How England Preserves Its Cultural Heritage

MASARYK UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF EDUCATION Department of English Language and Literature

How England Preserves its Cultural Heritage

Bachelor thesis Brno 2018

Supervisor Author Mgr. Zdeněk Janík, M.A., Ph.D. Tomáš Češek

Prohlášení Prohlašuji, že jsem závěrečnou bakalářskou práci vypracovala samostatně, s využitím pouze citovaných literárních zdrojů, dalších informací a zdrojů v souladu s Disciplinárním řádem pro studenty Pedagogické fakulty Masarykovy university a se zákonem č. 121/2000 Sb. o právu autorském, o právech souvisejících s právem autorským a o změně některých zákonů (autorský zákon), ve znění pozdějších předpisů.

...... Tomáš Češek

Acknowledgement I would like to thank Mgr. Zdeněk Janík, M.A., Ph.D., for his valuable advice, patience, and support, and to my family.

Abstract

The Bachelor thesis deals with history, structure and methods of preserving England's cultural heritage. It focuses on both theoretical aspects of historic preservation as well as the practical side. The significant part of the thesis occupies with English Heritage and its activities in this sector. The first section of the thesis occupies with the theory of cultural conservation. The second part presents the historical development of historical preservation in England containing a comparison with other parts of the United Kingdom. The third part shows English Heritage as one of the most influential organisations regarding English historical preservation with laying stress on its history, development, structure and procedures. The fourth part introduces actual sites under English Heritage protection and shows the theory of preservation in practice. The final part compares the forms and promotions of historical preservation in the United Kingdom and the Czech Republic with focus on heritage marketing.

Keywords: conservation, architecture, art, historical sights, English Heritage, heritage marketing, tourism

Anotace

Tato bakalářská práce se zabývá historií, strukturou a metodami ochrany anglického kulturního dědictví. V této práci rozebírám jak teoretické aspekty památkové péče tak i jejich využití v praxi. Významné postavení v rámci práce zastává organizace English Heritage a popis jejího působení. První část práce představuje teorii památkové péče. Druhá část práce se zabývá historií památkové péče v Anglii a srovnáním těchto postupů ve zbylých částech Spojeného království. Třetí část představuje historii, vývoj a strukturu English Heritage, jednu z nejvýznamnějších organizací prosazující zásady památkové péče v Anglii. Čtvrtá část, ukazuje užití zásad památkové péče v praxi při ochraně a údržbě některých z nejnavštěvovanějších památek pod správou English Heritage. Poslední část srovnává prosazování a podobu památkové péče ve Spojeném království a v České republice s důrazem na roli marketingu.

Klíčová slova: památková péče, architektura, umění, pamětihodnosti, English Heritage, památkový marketing, turismus

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 7

2 THE THEORY OF CULTURAL CONSERVATION ...... 8

2.1 Basic Terminology ...... 8

2.2 Architectural Conservation ...... 9

3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HISTORICAL PRESERVATION ...... 11

3.1 Development in the World ...... 11

3.2 Development in England ...... 11

3.2.1 Reformation: The Dark Age of Historical Sights ...... 11

3.2.2 Classicism and the Beginning of “Grand Tours” ...... 12

3.2.3 Neoclassicism and the Origins of Antiquarianism ...... 20

3.2.4 The Gothic Restoration Movement ...... 21

3.2.5 English Aesthetic Theory and Garden Design ...... 23

3.2.6 The Blossoming of Museums in the 19th Century ...... 25

3.2.7 Legislative Procedures at The Turn of the 19th and the 20th Century ...... 28

3.2.8 England and UNESCO ...... 29

3.3 Comparison Between Other Parts of the United Kingdom ...... 30

3.3.1 Scotland ...... 30

3.3.2 Wales ...... 31

3.3.3 Northern Ireland ...... 32

4 ENGLISH HERITAGE ...... 34

4.1 History ...... 34

4.2 Finances ...... 36

4.3 Membership ...... 37

4.4 Volunteers ...... 37

4.5 Management and staff ...... 38

4.6 Blue Plaques ...... 38

5 ENGLISH HERITAGE SITES ...... 41

5.1 Battle Abbey at the Hastings Battlefield ...... 41

5.2 Apsley House ...... 42

5.3 Audley End House ...... 43

6 HERITAGE CONSERVATION: COMPARISON BETWEEN ENGLAND AND THE CZECH REPUBLIC ...... 44

6.1 England ...... 44

6.2 Czech Republic ...... 44

6.3 Heritage Marketing ...... 46

7 CONCLUSION ...... 48

8 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 49

9 ELECTRONIC SOURCES ...... 53

1 INTRODUCTION

Since I study English and History, it seemed to me that the topic of historical preservation in England would make an ideal connection between these two subjects. Also, I had a chance to visit several of the English Heritage sites personally wondering how is the organisation managed, what is its impact on the current state of cultural sights and how did it came into existence in the first place.

The bachelor thesis aims to present a comprehensive insight into complex issues of historical preservation with a specific focus on English Heritage. The first chapter of the thesis concerns the theory of cultural conservation providing basic terminology of the topic as well as types of construction materials. The second chapter contains the development of historical conservation in England with the comparison to the rest of the United Kingdom and the rest of the world. The third chapter is entirely devoted to English Heritage organisation with the very next chapter discussing some of the sites that the trust administers. The final part compares the organisation of the cultural preservation in the Czech Republic and in England considering the role of heritage marketing in the 21st century.

2 THE THEORY OF CULTURAL CONSERVATION

Conservation of cultural heritage is a science discipline whose content is to provide protection and care of works of art including, architectural structures, archaeological sites and museum collections (Sullivan 604-610).

2.1 Basic Terminology

In the theory of cultural conservation it is crucial to distinguish some terms which society often confuses:

Cultural Conservation is a process that includes all actions aimed at safeguarding cultural heritage and at the same time guaranteeing its access to both present and future generations. This profession comprises technical examination, preventive conservation, remedial conservation and restoration (ICOM-CC, “The Conservator-Restorer: a Definition of the Profession”).

A technical examination is a procedure that determines the cultural significance of artefact by analysing its structure and material, the extent of decomposition, potential modifications that would devalue the property (usually with painting and sculpture) and the documentation of the whole process (ICOM-CC, “The Conservator-Restorer: a Definition of the Profession”).

Preservation means a series of actions performed to minimise the artefacts rate of deterioration and damage. This process includes for example adjustment of environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, light) for storage and exhibition or implementation of safe procedures for packing, handling, transporting and manipulating with the artefact. These works are carried out by conservators, collection managers or curators (Cato 32-40).

Rehabilitation is defined as a series of actions concerning both retention and repair of historical structures with the emphasis on the aspect of replacement of those parts of the structures that have deteriorated so much that it would not be possible to preserve them (Grimmer 2).

Restoration is, apart from an exhibition, the final step in the process of cultural conservation. It was described as a moment when the conservated object gains the minutest shape of its original and has now the maximum of its historical value. Examples of techniques that directly lead to this condition are for example retouching of paintings or filling loses on a glass vessel (ICOM-CC, “Terminology to characterise the conservation of tangible cultural heritage”).

2.2 Architectural Conservation

• Architectural conservation can be understood as preservation tool using the combination of art, craft, science and technology (Weaver and Matero 1). To understand the essential aspects of architectural conservation, it is essential to explain the term build environment, a social science that studies every space adjusted by people for living and working. This discipline deals with human behaviour to the environment that a certain group of people occupies. Once a group recognises its surroundings as culturally valuable, it creates laws and policies to protect the local environment (Roof and Oleru 24-27). Practically speaking people act to protect their valued buildings and their surroundings from any unwanted change. • It is essential to think of every historical building as a structure that is a part of a particular historical environment, and so it is a shared resource which means that the use of the law, public policy and public investment is justified to protect that public interest (Drury and McPherson 19). • When choosing the appropriate conservation method, it is vital to familiarise with materials of the building that are to be either preserved, if possible or replaced: • • Stone, although being one of the more lasting materials, succumbs to decay just like any other material. If damage or deterioration of stone is detected, a technical examination needs to be done to identify the type of stone used as each type has different characteristics. Once the type of stone is identified a sample is taken for detailed analysis so that appropriate replacement stone can be found in quarries (Historic England, “Sourcing Stone for Historic Building Repair”). • • Wood is one of the multiple popular construction materials in the world. When conserving wood, it should be done in tandem with the traditional carpentry 9

techniques and tools (ICCROM, “Wooden architecture conservation and restoration”). Modern softwood has a high level of sapwood which lacks natural durability which is why is important to select the type of wood that contains a minimum amount of sapwood when repairing historical buildings (Historic England, “Selecting Timber”). • • Thatch is a traditional roofing material and holds a special place in the vernacular architecture. Conserving the traditional thatch can be challenging as this material decays faster than stone or wood and nowadays there is no satisfactory technique of the traditional thatch conservation. Also, to obtain a first-rate thatch, the construction materials are often imported rather than grown up in England (Historic England, “Thatching Advice”). • • Bricks were used as a building material already in Ancient Mesopotamia and gained in popularity among people in Europe since the 16th century. Much like with stone a proper technical examination is recommended. Excessive moisture is one of the most common problems with bricks whether it is rainwater, underground drainage or condensation. Also, the bricks that have lost their outer surface through the poor spalling need to be replaced entirely. In modern buildings, there is an option of use of chemical treatments. However, this method is not recommended in architectural conservation, as a result, is frequently unpredictable (The Engine Shed, “Brick”). • • Metal is one of the materials that can decay rather rapidly. Much like in the brick case preventing corrosion is critical in the conservation of metal parts of historical buildings like railings, window frames or locks and hinges on gates. Unfortunately, because of its financial value if in good condition metal materials are vulnerable to theft which is why insecure loose components must not be left unsupervised (English Heritage, “Metals”).

3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HISTORICAL

PRESERVATION

3.1 Development in the World

Although there had been amateur forms of historical conservation in Europe as far back as in ancient times, the first historical era that saw more complex approach to the conservation of historical sights was Renaissance. Originating in Italy, from where the artistic movement gradually spread to all European countries, including England, the rediscovered interest in antiquity secured the recognition of ancient art as well. Unfortunately, the concern for historical preservation was restricted only to social elites, namely aristocracy and Church, taking into account that it often regarded particular noblemen or church leaders (Czech National Trust, “The Development and Current Principles of Historical Preservation”).

The modern European historical preservation commenced being urged at the times of French Revolution when, in 1790, a Historical Sights Committee was established to inventory and preserve all the sights of artistic, historical, or technical origins.

Altogether, there was no comprehensive, consistent or defined historical preservation policy until the first half of the 19th century when the state sphere of activity has been expanded thanks to the propitious parliament policy realised by Industrial Revolution and its economic prosperity (Balabánová 15 transl.).

3.2 Development in England

3.2.1 Reformation: The Dark Age of Historical Sights

The inception of modern and systematic English historical preservation took place in the first half of the 16th century and was loosely connected with the reformation of monasteries which was a corollary of the successful events at that time (Jokilehto 76). Nonetheless, it has to be said that the very beginnings of the scientific discipline were particularly distressful. 11

On 31 October 1517, Martin Luther, the German theologist, priest, monk and religious reformer, nailed his Ninety-five Theses on the door of All Saints Church in Wittenberg thereby initiated the beginning of Protestant Reformation. This act launched a series of political, social and religious changes in the whole Europe that culminated in the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). After the signing of Peace of Westfalia, the situation had calmed down, but the European religious map changed dramatically – the notional borderline represented by river Main divided the continent into “catholic south” and “protestant north,” an area that England, amongst other states, joined (Schofield 122).

To continue with the topic of monastery reforms in England, let's focus on the reign of Tudor dynasty that issued a series of decrees concerning sacred structures.

In 1534, after endless legal disputes with the Pope Clement VII relating to the recognition of divorce with his first wife, Henry VIII (1491-1547) declared himself the supreme head of the Church of England and enjoined a progressive switchover of sacral property from ecclesiastical ownership to the monarch. This act resulted in extensive iconoclasm and the destruction of monastic life in general. Jokilehto (76) describes the “methods of transformation” used by civil servants: “carvings were defaced, brasses removed, stained glass smashed, water stoups and memorial stones destroyed as idolatry.”

Despite the declarations of sacred property protection by Queen Elizabeth I (1547- 1603) the voluminous decimation of ecclesiastical buildings continued throughout the century up to the Civil War.

3.2.2 Classicism and the Beginning of “Grand Tours”

The commencement of Classicism in the early 17th century brought the first signs of improvement in historical preservation.

One of the first architects to examine the artistic movement was Inigo Jones. Accompanied by Lord Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel, a prominent art collector, art patron and King James I royal court member (Brown, 17), Jones set upon a tour to Italy about collect antiquities and more important to study the then classicistic Italian architecture. Intending to use gained inspiration and experiences to create his original architectural style, Jones would enliven the Gothic grey and protestant simpleness at that time England. The expedition was genuinely seminal, as Jones adopted 12

Palladianism, a style derived from the designs of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (Center for Palladian Studies in America, “Timeline: Palladio and English-American Palladiansim”), and introduced it in England. It is also worth to mention that knowledge Jones acquired in Italy helped him to prepare a new study about Stonehenge in 1620 in which he attempted to describe the stone ring as the remains of a Roman temple. According to Lees-Milne (100), the first known example of Palladian design in England is the Jones‘s reconstruction of Burlington House, London although it is Queen’s House, London that is usually considered as the first English classicist building.

Jones became famous for two significant reconstructions that changed Londons and subsequently Englands panorama for keeps.

Firstly, it is the reconstruction of St. Paul’s Cathedral in London that was going on from 1632 to 1642. Built in Gothic style during the Norman era, Jones transformed it with Italianised windows sometimes called Venetian windows, portico, Corinthian columns and statues standing on newly built pedestals.

Secondly, there is his original design of Covent Garden square. Commisioned by Lord Francis Russell, the 4th Earl of Bedford, Jones projected an entirely new residential square. Inspired by Piazza Grande in Livorno, Italy (British History Online, “Survey of London: Volume 36, Covent Garden”), the square consisted of numerous cultural landmarks such as: Royal Opera House (Historic England, “Royal Opera House”) or Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, the oldest theatre to put on plays to the present day (The Victorian Web, “Theatres in Victorian London”), which is now seen as one of the most significant economic and cultural London districts (LaTulippe 316-362).

During the Civil War and the Commonwealth period in the second half of the 17th century, the construction and architectural innovation moved into the background in general.

Numerous churches experienced intentional or unplanned damage at the time of English civil war according to historical sources. The truth is that construction of the house of God was intended to resist both time and human influence. The purpose of church buildings was not only spiritual. They played cultural, social or even reigning role towards local communities. To emphasise divine nature of the place churches were built on hills to be above everyone but also to have the outlook of the whole area.

From the military perspective, churches were a perfect alternative to a keep with solid stone walls. The elevated place substituted ramparts, graveyards with small cemeteries, often surrounded by low-level stone walls or fences played the same role as a settlement around the castle or military camp surrounded by bulwarks. The church tower offered a perfect alternative to a turret, and narrow windows could have been easily used as embrasure to fire at enemies from above. Snipers or bigger guns could be even situated on the roof.

For example, in 1643 Sir William Waller seized the parish church of St Nicholas in the town of Arundel in West Sussex. His troops received an order to cannonade the nearby castle from the church tower.

Few months before the royalists led by Sir John Byron opted for a similar strategy with the parish church in Nottingham, by coincidence dedicated to the same Saint. Unlike Arundel, the counter-fire razed the church to the ground to forestall any use of the building for military objectives in the future.

In 1644 the parliamentarian troops spent a whole year on attempts to conquer the castle in the town of Scarborough. They situated the artillery at St Mary’s church but royalist counter-cannonade badly damaged construction of the building which most likely resulted in the collapse of the tower six years later.

We can see similarities between events in Scarborough and lengthy blockage of royalist Chester by Sir William Brereton’s army in 1645. Parliamentarians overran the magnificent St John’s church and utilised its outer position to break through the city walls. The intensity of heavy artillery probably harmed the integrity of the construction, raised in Norman era, yet the building endured another two centuries until the old tower suddenly collapsed.

Not only country churches but few significant cathedrals were utilised in public engagements. For example, Lichfield Cathedral in Staffordshire suffered significant damages during military campaigns in 1643.

Defenders often flattened large suburban areas to prevent the use of outer constructions for siege operations against their towns. Many peripheral churches suffered same fate including fortified towns of Bristol, Chester, Exeter, Gloucester, London, Newark, Newcastle, Oxford, Plymouth or Worcester (The Cromwell Association, “Churches and

the civil war”). Unlike wooden houses, which could be easily burned down, solid stone constructions of the churches required more intensive endeavour. We cannot consider this process as pure destruction. Any utilisable materials, such as timber or stone blocks, were recycled in existing town’s fortification to make it more resistant to the anticipated siege.

Metal facilities were also recycled for military use such as bullets, arms or ammunition. From today’s perspective, we can consider barbarian to destroy things like church bells, organ pipes or even lead coffins but you cannot make an omelette without breaking eggs, as well as all,'s fair in love and war.

Either small town churches did not avoid damages simply because they were in the way of enemies garrisoned in neighbouring fortified houses. Such events happened in Boarstall in Buckinghamshire, Brampton Bryan in Herefordshire, Compton Wynyates in Warwickshire, Faringdon in Oxfordshire, Stokesay and High Ercall in Shropshire or Woolsthorpe in Lincolnshire. Both sides used separated village churches as blockhouses in the countryside to control access to strategic locations such as parliamentarians used All Saint’s church in Crondall, Hampshire as a smaller stronghold to protect the western approach to Farnham. Contrarily royalists occupied and strengthened buildings Thurgarton Priory in Nottinghamshire to be an advanced camp of their main base in Newark until December 1644, when parliamentarians defeated them, and the outpost was taken over (The Cromwell Association, “Churches and the civil war”).

The church and surroundings can be used in case of partial or full retreat and if possible to held until reinforcements arrived.

In 1643 parliamentarians led by Sir William Waller took advantage of surprise and predominance and drove off defenders of Alton in Hampshire to St Laurence’s churchyard and later to the church itself. After the attackers breached the gate, the royalists retreated more in-depth into the church and continued their fight until their leader Colonel Bolle was killed and they finally surrendered. Remnants of the battle, holes of bullets or scrapes by pikes, can be still seen on the walls as well as on the door.

In summer 1644 another group of royalist soldiers were struck by misfortune when the army of Earl of Essex surprised them in Lostwithiel in Cornwall. Their attempt to resist

in St Bartholomew’s church was short, and they were expelled out of the explosion of gunpowder barrels.

To use a church as arsenal could result in a catastrophe such as massive detonation in St Michael’s which ended battle of Torrington in Devon in 1646. There is no evidence if the explosion was accidental or ordered by royalist leader.

On the eve of the Second Civil War St Peter Mancroft’s church in Norwich suffered the “Great Blow” during mutiny between royalist rioters and New Model Army troopers. Ninety-eight barrels stored in near Committee House ignited and caused the most massive explosion in seventeenth-century England.

Another use of churches was the temporary home for POWs. In 1648 after the invasion of the Scottish-royalists failed surviving soldiers were imprisoned in North West churches. Nearly a year later mutineers in Oxfordshire suffered the same fate and were imprisoned in St John’s church. The inscription carved by the ‘Anthony Sedley 1649 Prisner’ can be still seen in the lead lining of the font in the Cotswold town of Burford.

Churches, places for meditation and spiritual contemplation, were regrettably used also for dreadful purposes.

Churchyard of Nantwich was witness to Captain Steel’s execution. The officer was convicted of gutless surrender to the royalists in 1643. He was shot dead by firing squat just as three leaders of a mutiny in St John’s church in Burford six years later.

On Christmas Eve 1643 Barthomley in Cheshire was the scene of a massacre. Twenty parliamentary supporters escaped to the tower of St Batoline’s church from troops under Lord Byron. Royalists drove them out with smoke, killed twelve of them while others survived with severe injuries.

Cromwell rarely participated in military actions against royalists garrisoned in churches.

As early as in 1643 forces led by Oliver Cromwell in person defeated royalists who fortified medieval abbey in the small town of Crowland in south Lincolnshire.

A year later he seized Hillesden House in Buckinghamshire close to outpost located in All Saints’ church. Holes made by Cromwell’s men’s bullets are still noticeable on the church doors.

During summer 1645 St Michael’s church at Highworth in Wiltshire, guarded and strengthened with outlying barriers and walls by royalists, was besieged by Cromwell’s forces.

The devastation of churches had not merely military reasons. For the king’s opponents, the churches posed a threat to ideological war between Calvinism and Catholicism. Christian symbols, plentifully displayed on paintings, tapestries and decorations, correlated with Catholic doctrine and Laudian policies proclaimed primarily by William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury before the war.

Destruction did not avoid altars, chalices and glass screens especially those with paintings, priest robes, organ pipes and of course the prayer books. Parliamentarians also damaged royal vaults not because of religious but political reasons. Among affected valuables were arms and some royal family depictions were defaced.

While some damages were spontaneous, others were thoroughly planned and executed during the purification campaign in the mid-1640s according to official laws and instructions of parliament and supervised by local authorities and appointed representatives. Among the best-documented ruiners was Suffolk born iconoclast William Dowsing.

Most of the church devastation was not planned and centrally organised but inflicted by local communities before the English civil war and primarily provoked by the Scots wars.

Some of the church fabric and equipment destruction, principally commenced and commanded by local community members, was unquestionably caused by the armed forces. Parliamentarians were not the only guilty party. At first, churches were attacked by the king’s soldiers appointed to fight in the second Scots war of 1640.

Some parliamentary acts were often overstated or even made-up. Royalists told stories of shocking rituals in which animals were baptised, of men passed water in baptismal fonts or wore ceremonial robes. It is important to mention that some of these accusations are more reliable than others. Another recounting described soldiers shooting to statues of Christ and others Saints as training of their shooting accuracy.

Nonetheless, there is no question that parliamentary soldiers caused damages to the large number of churches with various motives including anti-Catholic aggression, 17

entertainment in the wanton destruction or plain burglary. Cathedrals and parish churches provably affected by parliamentarians can be found in Canterbury, Chichester, Exeter, Gloucester, Lichfield, Lincoln, Peterborough, Rochester, St Paul’s, Winchester and Worcester.

Regardless folk legends, iconoclasm and wilful destruction whether caused by civilians or armed forces in the 1640s must be considered from a broader point of view.

Damages caused to rood screens and lofts, statues, stained glass and other fittings by civil war, significant and in many cases irretrievable, is overshadowed by the enormous destruction of the earlier Reformation during reigns of Tudor dynasty when Catholicism was repulsed and overpowered.

There is widely accepted the opinion, even among those who are not fond of Oliver Cromwell, that he or forces under his direct command were not involved in any broader form of iconoclasm.

Historians believe that the accusations raised long after his death against his soldiers such as those of men smashing crosses from altars and walls or breaking painted windows were made-up with no evidence.

“History is written by victors.” Just a few contemporary resources are accusing Cromwell of iconoclasm, such as a royalist journal in 1647 claimed that Peterborough cathedral had been robbed and damaged by Cromwell’s troops who busted west window, demolished the choir loft and prayers books, but most of the cases were just a product of royalist propaganda.

After all, we have enough evidence to accuse some Cromwell of responsibility of injuries caused to thousands of churches throughout the country, but that was Thomas Cromwell, chief minister to Henry VIII, Oliver’s great-great-grand-uncle (The Cromwell Association, “Churches and the civil war”).

Historical documents are bringing us evidence of savagery committed to historical sights. Christopher Wren, one of the most prominent English classicist and baroque architects, took note of the attitude of parliamentarian soldiers towards St Paul’s Cathedral: “all the Materials assigned for the Repairs were seized, the scaffolds pulled down, and the Body of the Church converted to a House quarter of Soldiers” (273). Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), to erase the characteristics of the monarchy and even 18

some of Christianity (BBC Culture, “When Christmas carols were banned”) mercilessly plundered and destroyed many historical sights. There are proofs that his soldiers used churches as barracks, stables or storehouses (Jokilehto 77).

After King Charles II was enthroned, the era of Restoration began. The epoch is described as a renewal of political establishment in the country although it may also mean a renewal regarding historical conservation and architecture, especially in London region, as this historical period saw an unprecedented development. Paradoxically, the process was accelerated by a sad event. In September 1666, The Great Fire of London flared up and swept through the central parts of the city. Consuming more than 13 000 houses and nearly 90 churches including St Pauls Cathedral in a matter of days, the disaster deprived almost 80 000 people of their homes mainly because the vast majority of buildings was made of wood (Tinniswood, 4, 101). After renewed the severely damaged St Paul’s Cathedral, Christopher Wren elaborated an elaborate plan for rebuilding the burnt London comprising of 52 new churches and the Baroque reconstruction of the majority of the remaining ones keeping the Gothic architectonic features (Jokilehto 78).

Although Classicism and later Neoclassicism will tend to distance from medieval architecture, there are few cases where architects would use some elements of this period mostly for decorative purposes as a kind of romantic peculiarities.

Such is the case of Sir Horace Walpole, Earl of Oxford and the son of Sir Robert Walpole, the first de facto Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, who initiated a series of reconstructions in his own country house, Strawberry Hill, near Twickenham. The reason for such procedure can be explained, apart from the matter of flair, as the then favour of revisiting and imitating medieval architecture in general as Walpole made his designs in the Rococo period which tended to the romantic conception of Medieval times. The following features in Walpole’s house were designed by James Essex who is today considered as the first English architect to practise the old theory (the topic is discussed in detail in the next chapter) in medieval architecture. His architectonic alterations last up to the present day and can be seen mainly at cathedrals, for example, King’s College Chapel of Cambridge University, Ely Cathedral or Lincoln Cathedral.

Regarding Wren’s opinion about works of medieval builders, he, although being critical in particular cases, appreciated and respected their results which reflects his philosophy 19

of repairing old structures so that the outcome would not spoil the harmony of edifices as a whole (Jokilehto 235). During the coming centuries, many architects would either build or renovate mansions or palaces using some of the elements of Gothic architecture.

The talents of people like Inigo Jones and Sir Christopher Wren for historic conservation joined with the respect for previous architectural styles preserved many historical sights for future generations.

3.2.3 Neoclassicism and the Origins of Antiquarianism

At the conclusion of the 17th century, the exploration of Italian culture happened to be so frequent that it became the basis of the “educated English gentleman” (Jokilehto 82) and as time had moved on the area of historic preservation expanded.

In the early 18th century, the English scientific community discovered the passion for antiquities. There are several definitions of the concept of “antique”. Francis Bacon regards “Monuments, Names, Words, Proverbes, Traditions, Private Recordes and Evidences, Fragments of Stories, Passages of Bookes, that concern not storie, and the like” as antiquities (66). One of the most comprehensive expositions explains the antique as “A collectable object such as a piece of furniture or work of art that has a high value because of its age and quality” (English Oxford Living Dictionaries, “Antique”). It is essential to remember that the object also needs to represent some financial and (or) aesthetical aspects for example beauty, rarity or personal emotional connection.

In 1717, the Society of Antiquaries of London was founded with an aim to support “the encouragement, advancement and furtherance of the study and knowledge of the antiquities and history of this and other countries” (Society of Antiquaries of London, “About the Society of Antiquaries”). Originally, the Society was oriented entirely on the antiques of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, but the later research concentrated on the national antiquities. It is worth pointing out the Society‘s William and Jane Morris Fund that was established in 1939 and has been providing finances for the protection of ancient buildings (Society of Antiquaries of London, “William and Jane Morris Fund”)

Another significant English institution dealing with the field is the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne, founded in 1813.

In 1742 being on a “compulsory” tour to Italy, two young British architects James Stuart (1713-1788) and Nicholas Revett (1720-1804) met in Rome. They had presently discovered a common interest in antiques and decided to travel to Greece for further research. After the return to England, their publication The Antiquities of Athens and Other Monuments of Greece about the Italian-Greek expedition with the drawings of both monuments and antiques became a huge success, and both were shortly after elected members of the Royal Society which opened doors to architectural businesses. Of their activities concerning historic preservation, we can mention Stuart’s renovations of Shugborough Hall, Staffordshire where he designed a carbon copy of Choragic Monument of Lysicrates (Black 69) and Revett’s work at West Wycombe Park, Buckinghamshire, the home of Sir Francis Dashwood, where he designed the west portico of the house that was on the temple of Bacchus at Teos (Academic, “West Wycombe Park”).

The first wave of antiquarianism, or the interest in antiques, drew inspiration from Renaissance and subsequently Ancient times of Italian and Greek environment. It laid the foundations of British museums which began to flourish in the 19th century indeed.

3.2.4 The Gothic Restoration Movement

From the 1770s onward, in the spirit of antiquarianism, there was an increasing interest in historical studies of medieval buildings especially those containing measured drawings that would help the architects to renovate the old buildings as faithfully to the original appearance as possible. As many prominent members of the Society of Antiquaries began to publish such studies, for example Richard Gough, John Carter or James Dallaway, the architectonic community have commenced to closely cooperate with the administrators of historical edifices both to preserve and, where possible, improve their architectonical status’s and also to prevent any kind of their deterioration (Jokilehto 236).

Although the new approach towards the conservation of medieval buildings began to bear fruit, there were several architects whose works were criticised for not being capable of separating the then style from the original. One of the designers from this 21

unpopular group that admired the “beautiful simplicity” of the Gothic style but ignored its real characteristics was James Wyatt. He is well known for carrying out several restoration works including the cathedrals of Lichfield, Salisbury or Hereford. Wyatt intended to make a single architectonic style for every internal space which involved removing of all objects he considered as obstructive. As a result, cathedrals went through many drastic changes like Hereford where half of the building was rebuild however without a tower that used to be part of the cathedral but collapsed in 1786. Evaluating the works of James Wyatt, there are two opposing believes. Firstly, the conservative approach that buildings should be preserved as accurately as possible without any changes considering the architectonic or artistic style. Secondly, the liberal approach that renovations can be carried out with partial changes using features of modern architecture (Jokilehto 236).

In order to remain impartial, it should be mentioned that although being traduced by many high-level members of the Society of Antiquities and architecture interest groups does not change the fact that James Wyatt likewise had a number of successful and praised projects namely the order of a renovation of a staircase in Gothic style in Windsor Castle commissioned by George III himself (Linstrum 729) or the successful survey of Westminster Abbey (Jokilehto 236) .

Generally speaking, there is not only one correct approach concerning the preservation of ancient buildings and every renovation should be regarded as both new and individual and every architect or preservationist ought to choose their way of work based on the building’s state, style, purpose and skyline.

One of the most hardened critics of Wyatt’s work was John Carter. In 1792, he was hired by the Society of Antiquaries to prepare a series of measured drawings of ancient structures, namely St. Stephen’s Chapel at Westminster, the Cathedral of Exeter, the Cathedral of Durham, the Abbey Church of Bath and many others. Carter summed up his ideas about mediaeval architecture in the series of articles in the Gentleman’s Magazine, a famous English periodical that coined the term “magazine” in English environment (A Dictionary of the English Language, “Magazíne”). These articles called “Pursuits of Architectural Innovation” were initially intended as a critical survey of mediaeval structures and the ways of their renovation nevertheless they also comprised of the whole history of English architecture from the country’s early history 22

up to the reign of Queen Anne (Summerson 510-512). Regarding the principles of Carter’s work, there are several concepts to be mentioned:

1. Beautifying meant whitewashing of the interiors of churches, glazing the windows, removal of mullions and tracery or propping up the aisles with pews (Carter 739). 2. Improvement was interpreted as total removal of particular architectural works done by previous draughtsmen (Carter 92). 3. Innovation was described as changing any considerable part of ancient building even including a partial demolition to introduce an aspect of a new architectural style (Carter 310).

4. Alteration was understood as a procedure to enhance ancient churches by removing the tombs and monuments of the Saints and localising them according to the architect’s subjective sense of aesthetics. The other interpretation, which does not necessarily controvert the first one, says that churches comprising of Roman or Greek architectural styles should be reworked along the actual style

(Carter 310).

5. Repairs, in contrast to the methods mentioned above, should have been done with the highest care and be concerning the original shape of the building

(Carter 403).

6. Restoration is the method that Carter rejects (Curr 16). The reason for the rejection can be traced to Carter’s opinion about the early practices of Gothic restoration which was in his opinion too influenced by Chinese artistic

techniques (Curr 35).

Applying these concepts in practice, Carter directed a lot of renovations namely the Cathedral of Durham and the Cathedral of Lichfield.

3.2.5 English Aesthetic Theory and Garden Design

The 18th century was a period when architects, historians and poets, influenced by the Age of Enlightenment and incoming Romanticism, started to reflect on the subject of “beauty scientifically”.

The two main artistic styles that defined these efforts were Picturesque and Sublime. Picturesque is an artistic and philosophical movement that developed in the early 17th century Italy and is interpreted as a style in which every painting, especially those depicting nature and landscapes (Encyclopædia Britannica, “Picturesque”), is related to each painter. Sublime is a philosophical branch of aesthetics, known already in Ancient Greece, that was interpreted by Irish politician and philosopher Edmund Burke (1729- 1797) (58) as:

“The passion caused by the great and sublime. . . is Astonishment; and astonishment is that state of the soul, in which all its motions are suspended, with some degree of horror. In this case, the mind is so filled with its object, that it cannot entertain any other” (Webpages Uidaho, “The Sublime”).

The reason for mentioning these styles is that the concern for natural scenery combined with philosophical, aesthetical, literary and artistic evolution led to a mass creation of probably the most beautiful and iconic parts of British cultural heritage – gardens.

Although there were many variations in garden design, it was the 18th century that inspired the young generation of architects to renounce the single unitary Renaissance design and to seek for alternatives (Jokilehto 95).

The first person that relevantly affected the new design was John Vanbrugh (1664- 1726) who achieved renown by designing Blenheim Palace, the residence of the Dukes of Marlborough, and Castle Howard, although it took 100 years to finish the design (McCormick 4). Inspired by Picturesque and being fully aware of the overall impression created by the suitable design of both building and its adjacent garden, he wrote a list of proposals to renew the Blenheim gardens which proved to be impracticable as the building was eventually demolished. Though unsuccessful, his work inspired others (Jokilehto 95).

William Kent (1685-1748) followed up on Vanburgh’s work. Being regarded as the founder of modern garden design, Kent introduced the spacial concept, a conceptual design discipline that submits the shape of gardens for their visitors to move along them, between them and simultaneously to access the building which highlights permeation through both public and private spaces and at the same time determines boundaries between these two realms. Inspired by the paintings of French artists Claude

Lorrain, Nicolas Poussin and classic Chinese gardens of the East (Boults and Sullivan 175), he reintroduced Palladian style through his garden design (Allain and Christianity 280). Kent’s works demonstrate his imagination and good taste in the choice of style, as demonstrated by his design of the garden of Stowe House. The building includes a Palladian bridge, villa and several temples (Impelluso 96) or of the garden of Chiswick House that was inspired by formal French garden and includes alleys, canals or an Ionic temple set between a pond and trees (Impelluso 90).

The second half of the 18th century prefered landscape architecture in garden design. The leading designer of this period was Lancelot “Capability” Brown (1716-1783). Nicknamed to be “very able Master” by art historian and nobleman Sir Horace Walpole (Jokilehto 96), Brown in his lifetime designed over 170 gardens of some preeminent houses and estates in Britain with more than 30 being open to the public (Britain Express, “Capability Brown biography”). Amongst the distinctive aspects of Brown’s design, we may count planting of wavy grass paths connecting the house with the garden. Also, installation of natural decorations like tree clumps, serpentine lakes or small rivers and the use of medieval-like ruins (Jokilehto 96) that correspond with the popularity of the Gothic fiction literary genre at that time could be mentioned.

The new garden design succeeded and gardens became frequently visited by artists and poets searching for their muses such as William Gilpin, Uvedale Price or Sir William Chambers.

The English garden design based on the English Aesthetic theory created an entirely new section of cultural heritage.

3.2.6 The Blossoming of Museums in the 19th Century

The enormous economic boom of the Industrial Revolution, the development of British parliamentary system and the overall growing interest in the artefacts of the past were the main factors of Victorian Britain that contributed to the general bloom of museums. The efforts of several collectors and societies initiated in the previous century had a bearing in the following one.

Firstly, it is needed to explain the term “museum”. According to Lilla, a museum is an institution created towards the incorporation of our whole cultural experience (25-29), Clifford considers them as sites of negotiation between the world of culture and the 25

political one (192), and Grove explains them as an endless aggregate of exhibited artefacts (79). It could be argued that all three authors are correct as there is not just one possible explanation of such a compound term.

The word “museum” comes from Greek (Mouseion) which can be translated as a place dedicated to Muses, the patrons of arts (Findlen 59-78). As the word origin suggests, the first museums existed in ancient times. The Mouseion of Alexandria, founded in the 3rd century BC at Alexandria, was considered as one of the most excellent centres of education in antiquity.

Concerning museums, there might be a misapprehension of two terms: museology and museography. Museology is “the science or profession of museum organisation and management” (Merriam-Webster) while museography can be defined as “the practical or applied aspect of museology, that is to say, the techniques which have been developed to fulfil museal operations” (EVE Museology).

The idea of a freely accessible area dedicated to the exhibition of human knowledge and deeds had been sidelined during the Middle Ages yet Renaissance, as mentioned before, brought the thought back to life and had been developing since then. The late 17th century saw the first opening of public museums which is a crucial landmark as the material heritage of the past was choreographed primarily by private collectors until then. The 18th century continued to focus on the studying of natural sciences, and so stuffed animals, plants and even machines were displayed to the public for the first time.

To illustrate the growing prestige and importance of public museums in the field of historical preservation, let us present the oldest and most significant museum in England.

The British Museum, considered to be the oldest public museum in the world, was founded in 1753 after Parliament purchased the whole collection of natural sciences of Sir Hans Sloane, 40 years before the opening of the Louvre Museum in Paris (Alexander et al. 3-7). The collection itself was of an unprecedented extent, consisting of approximately 71 000 objects of various kinds (The British Museum, “History of the British Museum”) including antiquities, books, manuscripts, drawings, coins, medals or

even samples of dried plants from around the world (The British Museum, “Sir Hans Sloane”).

The museum initially located in Montagu House (Emma Purcell, “Montagu House, Bloomsbury – The Original Home of the British Museum”) soon needed larger premises as the exposition had greatly enlarged thanks to the tresuares from South Seas carried to England by capatain James Cook and additional private collections donated or sold to the museum such as the collection of Roman and Greek antiquities of Sir William Hamilton, British Ambassador to the Kingdom of Italy from 1764 to 1800 (Hoock 207) or the collection of books and engraved gems of Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode (Griffiths 45). As the more spacious building was required, Montagu House had been demolished, and the construction of an entirely new edifice began under the supervision of Sir Robert Smirke in 1823 with a brand new neo-classical building being opened in 1846 (Bradley and Pevsner 288-295).

In the early 1840s, Charles Fellows, British explorer and archaeologist, undertook, under the auspices of the British Museum, an expedition to Asia Minor to uncover ancient cities including Xanthos. His journey was a significant success as thirteen ancient cities of Lycia were uncovered and an enormous amount of monuments was shipped to England including the sculptured reliefs of Harpy Tomb (Fellows, “The Xanthian Marbles; Their Acquisition and Transmission to England” 5) and the Nereid Monument (Fellows, “Account of the ionic trophy monument excavated at Xanthus” 1- 27). Fellows' work and results established a whole new field of interest for British museums which had been oriented primarily on the artefacts of Greek and Roman origins – Asia.

In 1856, British archaeologist Charles Newton, inspired by Fellows' achievements, set off to southwestern Turkey to search for the legendary Mausoleum at Halicarnassus which he found and excavated the following year. Newton, the first curator of Greek and Roman antiquities at the British Museum, was also one of the scientists that contributed to the establishment of systematic archaeological methods (Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Sir Charles Thomas Newton: British Archeologist”) and influenced future archaeologists to expand their research even farther East. During Newton’s activity at the British Museum, the department of Assyrian Studies was founded (Reade 16).

3.2.7 Legislative Procedures at The Turn of the 19th and the 20th Century

The beginnings of historical preservation within the state legislation date back to the late 19th century when the first laws about historical preservation were passed.

As Industrial Revolution progressed, both upper and middle class prospered (Wayback Machine, “The Industrial Revolution: Past and Future”) using their newly earned capital to remould the shape of both cities and countryside according to their needs – the unprecedented “railway mania” that started back in the 1840s (Railway Mania, “Narrative”) hand in hand with the textile industry boom (Study.com, “The British Textile Industry in the Industrial Revolution”). It is a sad reality that in those times, the need to transport manufactured goods outweighed the sense of historical preservation as railways constructions caused numerous damages to historical sights. Concerning some of the examples, there is the destruction of Trinity College Kirk along with nearby hospital (Hill 781-786), the great hall of Berwick Castle (CastlesFortsBattles, “Berwick Castle”), Northampton Castle (Pevsner and Cherry 328) or the ancient walls of Chester (Ward 90). As there were no laws that would delimit constructions of railways about historical sights, transportation companies damaged or destroyed many buildings of cultural significance.

It is difficult to tell, how would the English cultural heritage looked today if it were not for John Lubbock. Being a Member of Parliament, banker and aristocrat, Baron of Avebury, Lubbock had all the means to do his bit to preserve historical sights. Apart from the political career, he was also a keen scientist, the supporter of evolutionary theory, botanist and archaeologist even coining the terms “Paleolithic” and “Neolithic” (Lubbock 75). In 1882, he managed to gain support in Parliament to pass the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 which is nowadays considered as a cornerstone of state historical preservation even though covered ancient monuments only. The Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1900 followed, concerning a wider range of properties and giving county councils the right to observe and repair ancient monuments as well as the right for their public access (Mynors 8-9). Passing the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1910, the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1913 and the Ancient Monuments Act 1931, the legislative gaps in the system were filled – damaging of ancient monuments has been recognised as a criminal offense, the term “monument” has 28

comprised objects of natural origins, and the state gained power to prohibit any construction in a predefined distance from the monument (Myners 8-10).

The legislative changes of the late 19th and the early 20th century ensured an elaborate and effective carrying historical conservation through and became the basis of The National Trust and English Heritage.

3.2.8 England and UNESCO

On 1 September 1945, Germany attacked Poland and the Second World War started. Within six years, approximately 60 million people died, and the world’s political structure has been changed beyond recognition.

The war was the most destructive conflict in human history not only regarding lost lives but in respect of damaged or destroyed historical buildings and towns. Just like other countries, English historical sights went through much destruction. After the war’s end, there were many different attitudes to the renovation of damaged sights. For example, the ruins of the mediaeval Coventry Cathedral had been left as a memorial rather than being repaired, and an entirely new cathedral was erected in its proximity (Pevsner and Metcalf 62). In London, only a few sacred buildings were left standing; the rest was either demolished or moved because of continually growing urban encroachment (Jokilehto 410).

Concerning the consistent, efficient and international protection of historical monuments, The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) was officially formed on the 4 November 1946 with the UK being one of the 26 founding states (UNESCO, “UNESCO Constitution”). It is worth mentioning that the first elected Director-General was Dr Julian Huxley from England (Keynes and Harrison 188). One of the turning points of the organisation’s history was the 1972 World Heritage Convention in Paris, according to which the World Heritage Committee was to be established to select the world’s most significant cultural and natural sites to be registered as World Heritage Sites (IUCN, “World Heritage Convention”). Currently, there are 31 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom, of which 17 are located in England and one, Frontiers of the Roman Empire, in both England and Scotland (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, “United Kingdom of Great

Britain and Northern Ireland”). The list of sites is analysed in detail in the “English Heritage Sites” chapter.

By establishing UNESCO, the United Kingdom along with the world elite have procured the historical preservation internationally and saved numerous sites from destruction.

3.3 Comparison Between Other Parts of the United

Kingdom

3.3.1 Scotland

It could be said that Scotland followed the same pattern of the development of historical preservation like England although some legislative differences emerged in the 20th century and since that time shaped the resemblance of Scottish cultural conservation.

An English art historian Gerald Baldwin Brown, while teaching art at the University of Edinburgh, was criticising the situation of the state of historical sights in Scotland in the long term (Dictionary of Scottish Architects, “(Professor) Gerald Baldwin Brown”). He had been calling for efficient historical preservation in Scotland, and his efforts eventually bore fruit. On the 14th February 1908, the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland was established, Brown became one of the first Commissioners, with England and Wales adopting the idea and establishing their versions of the office in the same year (Sargent 57-80).

After the Ancient Monuments Act 1931 had passed, the government had all the legislative tools to form a nonprofit organisation that would administer and protect historical sights – The National Trust for Scotland for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty or the National Trust for Scotland in short with the name derived from the National Trust in England (“The National Trust for Scotland, SC007410)”, Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator). At present, the organisation has more then 360 000 members, administers 11 000 archeological sites across the whole Scotland, 271 listed buildings, 101 Scheduled Monuments, 8 historic battlefields, 500 ruined house sites (National Trust for Scotland, “Archaeology”), 11 castles (National Trust for Scotland, “Buildings”) and 38 gardens and designed landscapes, covering 1586 hectares of land 30

consisting of more then 100 000 different kinds of plants (National Trust for Scotland, “Gardens”), 76 000 hectares of countryside which is home to a variety of wildlife, 400 islands and islets, 46 Munros, Scottish mountains over 3000 feet or approximately 900 meters (Visit Scotland, “Scottish Munros and Munro Bagging”), 8 National Nature Reserves, 245 miles of mountain foothpaths (National Trust for Scotland, “Countryside and Wildlife”), 300 000 objects in more then 50 properties including over 3000 paintings, 2000 costumes, 100 chandeliers, 600 candlesticks, 2000 chairs, 200 sofas, 2000 plates, 300 teapots, 45 chamber pots, 80 000 books, 120 000 documents, 5500 artefacts, 250 000 colour images and 90 000 black and white prints (National Trust for Scotland, “Collections”). The charities success is undeniable, as the statistic from 2015 states that it welcomed 2 387 000 visitors with Robert Burns Birthplace Museum, Glenfinnan and Culzean Castle and Country Park is the most popular (The Scotsman, “In Pictures: Scotland's ten most popular National Trust properties”).

While the National Trust for Scotland had functioned since 1931, Historic Scotland, the government based version of the National Trust for Scotland, was not established until 1991 (BBC, “Building on history: 100 years of Historic Scotland”). In 2015, it was, along with the Royal Commision on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, dissolved and their competencies moved to the newly constituted Historic Environment Scotland (Historic Environment Scotland, “Historic Environment Scotland Act 2014”).

3.3.2 Wales

As Wales has been politically dependent on England since the late 13th century (Davies 338), the two countries became one state in the middle of the 16th century, the development of Welsh historical preservation was conformable to the English one in contrast to Scotland whose organisations have been evolving somewhat autonomously.

In 1895, the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty, the National Trust, in short, was established as a nonprofit charity under the Companies Acts 1862-1890 (National Trust, “How we are run”) by Octavia Hill (Octavia Hill’s Birthplace House, “Co-Founder of the National Trust”), Robert Hunter (National Trust, “Remembering Robert Hunter”) and Hardwicke Rawnsley (National Trust, “Who was Hardwicke Drummond Rawnsley”). The main organisation’s policy is to care for

historical places, help wildlife and natural habitats to flourish and inspire others to help realise the belief (National Trust, “Our Cause”). Although the charity’s headquarters is located in Swindon (National Trust, “Contact our teams”), it manages, apart from England, sights in Wales and Northern Ireland as well (National Trust, “Places”). The National Trust owns more than 350 heritage properties on more than 247 000 hectares of land and more than 775 miles of coastline which includes historical houses with gardens, country houses, industrial buildings and objects, historical landscapes and nature reserves (Wayback Machine, “National Trust Annual Report 2014/15”). Their most visited sights include properties and natural sites in the proximity of Snowdonia National Park for example Carneddau and Glyderau (National Trust, “Carneddau and Glyderau”), Bodnant Garden (National Trust, “Bodnant Garden”), Hafod y Llan (National Trust, “The nature of Hafod y Llan”) and Ogwen Cottage (National Trust, “Ogwen Cottage”). In conclusion, it is convenient, in my opinion, to mention that His Royal Highness Prince Charles, Prince of Wales is the President of the National Trust (National Trust, “President”).

Concerning the government’s part in the Welsh historical conservation, Cadw, a Welsh word meaning “to keep/to protect”, was established in 1984 to secure historic environment service in Wales, conserve its cultural heritage and help to sustain the country’s distinctive character (Cadw, “About Cadw”). There are three World Heritage Sites in Wales that lie within Cadw’s authority: the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, “Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd”), the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct (BBC News, “Aqueduct crowned world 'wonder'”) and the Blaenavon Industrial Landscape (Galla 304).

3.3.3 Northern Ireland

Much like in the other parts of the United Kingdom, the responsibility for the protection of Northern Ireland’s cultural heritage is divided between a state agency and some independent charities. These two groups work to maintain good relations and mutual support.

An example of one of the more critical active charities, apart from the National Trust that has been described in the Wales subchapter, is the Heritage Trust Network. Funded by many organisations both state and private, including Historic England, Historic

Environment Scotland and Cadw, the trust aims at helping local heritage groups to preserve and protect local heritage sights by sharing knowledge and skills development about historical preservation (Heritage Trust Network, “Our Organisation”). The trust’s two most prominent case studies are the preservation of Dunston Staiths (Heritage Trust Network, “Dunston Staiths”) and Cromford Mills (Heritage Trust Network, “Cromford Mills”).

The cultural preservation activities persuaded by the state are represented by the Northern Ireland Environment Agency which espouses an equivalent legislative position in the Northern Ireland as, for example, the Historic England in England or the Historic Environment Scotland in Scotland.

As a part of the Northern Ireland’s Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs, the agency’s goals are to create appropriate conditions to sustain the efficient environment and cultural heritage conservation and protection through several principles:

1. the regulation of the industry 2. maintaining a good quality of watercourses 3. effective waste management 4. conservation of natural habitats to keep species diversity 5. ecologically responsible infrastructure

Agency’s goals are further minutely analyses in the actual business plan (DAERA, “Northern Ireland Environment Agency”).

4 ENGLISH HERITAGE

The English Heritage Trust, commonly known as English Heritage, is a registered charity that administrates the National Heritage Collection which consists of more than 400 historic buildings, monuments and sites (Simon Thurley, “National Heritage Collection”) with a time span from the Neolithic to the 19th century.

4.1 History

Over the centuries, there has been a state institution responsible for the protection of English cultural heritage with many names.

In 1378, the Office of Works was established to maintain Crown property. Although the office had been a centre of many financial scandals (Thurley 24), it continued to exist until being transformed into the Office of Works & Public Buildings in 1815. The office transformed in 1832 into the Office of Woods, Forests, Land Revenues Works and Public Buildings before changing its name to its previous title in 1851 which held until 1940 becoming the Ministry of Works & Buildings and dropping the “Buildings” part in 1943. The office’s title became the Ministry of Public Buildings & Works in 1962 before divided into two separate departments in 1971 – the Property Services Agency and the Department of the Environment (Thurley 25). As delineated in the first chapter, the roles of the two lastly named offices are nowadays divided between dozens of both state organisations and private charities.

In 1983, due to the objections by the ruling Conservative Party about the state of cultural heritage, Michael Heseltine, the then Secretary of State for the Environment, managed to pass the National Heritage Act 1983 on which the Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission (HBMC) was formed (The National Archives, “National Heritage Act 1983”). Lord Montagu of Beaulieu, the first chairman of the newly founded commission, thought that such an important office should have a more memorable name and he changed it to English Heritage (English Heritage, “Our History”). The non-departmental public body was continually expanding absorbing other state institutions to gain as much remit in historical preservation as possible.

In 1984, only a year after its establishment, the commission created the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England as one of its subsections (Barnet: London Borough, “Registered historic parks and gardens”) and in 1995 a register for historic battlefields was created (Historic England, “Registered Battlefields”). In 1999, English Heritage received the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England and the National Monuments Record under its patronage as well as their powers (Historic England, “Conservation Bulletin 35”).

One of the most significant agencies that English Heritage took over during the 1999 merging was the Ordnance Survey Archaeology Division a national agency focusing on the mapping of Great Britain (Sargent 57-80). Assuming the administration of the Ordnance Survey Archaeology Division, the National Library of Aerial Photographs became part of English Heritage Archive in Swindon as well which meant a cultural gain in the form of two million RAF vertical aerial photographs (Historic England, “Aerial Photos”). By acquiring the agency, along with external acquisitions, English Heritage obtained almost six million aerial photographs in 2000 thus making it one of the largest publicly accessible archives in the United Kingdom (Historic England, “A Brief History of the Historic England Archive of Aerial Photographs”). The public accessibility is being constantly improved, as English Heritage, today Historic England, gradually digitises the archive. As of today, the archive comprises more than 12 million records including both historical and modern photographs, texts and documents with over a million of records being available online (Historic England, “The Historic England Archive”).

In 2013, English Heritage experienced a “massive conservation backlog”. The state of conservation of several historic buildings including Stevens Mill in Burwell, Doddington Castle or Stanlow Abbey in Cheshire became critical due to the lack of finances set aside for their maintenance. The problem arose in the early 2010s when English Heritage was expanding the National Heritage Collection, but the government made budget cuts as a reaction to the Great Recession. To solve the newly-emerged problem, the government decided to change the status of English Heritage from the non- departmental public body into an independent charitable trust to give the organisation more freedom in fundraising. The Government also decided to split the organisation into two separate bodies in order to achieve an improved conservation management

(Simon Thurley, “English Heritage”) – the non-departmental public body that is concerned about statutory planning and heritage protection functions provision became known as Historic England and the new charitable trust that took care of the properties of the National Collection, the heritage protection functions assertion and the visitor experience was called the English Heritage Trust. Also, to overcome the fiscal deficit, the government provided an 80 million pounds grant to the trust (Dominiczak, “English Heritage 'can't cope' with a backlog of crumbling buildings). One of the reasons for the subsidy was that a whole third of the buildings administered by English Heritage is being put on the “At Risk Register”, a list of buildings, places of worship, monuments, parks, gardens, conservation areas, battlefields and wreck sites that were found to be at risk (Historic England, “Search the Heritage at Risk Register”), since 1999 with the state of the structures being so critical that government felt that any further damage might “accelerate the loss of historic fabric”. As a compensation, the government will steadily reduce the Historic England annual grant until 2023 when the organisation has to break even (Lean, “Does Our History Have a Future in the Hands of the English Heritage Trust?”).

4.2 Finances

As a charitable trust, the primary source of income of English Heritage comes from fees, more accurately from admission fees and membership fees as well as from commercial offerings which means catering, retail, shops, venue hire and sponsorship. State grants represent a significant component of the trust’s finances as well which signifies the importance of having good relations with the government (English Heritage, “Our Priorities”). Simultaneously, it is in the interest of the government to invest in English Heritage to ensure solid and lasting heritage preservation as the National Collection of English Heritage represents a significant tourist attraction as well. According to the 2015/16 English Heritage Annual Report, over 10 million visitors come to see the trust’s sites each year which represent an annual income of more than 95 million pounds (English Heritage, “English Heritage 2015/16 Annual Report”).

As mentioned before, English Heritage received a one-off grant of 80 million pounds in 2013 for the maintenance of historical sights and development of trading activities. 36

Thanks to the grant-in-aid and its investing English Heritage managed to ensure a fixed income that increases every year. Concerning the character of independent charitable trust, the government came to terms with English Heritage to cut their annual subsidy and to cease their subsidising completely in 2023 when it is expected that English Heritage will become entirely self-funding (English Heritage, “Our Priorities”).

4.3 Membership

As a charitable trust, English Heritage encourages the members of the public to join the organisation as its members. Being a member entails many benefits such as free admission to more than 400 organisation’s properties, reduced-cost admission to the properties of associated organisations like Cadw, Historic Scotland, Manx National Heritage or Heritage New Zealand (English Heritage, “Associated Attractions”), an entry to member-only events or free subscription of magazines and handbooks published by English Heritage. One of the membership’s most attractive benefits is an option to add up to six children under 19 within the family group which makes the properties admission free for them as well (English Heritage, “Membership FAQs”). The English Heritage membership fees differ with the cheapest being £3,75 per month for students, with a valid student discount card, and the lifetime joint adult membership costing £1 800 being the most expensive one (English Heritage, “Join”).

In 2015, the number of trust’s members reached 1,34 million (Wayback Machine, “English Heritage Annual Report and Accounts 2014/15”) making it the third biggest mass membership organisation in the United Kingdom surpassing the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds being surpassed only by the National Trust and the Trades Union Congress (Almost History, “Mass Membership Organisations in the UK”).

4.4 Volunteers

As an independent charitable trust, volunteers are part and parcel of English Heritage. There are many positions volunteers can apply to being, for example, a guide, an inquiry office worker, an education volunteer, explainer volunteer, cleaner, gardener and many other positions. As for the main reasons to volunteer, English Heritage offers teamwork in friendly groups, learning new skills, sharing new ideas with others, 37

receiving valuable work experience, personal training and constant support as well as making new contacts. Although being an English Heritage volunteer means working without salary, it is also a contributive experience which among others represents a solid basis for pursuing a career in heritage. (English Heritage, “Volunteer With Us”).

According to English Heritage Annual Report, the charity had 1 872 registered volunteers in 2015 (Wayback Machine, “English Heritage Annual Report and Accounts 2014/15”).

4.5 Management and staff

English Heritage is governed by the board of Trustees who procure the strategic direction and effective policy of the trust so as the organisation can advance its intentions into practice (English Heritage, “Our Trustees”).

Since 2015, Kate Mavor is the Chief Executive of English Heritage. Former Chief Executive of the National Trust for Scotland, Mavor acceded to the position during the charity transformation and was one of the masterminds of the new financial policy discussed in the Finances subsection. A former English Heritage Commissioner and Royal Navy Vice Admiral Sir Tim Laurence is currently the charity’s Chairman. In 1992, he married Princess Royal Anne (Express, “Sir Timothy Laurence Birthday: Princess Anne and Her Husband Sir Tim in Pictures”).

Among the most significant positions of the English Heritage Senior Management Team there is the Historic Properties Director, the Estates Director, the Curatorial Director, the Development Director, the Marketing Director, the Commercial Director and the Resources Director (English Heritage, “Our People”).

According to English Heritage consultation report, the charity has about 1 850 employees as of 2013 (Department for Culture, Media & Sport, “English Heritage New Model: Consultation”).

4.6 Blue Plaques

Blue plaques became a synonym of English Heritage. These are the signs installed in public places in the United Kingdom, mainly in London. The purpose of Blue Plaques is

to point out the places of great significance to people – they are the links between the buildings, usually residences of famous individuals, and passers-by (Making History, “The commemoration of historians under the blue plaque scheme in London”).

The first person that suggested the plan of marking the buildings associated with famous people was British politician William Ewart in 1863. Four years later in 1867, the Society of Arts, later the Royal Society of Arts, created the first blue plaque dedicated to the birthplace of Lord Byron at Cavendish Square (English Heritage, “The History of Blue Plaques”). Although the memorial tablets are called “blue plaques”, the first plaques were painted in cheaper chocolate brown (The Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, “About blue plaques”).

At the start of the 20th century, London County Council took over the blue plaques programme. The first new plaque under the new administration was commemorated to the historian Thomas Babington Macaulay in 1903. London County Council placed eight plaques each year on average until the First World War. After the war, the blue ceramic plaque became the standard of the project.

In 1938, the modern version of the blue plaque was presented by an unnamed student at the Central School of Arts and Crafts. He was paid only four guineas (English Heritage, “The History of Blue Plaques”), about four pounds today (Project Britain, “Old English Money”).

In 1965, the London County Council was dissolved, and so the Greater London Council assumed the blue plaque project. The council not only increased the number of placed plaques per year but also widened the plaque sphere outside the London (Making History, “The commemoration of historians under the blue plaque scheme in London”). From 1965 until 1985, when the board was abolished, the Greater London Council raised 262 plaques of which we can mention for example the plaque of textile designer William Morris and architect Phillip Webb (Blue Plaque Places, “Red House, Philip Webb, and William Morris blue plaque in London”), composer and conductor Samuel Coleridge-Taylor (Blue Plaque Places, “Samuel Coleridge-Taylor blue plaque in London”) or Sherlock Holmes creator Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (Blue Plaque Places, “Arthur Conan Doyle blue plaque in London”).

In 1986, English Heritage took over the blue plaques and administered them ever since. The trust has erected over 360 plaques since then making the total number of 931 blue plaques in the United Kingdom. The charity makes efforts to continue the tradition of blue plaques by choosing not only famous writers, poets or politics, who comprised the majority of the past plaques, but well-known personalities from many different disciplines such as the computer scientist Alan Turing (Nature, “The Scientific Tourist In London: #17 Alan Turing’s Birth Place”), the footbal manager Herbert Chapman (Culture 24, “Blue Plaque Unveiled For Arsenal Legend Herbert Chapman”) or rock guitarist Jimi Hendrix (BBC News, “Spalding Unveils Jimi Hendrix Blue Plaque”).

Since English Heritage became an independent charitable trust, the public is being encouraged to suggest new places that should be placed on the official English Heritage blue plaques list (English Heritage, “The History of Blue Plaques”).

5 ENGLISH HERITAGE SITES

This section of the thesis introduces some of the most-visited sites managed by English Heritage. These historic sights are conclusive proof of excellent English Heritage management and the realisation of the theory of conservation.

5.1 Battle Abbey at the Hastings Battlefield

On the 14th October 1066, King Harold II Godwinson, the last Anglo-Saxon king of England, was defeated by Duke William of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings on Senlac Hill, about seven miles from the eponymous city. After his victory, William marched on London where he was crowned on Christmas Day that year (History, “The Battle of Hastings”).

In about 1071, the construction of the Benedictine abbey began. Named Battle Abbey the sacral edifice was a symbol of both penance and authority of Norman monarchs. It is said that William placed the altar of the abbey at the very spot where Harold was killed (English Heritage, “History of Battle Abbey and Battlefield”). Soon the town bearing the same name as the abbey grew around it (Battle, “Discover Battle”).

The first vaster excavations, led by J. N. Hare, took place from 1978 to 1980 (11-195). In recent years, English Heritage performed conservation of a secret staircase from the first half of the 14th century. The staircase was found by happy accident by English Heritage curator Roy Porter who discovered the stairway entry behind one of the cupboards in a staff room. The stairway leads to the roof of the Battle gateway and was opened to the public in 2016 after a thorough preservation of stone stairs, vegetation remove, (Mark, “Martin Ashley Architects Completes Battle Abbey Conservation”) and an installment of wooden platform over the lead surface of the roof which provides a great view over the whole battlefield (Kennedy, “Abbey to Offer Unique New Perspective on Battle of Hastings).

5.2 Apsley House

Apsley House was the former residence of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, the man who defeated Napoleon Bonaparte at Waterloo. The author of Apsley House was Robert Adam. This Scottish neoclassical architect was also interior, and furniture designer and Apsley House were only one of three London houses entirely designed and equipped by Adam himself. Apsley House was initially occupied by Richard Wellesley, Arthur’s older brother, who bought it from the 3rd Earl Bathurst but found himself in financial stringency after divorce. To help his needy older sibling Arthur bought the house from Richard for more than a double of the original price. As a new master of the residence Arthur employed Benjamin Dean Wyatt, the son of James Wyatt, to redecorate and expand the house so that it could meet the requirements of Wellesley’s new social status. The most extraordinary of Wyatt’s works is the State Dining Room with Portuguese Service (English Heritage, “History of Apsley House”).

Apsley House is sometimes informally named ‘Number 1, London’ for its significant position in Regency London. Visitors walking from Regent’s Park first passed Marble Arch at north-west Hyde Park’s corner. The author of the arch was John Nash – main architect of Regency city layout. The commemoration of British victories in the Napoleonic Wars continues alongside Hyde Part just to Apsley House and Wellington Arch at south-west corner – imposing access to Bucking Palace gardens (English Heritage, “Significance of Apsley House”).

When performing conservation works, English Heritage would often approach reputable architectural companies with a contract. In case of Apsley House, English Heritage employed Davies Sutton Architects company, which already carried out conservation works for example at Chiswick House or Tintagel Castle, to perform a series of stone repairs. During the technical examination, the company discovered that the South elevation of the building had suffered damage of environmental origin. According to the nature of the problem, it was decided that repairs of cement and lime will be executed which meant that several lines of Bath stones, as they are called, had to be removed and subsequently replaced (Plageman, “Historic Stone Conservation – Apsley House”).

5.3 Audley End House

Audley End House is a country mansion and one of the most beautiful prodigy houses in England (Airs 51).

At the place where the mansion stands today was initially an abbacy called Walden Abbey which was granted to Sir Thomas Audley by Henry VIII during the Reformation period. Sir Thomas was the first one to transform the abbey into a mansion. In the th second half of the 16 century Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk inherited the mansion and reshaped it into a palace of royal proportions as confirmed by several visits by King James I. The costly changes by Thomas Howard left his later inheritors mostly indebted, and Charles II eventually bought the palace. The palace was returned to Suffolk at the beginning of the 18th century and the period of decline had begun. After the death of the 10th Earl in 1745 the palace was divided among several members of the family. One of them, Elizabeth, Countess of Portsmouth, bought the edifice and park and demolished the east gallery of the house which reduced the size of the whole building to only a third of the Thomas Howard’s times. Sir John Griffin, Baron Braybrooke, the nephew of Countess Elizabeth, made some radical changes employing Capability Brown and Robert Adam to restore the palace’s beauty from the Jacobean era along with the then-popular neoclassical style. The “Braybrooke dynasty” owned the palace until 1948 when the ninth Lord Braybrooke sold it to the Ministry of Works which later became English Heritage (English Heritage, “History of Audley End House and Gardens”).

English Heritage hired R H Partnership Architects, a conservation studio, to manage a series of conservation works at Audley End House including the repair of the stonework of Lion Gate or Tea Bridge at the south wing of the house, alternatively, repairs of river structures and sluice gates. As a part of modern heritage conservation, the company upgraded a fire detection systems in the building (R H Partnership Architects, “Audley End”).

6 HERITAGE CONSERVATION: COMPARISON

BETWEEN ENGLAND AND THE CZECH REPUBLIC

6.1 England

As described in one of the previous chapters, the origins of English heritage conservation go back to the 17th century, the era of Classicism. Since then the United Kingdom kept on developing and upgrading the heritage conservation better than Czechs, in my opinion. Two main facts support my statement.

Firstly, it is true that England started to carry out conservation activities about a century before the Czech Lands. Different political systems caused the reality the countries had as England became a constitutional monarchy with parliamentary system de facto in 1689 which meant that British people could have pushed for changes in cultural preservation through their elected representatives (UK Parliament, “Bill of Rights 1689”). Also, unlike the Czechs, the British have not experienced a single totalitarian regime since the rule of Oliver Cromwell.

Secondly, England established one large organisation that administrates the essential heritage sights in the country – English Heritage. This model proved to be beneficial for England as it secured permanent protection of historic sights and numerous benefits for visitors, for example, a block ticket to all the most celebrated cultural treasures of the whole country (365 Tickets United Kingdom, “English Heritage – Overseas Visitor Guide).

6.2 Czech Republic

If comparing the development of historical preservation in the Czech and the English environment, we see that the law enforcing in the Czech lands lags behind England about a century.

The inception of the Czech historical preservation took place in the 18th century in the era of enlightened absolutism posed by the Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa and 44

her son the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II and their reforms. However, the period should be understood for a determination of generally binding rules concerning the cultural preservation instead then systematic protection of cultural properties as the protection related to royal, aristocratic and sacral structures only. A change has taken place with Theresian reforms concretely with the authorisation of the court decree of 1776 and the court office decree of 1812 which adjusted the duties of antiquities finders including old coins, statues, pagan idols, weapons, vessels and gravestones. Another of the decreed, the court decree of 1818, modified the rules of artwork export and trading and banned the export of paintings, statues, coins collections, precious manuscripts and all the objects of considerable artistic value whose loss would mean substantial harm to the monarchy (Ministry of Culture, “Heritage Conservation in the Czech Republic” transl.).

After the World War I, Czechoslovakia came into existence.

The new state adopted much of the legislative norms of the now nonexisting Austria- Hungary including the laws and the rules of the cultural preservation. The first Czechoslovakian law concerning the historical preservation was passed on the second day of the republic’s existence, on the 29th October 1918. Concerning the prevention of illegal manipulation of artistic and historical objects, a rule was created that every exporter of objects with evident artistic or historical character had to obtain an export permit first. The development of Czechoslovakian historical preservation after the World War II was heavily influenced by the Decrees of the President of the Republic, commonly known as the Beneš decrees. The state passed many cultural structures, monuments and objects to its possession including hundreds of castles and palaces and both the city and the village buildings, especially in the borderlands as a consequence of the expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia (Ministry of Culture, “Heritage Conservation in the Czech Republic” transl.).

Admittedly, the boldest differences between the English and Czech heritage conservation happened in the second half of the 20th century.

After democratic ministers resigned en masse in February 1948, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia seized power in the country and a long 40 years of oppression and injustices had commenced (Totality, “February 1948). Marxism, adjusted by the teachings of Lenin and Stalin, became the official and only respected philosophical 45

movement. Regarding heritage conservation the Communist Party proclaimed that the nation’s cultural heritage just like any possession belongs to people and so an universal access to all kinds of cultural wealth must be granted. As a component of this doctrine, many historical sights were damaged or destroyed because of their “capitalistic or aristocratic” origins that the new regime considered as anachronisms (Dolejská 24 transl.).

In 1950, 22 major Czech, Moravian and Silesian cities were declared as conservation areas. In 1958, the law number 22 of legal code was passed. It was the first Czechoslovakian law that contains the term “historical preservation” and also the first law that lucidly determined the duties associated with the maintenance of cultural sights, the principles of their protection and evidence and implemented the conservation areas with a milder protection level than the of conservation reserve. The law’s biggest drawback was the absence of any ammendment that would have defined sanctions for damaging and (or) destroying cultural property. The sanctions were not defined until 1987. In 1991, the nature conservation appropriated from the historical conservation which was happening in the context of the state regime change (Ministry of Culture, “The Historical Preservation in the Czech Republic” transl.). In 2003, all the major state institutions concerning the historical preservation were merged to form the National Preservation Institute (National Preservation Institute, “The History of the National Preservation Institute” transl.).

6.3 Heritage Marketing

The comparison between English and Czech performance of heritage conservation shows different aspects of maintaining cultural heritage. If conservation government bodies, charities or companies seek to build up and improve a successful heritage conservation in the 21st century they need to master a specific branch of marketing – heritage marketing.

Heritage marketing is defined as a discipline that helps heritage organisations to understand the demands of customers (visitors) to sell them product (entrence fees, membership fees, sights guidebook, catering…) which creates firstly a profit (financing

of heritage conservation) and secondly the brand’s prestige (public awareness of cultural heritage) (Misiura 2).

Heritage marketing is a relatively new discipline. It detached from marketing in the 1950s when the United States and Canada intended to engage audiences with their natural conservation policies. The process was adopted in the United Kingdom in the 1960s and 1970s when local cultural societies were raising funds to save culturally significant sites that were threatened with complete ruining because of the agricultural and industrial progress. The effort of these communities was “crowned” by National Heritage Act 1980 which defined all the cultural property as a heritage of the nation and the rules of their protection (Misiura 3-4).

According to Misiura, heritage marketing concerns five major topics (40-238):

1. Environmental factors are all the factors that have an influence on people’s perception of cultural heritage. These factors are of economic, social, political and technological kind. 2. Market segmentation is a process of choosing a group or a segment of people that company wants to target effectivelly with its products. Target marketing follows on market segmentation. It is a realisation of the market segmentation strategy. 3. Heritage tourism is a branch of tourism oriented exclusivelly towards the locations of cultural, historical or natural heritage. It has been described as one of powerful measures of bringing the economic development and cultural conservation together. 4. Catering heritage concerns the securing of varieties of food and drinks at the tourist locations. 5. Company heritage marketing describes the company-customer relationships, the ways of communication between these two groups that lead to the creation of company’s reputation and customer’s trust in the company.

7 CONCLUSION

The aim of the bachelor thesis was to explore the means of preservation of English cultural wealth. I have discovered that the approach towards historical preservation was developing in time and was impacted by political, social or religious effects. The most valuable feedback for me was the ascertainment how dramatically people were changing their attitude towards historical sights and the works of art from total ignorance verging on savagery to professionally organised protection and open communication towards public.

While working on the thesis, I have discovered many new sources and authors occuping themselves with the issues of cultural preservation. For example, I was astonished by the level of destruction of churches during the English Civil War and even more while reading about the Suppression of the Monasteries during the reign of Henry VIII.

Another remarkable aspect of the research was the amount of additional information which I did not learn during any of my visits to English Heritage sites such as the construction of Battle Abbey that William the Conquerer ordered to raise at the very spot where Harold Godwinson had been killed.

Regarding new publications I would like to emphasise A History of Architectural Conservation: The Contribution of English, French, German and Italian Thought towards an International Approach to the Conservation of Cultural Property by Finnish architect and historical preservation specialist Jukka Jokilehto. His work was readable, understandable and illuminating even for someone like me who is not an expert in the field of architecture and historical conservation as I study English and History.

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