treatment can make it impossible for animals to be reborn, causing permanent loss of those animals (e.g., Figure 1. Study area showing participating Fienup-Riordan 1990). Additionally, an animal is communities. aware of its treatment after harvest and may later communicate its experience to other animals. These animals may then choose to no longer offer themselves to a hunter who wastes, mistreats, or rosmarus divergens]), which use it to birth, rest, otherwise disrespects a harvested animal, and this escape predators, and migrate (Tynan and DeMas- hunter can lose what is often referred to as their ter 1997). In winter, ringed seals and bearded seals “luck”—their success in harvest (e.g., Fienup- reside throughout the region and Pacific walruses Riordan 1990). In some cases, instances of disre- and spotted seals are found in the larger areas of spect may cause animals to leave an area entirely open water near St. Lawrence Island. When con- (e.g., Fienup-Riordan 1999; Raymond-Yakoubian ditions permit, hunters will travel across the ice to and Raymond-Yakoubian 2015). Additionally, not harvest seals and walruses in areas of open water. harvesting animals that provide themselves can In the springtime, as the ice begins to break up and also be considered disrespectful, and some hunters move north, seals and walruses pass through the have expressed the belief that low harvest effort can region by the tens of thousands, both swimming cause declines in animal abundance (e.g., Hunting- and floating on ice. During this time, indigenous ton 2000; Fienup-Riordan 1999; Nadasdy 2007; hunters in small boats move among the ice pans to Raymond-Yakoubian and Raymond-Yakoubian harvest seals and walruses. By summer, the ice is 2015). For many communities, harvesting higher gone and most seals and walruses have gone with numbers of animals was believed to promote greater it, many travelling hundreds of miles to the north. future abundance (e.g., Fienup-Riordan 1990, 1999). The seals and walruses return in the fall, with or Overall, these indigenous approaches con- before the ice, and seals are hunted from small trast with much of Western resource management boats close to shore. because they focus on respect and relationships, Traditionally, indigenous communities in rather than on the size of wildlife populations. the north approached animal harvests through As Fienup-Riordan (1990: 189) noted, “Listening the lens of human–animal relationships (Berkes to coastal Yup’ik elders today, we find fish and 1999; Brightman 1973; Nelson 1983). Although the waterfowl largely represented as persons to be specifics vary by cultural group, most groups share hosted, not finite resources to be managed.” While the traditional belief that animals have nonhuman the above description, aggregated from various personhood. Among other characteristics, this sources, represents beliefs that were, and in some means that animals have souls and can be reborn communities remain, common across the north after death (e.g., Fienup-Riordan 1990) and are for various species, it is not entirely clear which aware of human thoughts and actions, even when of these beliefs, and which additional beliefs, physically far from humans (e.g., Berkes 1999; traditionally governed human relationships with Brightman 1973). The boundary between humans seals and walruses in communities in the Bering and animals was not impenetrable, and many tra- Strait region. In what follows below, we describe ditional stories feature humans transforming into some contemporary beliefs and practices of Bering animals and vice versa (e.g., John 2003; Milligrock Strait indigenous communities related to proper 1981; Nelson 1899). Often, human–animal rela- relationships with, and harvest and treatment of, tionships were described as reciprocal. Animals ice seals and walruses, that were shared with us provide themselves to humans, so that humans during the course of this project. 90 Arctic Anthropology 52:2

Methods the sample was determined by the larger project, which focused on mapping hunting areas, a knowl- Research Design and Data Collection edge area that is generally a male specialization. Men provided some context on preservation and This research was conducted by Kawerak as part preparation, and eight women were able to share of a larger project on ice seal and walrus traditional more specialized knowledge. Local experts came knowledge and use. The first stage, participatory from all nine participating communities (Table 1). research design, consisted of meetings with tribal Interviews and focus groups were audio governments, members of participating tribes, and recorded, transcribed, and coded in ATLAS.ti project partners—the Eskimo Walrus Commission and in Word. Both deductive codes (topics gen- and the Ice Seal Committee. During this process, erated during participatory research design) and many elders noted that their tribes have rich tra- inductive codes were used (Marshall and Rossman ditions of respectful marine-mammal hunting and 1995). The information for each code was summa- requested we document these as part of the project, rized in either a table or a short narrative (Miles for the purpose of future youth education as well and Huberman 1994). Because of the semistruc- as communication with management agencies tured format of the interviews, each conversation and others. In response to this input, researchers about respectful hunting went somewhat differ- worked with experienced marine-mammal hunters ently, and followed the local expert’s experience. to design questions on respectful marine-mammal Responses were not counted or analyzed by demo- hunting. These questions, which reflected local graphic, as different topics were raised in different frameworks of respect, included open-ended ques- interviews, and a response that only came up a few tions on respect as well as topics such as tradi- times might have been shared by other hunters, tional practices and taboos, strategies for avoiding had they been asked directly about that specific loss, perceptions of marine-mammal sentience, topic. For community review, all participating and decisions about harvest levels. These ques- local experts and tribal governments were mailed tions were incorporated into a semistructured draft results for review and comment. Addition- interview protocol (Bernard 2006). Project staff ally, researchers held results review meetings in conducted interviews with a purposive sample each community for participating local experts. To of local experts (n=84) recommended by tribal achieve the goal of sharing this knowledge with governments and other local experts (Chalmers youth, Kawerak also published an attractive book and Fabricius 2007). Local experts are individuals containing elder teachings on respect paired with who have lived in their community for most of hunting photos and distributed it widely to young their lives and are recognized by their tribes and people (Kawerak 2013). peers as highly knowledgeable seal and walrus hunters, elders who used to hunt seals and walruses, or women with extensive experience in the Results preparation and preservation of marine-mammal foods. There was a good balance between elders Animal Sentience and Personhood (n=39) and younger hunters and processers (n=45). Even after you kill the animal you show respect The majority of participants were male (n=76), as to it, you don’t step on it, you don’t mistreat it.

Table 1. Number of local experts that participated by community and demographic.

Community Diomede Elim King Island Koyuk Nome St. Michael Savoonga Shaktoolik Stebbins Total Male elders 3 5 6 4 4 6 3 4 35 (many of whom still hunt) Female elders 1 2 1 4 Male active 4 8 1 4 7 3 2 2 10 41 hunters Female active 1 3 4 hunters or preparers

Total local expert participants 8 14 7 13 7 7 8 6 14 84 A Bering Strait Indigenous Framework for Resource Management: Respectful Seal and Walrus Hunting 91

They say it’s gonna go tell its fellow walrus or his household should not brush their hair or wash ugruks [bearded seals] that this person mistreated the floor while the net was in place. me even when I was dead, played with me in an While not all of the traditional beliefs or prac- unnatural way. tices described above are known or followed by —Vincent Pikonganna, King Island all community members today, experts of all ages described seals and walruses as intelligent beings Elder local experts relayed traditional beliefs about with agency that were aware of their surroundings human–animal relationships comparable to those and hunters’ actions, and that were able to make previously documented across the north. Elders decisions, learn, and adapt. For example, some described seals and walruses as sentient beings local experts described walruses that had been that understand human thoughts and speech and hunted previously as “educated walruses” that are aware of their treatment both before and after would be more wary of hunters. A number of local death. In this tradition, animals have agency and experts argued that seals and walruses were more successful hunting occurs when seals or walruses adaptable than management agencies realized, and choose to give themselves to hunters. As such, a they felt that these animals would be able to adapt hunter who is disrespectful to his or her catch can to dramatic changes in sea ice by modifying their “lose their luck,” as animals will no longer offer own habitat use. Local experts described seals themselves to an individual who will not treat and walruses as “intelligent,” “crafty,” “curious,” them properly. Some local experts also noted that “smart,” “sensitive,” occasionally “belligerent,” respectful treatment is associated with abundant and able to “watch out for themselves” and get animals and wasteful treatment can cause scarcity “mad.” Additionally, they often compared the of animals. Traditional beliefs reported during this behavior and motivations of seals and walruses to project varied, with local experts showing diverse those of humans. For example, one Nome expert perspectives. Although responses were not for- noted that, “[walruses are] just like humans, you mally analyzed by demographic, it appeared that know, some are pretty aggressive and some are differences in community of origin, family, and pretty calm and laid back” (Bivers Gologergen, age group could account for many of the varying personal communication 2012). An elder from perspectives. Savoonga commented during a focus group that, Various practices for not offending ice seals “Most animals . . . try to take care of their young and walruses were relayed to the researchers, ones, like thinking you love this kid so much.” including avoiding boastful speech before or after Local experts described how walruses would hunting, not thinking too much about seals and aggressively protect other walruses and even risk walruses when hunting them, and treating har- their lives to pull dead walruses off the ice and out vested animals with respect. Local experts were of reach of hunters, “because they are so protective taught to handle harvested marine mammals of family” (Morris Toolie, Sr., Savoonga). with care and not to play with them, and these While accounts of human–animal transforma- experts described a variety of ways for showing tions were less common, Patrick Omiak, Sr., of Dio- animals respect after harvest. Many reported mede, referenced a traditional story called Avunna. giving bearded seals a last drink of water, as one Avunna was a young man who was turned into a tradition holds that these animals give themselves walrus by other walruses. As a human, Avunna had to hunters because they are thirsty. As such, many harvested walruses, eaten only their whiskers, and hunters will melt snow and put it in the mouth not salvaged the meat (see also Milligrock 1981; of a harvested bearded seal. They then throw the Raymond-Yakoubian et al. 2014). As a walrus, he head back into the ocean and ask the bearded seal met the walruses that he had abused, and saw they to come back (or tell it that they will see it next had terrible scars on their faces. Like humans, the year). Another commonly reported practice was walrus lived in a qagri [traditional men’s house], to cut the eyes out of a bearded seal so they would and when Avunna returned to human form he not see themselves being butchered. Some local maintained some walrus characteristics, such as a experts reported that they learned not to move sensitivity to human smells. their catch with their feet or to step on them. Other reported practices included facing a seal’s head towards the door once it was brought into a house, Minimizing Loss putting a hunting mitten over a harvested seal’s Local experts explained that seal and walrus head to cover its mouth, and disposing of any hunting is a highly skilled endeavor, as large unused remains of marine animals, such as bones, marine mammals can escape underwater when in marine waters. One local expert, an elder from wounded or sink once killed. A respectful hunter Diomede, described traditional practices which will develop the knowledge and skills needed to dictated that when a man sets a seal net, he should minimize the loss of dead or wounded seals and stay awake until the net was pulled, and women in walruses. This involves obtaining, training on, and 92 Arctic Anthropology 52:2 maintaining proper gear; going out with a skilled what they need to feed their families, crews, and crew; avoiding harvest attempts on seals and wal- communities. Local experts noted, among other ruses that will be difficult to retrieve; recognizing things, that it is disrespectful to harvest walruses inedible animals; approaching properly so as to get only for their tusks and not salvage the meat or close without scaring the animals; shooting to kill; to shoot at a seal that is not needed for food. If a understanding how to land a large marine mammal; hunter has enough meat, they should stop har- and caring properly for harvested animals (Table 2). vesting even if they see a more desirable catch. Traditionally, elders would monitor their family’s harvest level and would let hunters know when to Harvest Level and Choices stop hunting. Many local experts noted that they If you don’t need them, let them pass through. avoided harvesting seals in summertime because They respect you when you respect them. their condition would be poor, with thin blubber, —Leonard Raymond Sr., Stebbins and that they had been taught to harvest in spring and fall. That said, some experts noted that if they Although marine mammals pass through the Ber- were in need of the meat or blubber, that they ing Strait region by the tens of thousands during would harvest seals in summer. the springtime, and are abundant in fall, local Certain beliefs about appropriate harvest lev- experts emphasized that hunters should only take els varied according to community or individual.

Table 2. Techniques to minimize loss and waste. Preparation Sight your gun. Practice shooting. Gear Harpoon with an attached buoy and long enough rope, seal hook, proper caliber rifle, sharp knife, and a clean container. Have everything ready so you can move fast. Netting can be an effective way to catch seals and avoid loss. Crew Have enough crew to retrieve harvest and process as needed. Work together, stay focused, and avoid arguments. If struggling to retrieve a walrus in water, wave other boats over to help and then give them a share of the meat. Choosing retrievable It is much easier to butcher a walrus on ice. It can be hard to retrieve a walrus from walruses the water. Shoot a walrus that is in the middle of the pack, as walruses will push those on the edges into the water. Choose smaller herds. Choose ice that is safe for butchering and that will not flip when walruses leave the ice. Choosing retrievable Know when ice conditions will prevent hunters from reaching a harvested seal. seals Know when seals float (winter and early spring when water salinity is higher and blubber is thicker). Know how the wind and current will move a shot seal (e.g. an onshore wind will bring in a harvested seal shot near shore). Big bearded seals easier to retrieve if shot on the ice. For seals on ice, make sure the ice is safe for retrieving and butchering. Choosing edible Recognize the dark markings that indicate a “gassy” (rutting) seal, recognize signs of seals a sick seal (lethargy), and avoid harvest when animal condition is poor (summer). Approach Approach seals and walruses quietly and from downwind so that you can get close and shoot to kill. A seal may sink in less than a minute, and it needs to be harpooned or hooked before it sinks. Scratching the ice may make seals approach. A wounded walrus may leave the ice and become difficult to retrieve. Shooting Allow surfacing seals to inhale before shooting, this makes them more likely to float. Shoot to kill: aim for the neck. This kills quickly and prevents animals from escaping wounded or falling off the ice before dying. Use the right caliber gun. Remove the scope when shooting walrus at close range. Retrieving seals Harpoon quickly. Spotted and bearded seals sink more quickly. Fatter seals float longer. Recognize the strength of an ugruk, which may appear dead and “come back to life.” When you have a seal on a seal hook, pull it in slowly and do not yank or it may fall off. Preventing spoilage Bearded seals must be butchered while out hunting or they will spoil. Smaller seals may be transported to shore intact. Butcher quickly as conditions may change fast, but be neat and respectful. Retrieval Try to bring back all the parts. A Bering Strait Indigenous Framework for Resource Management: Respectful Seal and Walrus Hunting 93

For example, some local experts noted that baby Respect for the Land and Ocean seals and walruses were delicacies and were culturally preferred foods, while others said that they [We] set our whitefish net [in a] good fishing spot . . . we caught a lot of whitefish and tomcods would avoid harvesting young animals, mothers and hooligans. . . . [My friend] was saying “Let’s with young, or pregnant animals. Georgianne set it again,” I told him “Save it for the seals, let Anasogak of Koyuk noted, “You don’t catch them them enjoy. We got what we need.” during the mating season and when they might be —Nicholas Lupsin, St. Michael reproducing.” In Diomede, local experts explained, during the period between a village resident’s You leave the country the way you see it . . . and death and their subsequent burial, community there’s always game there . . . you take care of the members refrain from hunting. In Savoonga (as trash. well as Gambell, a community that did not par- —Merlin Henry, Koyuk ticipate in this project), the tribal government has developed a local ordinance limiting boats to four A few local experts noted that respect for animals walruses per hunting trip, to prevent hunters from includes keeping the environment clean so that an- harvesting more walruses than could be properly imals continue to come. Additionally, many local processed. In the recent past, in communities experts expressed concern about pollution either throughout the region, some hunters would rest keeping seals and walruses away, due to their keen on Sundays. Local experts throughout the region senses of smell, or contaminating them and mak- noted that when meat is not needed, people should ing them unsafe to eat. Noise pollution was also not only refrain from harvesting seals and wal- a concern because seals and walruses are known ruses, but should avoid bothering them in any way. for sensitive hearing. Local experts additionally emphasized the necessity of protecting the entirety of the food chain because they were very aware of Respect for Other Hunters seals’ and walruses’ dependence on their prey. If you went after a seal or ugruk [bearded seal], the other hunters respected that and didn’t interfere. Preparation that Avoids Waste If you saw it first, you went after it and nobody interfered. Let me tell you a story about a young man. . . . He caught a seal, his first seal, and he was supposed —Georgianne Anasogak, Koyuk to give it away, but he was stingy with that seal. He didn’t want to give it away; he wanted to keep it Local experts explained that hunters should treat for himself. He was stingy from his heart. . . . Try it each other with respect. For example, boys that are as he might after that, he never caught another seal quarrelsome are no longer allowed to go out with again, never. . . .” hunting crews. In the past, when many hunters —Vincent Pikonganna, King Island travelled on foot on the ice or alone in kayaks, traditional rules dictated shares of a harvested Seals and walruses are very large animals that can animal for other hunters who arrived to assist provide hundreds of pounds of meat from a single with retrieval and field dressing. This decreased catch, and wasting a harvested seal or walrus the odds of lost catch. A respectful hunter should would be considered disrespectful to seals and not scare or interfere with animals that are being walruses, as well as to other community mem- pursued by others, although some local experts bers. As such, it is important that hunters have noted that this tradition was stronger in the past. the knowledge and networks to share, process, Another tradition is that the first boat to see a herd and preserve large amounts of meat. Sharing is an of walrus should have the chance to approach and important part of Bering Strait region cultures. Tra- harvest without interference from other boats. In ditional beliefs dictate that if hunters are generous Diomede, where some hunters still walk out on the and share, they will have future hunting success, ice in winter, tradition dictates that when a hunter and that stingy hunters may lose their luck. In is waiting for seals at open water, the area that he the past, communities had specific rules about can see is considered his territory, and other hunt- how certain animals, such as bearded seals and ers should use a different area. One local expert walruses, should be divided into shares, and who reported that her husband shot a seal too close should get each share. Many local experts strug- to another hunter, and that hunter retrieved the gled to remember the exact details of those rules, seal and took it home, which is acceptable under although a few elders still could. Today, sharing traditional rules. Although seal and walrus hunt- is more flexible and is usually determined by boat ers may travel many miles from their communities captains, who may each have different sharing in springtime, many local experts noted that they protocols. In general, the captain and crew will get would try not to hunt near other communities, to shares, and some of the harvest will be distributed, avoid infringing on their territory. often to relatives of the hunters, elders, families 94 Arctic Anthropology 52:2 without hunters, crews that did not harvest, peo- While this project included participants from three ple in need, and others who may have asked for a separate cultural groups (Yup’ik, St. Lawrence share. One tradition that is still widely practiced Island Yupik, and Inupiaq), and results were not is for a young hunter to give the first seal that they formally analyzed by demographic, some general harvest to an elder. Another practice, which is observations can be made about changes in tradi- becoming less common, is for the first catch of the tional beliefs related to seals and walruses. Inter- season to be shared with the entire community. views indicated that the more traditional beliefs, Hunters also need family members with for example about animals that are reborn, have expertise in marine-mammal preparation and become somewhat less common among middle- preservation, as these are highly skilled and time- aged and younger hunters in some communities, consuming activities. Traditionally, almost all most likely due to the influence of Western school- parts of seals and walruses were used, and most ing and religion. Some local experts described of these continue to be used today. For example, traditional beliefs as “superstitions,” while some seal blubber is made into seal oil, which is used as expressed syncretic beliefs that incorporate both a condiment and as a preservative to store berries, traditional values and Christian teachings. Chris- greens, meat, and other traditional foods. In the tian beliefs also influence hunting practice, as past, seal-oil lamps were used for light and heat. some local experts reported thanking God for Most parts of the seals and walruses are eaten, in- providing them with a harvested animal, avoiding cluding organs and flippers. Walrus stomachs are hunting activities on Sundays in the recent past, made into drums, walrus and bearded seal hides and connecting traditional teachings about shar- are used to make skin boats and rawhide rope, and ing with the Christian value of generosity. Beliefs sealskins are made into clothing. Some products, about not wasting and not mistreating animals such as seal pokes for food storage, raingear made were universally expressed and transcended age of seal intestines, rawhide rope, and boats with and religious background. skin covers, have become uncommon due to the Although local experts collectively shared availability of mass-produced products. In spite of the values of minimizing loss and waste and only these changes, marine-mammal hides continue to harvesting what was needed, some felt that these be important and are still processed and used lo- hunting practices had become less strictly prac- cally, and sealskin hats, mittens, and boots remain ticed than in the past. Local experts occasionally important winter clothing. Marine-mammal prod- observed incidents of waste, and some had seen or ucts are also important raw materials for a variety heard about instances of people hunting walruses of arts crafts that are sold both locally and globally. for their ivory and not harvesting the meat. This Bering Strait region residents still practice was consistently reported as an offensive and un- many traditional methods of preservation, which acceptable practice. Local experts almost univer- allow them to store large amounts of meat. These sally expressed a desire for traditional values to be methods include rendering blubber to make oil, maintained and to continue to be used to regulate hanging strips of meat to dry, preserving meat and local hunting practice. organs in seal oil, fermenting meat (usually un- derground), and freezing meat. Avoiding spoilage takes skill and knowledge, for example, one local Local Actions to Promote expert pointed out that a bearded sealskin will not Responsible Harvest and the dry unless all of the blubber is carefully scraped Transmission of Hunting Norms off, and others noted that early spring is a good We need to get our direction from elders. Not only time for seal harvests because when it is cold and by telling but by doing. Elder knowledge—we windy with no flies it is easier to dry meat and have so few elders left—if we don’t do something avoid spoilage. soon, it’s going to go away. The elders knew how to manage the resources they had. Local traditional Changes in Traditions knowledge works the best. —Ruby Nassuk, Koyuk I’m not superstitious. I don’t really believe in any of that. I grew up with God. I never got to know the With the exception of Savoonga, which has other things that [were believed] before we knew community-enforced local marine-mammal God. ordinances, local experts reported few instances —Project participant of written rules or formal enforcement efforts. Indeed, Savoonga’s written ordinances came about Young hunters say, “We’re gonna go out and get after intensive monitoring by the U.S. Fish and walrus.” . . . You don’t [get], it’s given to you; the Wildlife Service and can be seen as an effort to good Lord gives it to you. promote local rather than outside regulation. Lo- —Project participant cal experts noted that traditionally elders would A Bering Strait Indigenous Framework for Resource Management: Respectful Seal and Walrus Hunting 95 scold people who did not properly retrieve or care Discussion for their catch, and that elders could also inter- vene and tell others when to stop harvesting and Local experts described an indigenous philosophy how to hunt, butcher, or share. Some local experts that ties future seal and walrus abundance with noted that they still get direction about these specific respectful behaviors on the part of hunt- matters from elders. Additionally, women who ers. Respectful hunting includes many aspects prepare the seals and walruses can require hunters of culture, environment, family, and community to bring back their whole catch and scold if useful and is woven throughout people’s lives (Fig. 2). parts are missing. Today, boat captains make Although specific beliefs and practices vary by the decision of when a crew will stop harvest- family and community, many of the themes that ing. Many local experts noted that good hunting emerged are congruent with practices docu- and care for catch are family traditions that are mented in other Northern indigenous communi- best taught to children directly from their family ties, including views on animal personhood (e.g., members. Fienup-Riordan 1990; Nelson 1983), the connec- Local experts had varying views on the de- tions between environmental knowledge and velopment of formal community marine-mammal responsible resource use (e.g., Berkes 1999), the hunting policies or regulations. Savoonga experts role of preservation and sharing (e.g., Raymond- were very positive about their local marine- Yakoubian 2013; West and Ross 2011), the impor- mammal ordinances. Some local experts in other tance of relationships (e.g., Bryner 1995), and the communities were also in favor of more organized importance of traditional skills (e.g., Ohmagari community efforts, as they had observed occa- and Berkes 1997). It is worth noting that the role of sional instances of waste, were offended, and specific skills as well as the role of social relation- hoped to prevent these practices from continuing ships has gotten considerably less attention in the or becoming more common in the future. These sustainable resource use literature. local experts expressed concern that if commu- Most suggestions for promoting respectful nities did not act, subsistence-harvested species hunting and sustainable resource use involved might become uncommon in the future, and future bringing youth, elders, and families together to generations would be unable to practice traditional build relationships and to transmit traditional ways of life. Many ideas for community action knowledge, skills, and values. Resource use would focused on youth education including creating then be controlled at the personal, family, and elders’ and hunters’ committees to educate youth community level, as respectful hunters would and promote responsible hunting and respect for make personal choices to avoid waste and loss, the environment; building gathering places for el- which would be supported by family and com- ders, hunters, and youth; incorporating traditional- munity norms. Additionally, the promotion of hunting ethics into school curriculums; hosting traditional skills and values is seen as a matter of culture camps and culture days; ensuring youth cultural survival as well as of resource persistence. learn hunting from responsible hunters; and docu- These holistic patterns of respectful resource use menting traditional knowledge. Other local ex- are essential parts of the fabrics of local cultures, perts felt that regulation by committee, even at the and many consider certain forms of punitive West- local level, would not be appropriate or effective. ern resource management as direct threats to cul- These experts felt that values and practices asso- ture (e.g., Berger 1985; Bryner 1995). For example, ciated with hunting are very personal and should some project participants commented that federal be learned through family instruction. Almost all management can be hurtful because it portrays experts shared the belief that local cultural tradi- hunters as a threat to healthy marine-mammal tions of respect for marine mammals and avoiding populations. This discounts the respectful, re- waste are important values that should be passed ciprocal relationships that form the foundation on to youth, that youth should learn respect by of traditional harvesting and the positive role practicing it, and that maintaining traditional of marine-mammal hunting in healthy families values is key to long-term persistence of abundant and communities. In contrast, local programs as resources. described above are seen as valuable as much for While the vast majority of project participants connecting young people with their culture as for opposed outside management, several expressed ensuring future resource abundance. that local enforcement can be difficult in small communities, where people do not want to be the Skills, Values, Relationships, cause of trouble for others (e.g., reporting someone and Sustainability who does not follow local norms). These experts suggested that having the government enforce reg- Western resource management often focuses on ulations might help prevent waste while avoiding population size and health (Metcalf and Robards local conflicts. 2008; Nadasdy 2007), formal regulations, outside 96 Arctic Anthropology 52:2

Figure 2. Respectful-hunting framework.

enforcement, and official penalties for those violat- values of rural communities must be considered ing regulations (e.g., Berger 1985). This approach (e.g., Western and Wright 1994); 3) since humans has come under criticism because 1) it is often are often the drivers of resource degradation or difficult or impossible to determine how much can conservation, sustainable resource use depends on be sustainably harvested (e.g., Holling 1978; Ro- influencing human behavior in an effective man- bards et al. 2009), 2) resource users may not follow ner (e.g., Lee 1994); and 4) Western management regulations (e.g., Feeny et al 1990), and 3) enforce- is not the only philosophical framework through ment can cause hardship for rural communities which sustainable resource management may be that may have sustainable use patterns that do not obtained (e.g., Nadasdy 2003, 2007). As such, there match government regulations (e.g., Berger 1985; have been calls for new approaches to sustainable Osherenko 1988). It is becoming more recognized resource use (e.g., Nadasdy 1999; Walters 1997). that 1) management needs to recognize scientific While the Bering Strait indigenous ap- uncertainty (e.g., Lee 1994); 2) the needs and proaches, which focus on building skills, values, A Bering Strait Indigenous Framework for Resource Management: Respectful Seal and Walrus Hunting 97 and relationships, look different from conventional spite of this evidence, many attempts to engage Western resource management, there is evidence indigenous communities in resource management that similar approaches have effectively moderated require they fit their knowledge and customs into human behavior, including resource use. Social- Western molds. This is difficult for communities learning theory, which is supported by consider- due to fundamental philosophical and practical able empirical evidence, posits that behavior is differences. Bering Strait indigenous communi- learned in a social context, through observation ties described an approach to preserving healthy (Bandura 1977; Ingold 2000), and other research seal and walrus populations that is based in a shows that social context, as well as values and framework of respect. This framework of respect is ethical socialization, influence environmental woven throughout individual, family, and commu- behavior (e.g., Ollie et al. 2001; Stern 1992; Stern nity life, and indigenous experts emphasized the et al. 1995). Additionally, research indicates that role of traditional skills, traditional knowledge, a person’s skills have a strong influence on their and respectful human–animal and human–human behavior (e.g., Bandura 1982; Fishbein et al. 2001). relationships. Building skills, values, and relation- As Ingold (2000: 289, 353) has described, “tech- ships is a major part of indigenous strategies that nical skills,” such as those needed for successful aim to ensure the continuance of both resources marine-mammal hunting, “are themselves consti- and culture. Although these techniques are un- tuted within the matrix of social relations” and are common in conventional Western resource man- best learned through active engagement in such agement, social-science research indicates that activities. As such, there is theoretical support these positive, culturally appropriate approaches for promoting respectful resource-use behavior are powerful strategies for influencing environ- through relationships, socialization, and skill and mental behavior. Since indigenous communities value building. and resource managers both recognize that human Although it may be difficult to calculate the behavior can affect resource persistence or degra- amount that harvests and lost catch would be dation, positive strategies that successfully influ- limited by respectful resource use, it is important ence environmental behavior have considerable to remember that researchers have never calcu- potential to promote sustainability. lated what a sustainable harvest level would be for walruses (Robards et al. 2009), and there is no Acknowledgments. This project would not have indication that current harvests are having a nega- been possible without the 84 hunters and elders tive influence on seal and walrus populations. One who shared their time and knowledge, as well as question is whether a decline in seal and walrus local research assistants in various communities. populations would be observable and would trig- The authors especially thank project research ger a change in seal and walrus harvest patterns. assistant Freida Moon-Kimoktoak for her work Although hunters noted that it can be difficult to coding data. Additional work was contributed by monitor exact population size due to migration project research assistants and transcribers Lisa fluctuations, hunters are acutely aware of body Ellanna-Strickling, Helen Pootoogooluk, Edwina condition, and are also very aware of local scarcity. Krier, Maggie Kowchee, Jotilda Noongwook, Ruby One hunter noted that if hunter observations were Booshu, and Serena Walker. We are grateful for the gathered from across the region, it would likely support of the nine participating tribes: Stebbins be possible to get a better sense of seal and walrus Community Association, Native Village of Saint abundance. Additionally, many project partici- Michael, Native Village of Elim, Native Village of pants noted that they were interested in Western Koyuk, Native Village of Savoonga, Nome Eskimo science studies on population size and health, Community, Native Village of Shaktoolik, Na- and these tended to be less controversial than tive Village of Diomede, and King Island Native Endangered Species Act listings or regulations on Community. This material is based upon work hunters. As such, communities working with each supported by the Oak Foundation under Grant other and with resource-management agencies No. 2010-OUSA-073, the National Science Foun- would likely be able to detect declining popula- dation under Grant No. ARC-1023686, and the tions. This would then give them the opportunity National Fish and Wildlife Foundation under to respond in a culturally appropriate manner. Grant No. 2010-0061-004 (project funding provided by Shell). The Eskimo Walrus Commission and the Ice Seal Committee provided support as Conclusion project partners. For additional information about A considerable evidence base indicates that this project, visit www.kawerak.org/socialsci.html. Western resource management can often be inef- Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recom- fective due to ecosystem complexity and a lack of mendations expressed in this publication are those successful influence on human behavior, whereas of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the indigenous use strategies can be sustainable. In views of the funders or project partners. 98 Arctic Anthropology 52:2

Local Experts Stebbins Allen M. Atchak Sr., Gabriel J. Bighead, Diomede Albert J. Bogeyaktuk Sr., Hermes Dan, Kellen Arthur Ahkinga, Alois Ahkvaluk, John Ahkvaluk, Katcheak, Theodore Katcheak, Peter P. Martin Jerry Iyapana, Patrick F. Omiak Sr., Frances Sr., Alexis Matthias, Isaac Nashoanak, Morris L. Ozenna, Ronald Ozenna Jr., Edward Soolook, Nashoanak Sr., Ryan Nashoanak Sr., Anthony Robert F. Soolook Jr. Niksik, Leonard L. Raymond Sr., Joseph Willie.

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