Integrating Language Skills Through a Dictogloss Procedure

Benjamin Lee Stewart, Luis Humberto Rodríguez Silva, and Juan Antonio Torres González M e x i c o

Integrating Language Skills through a Dictogloss Procedure

ot long ago it was common ue teaching with similar methods. to find instructors teaching Teachers tend to teach the way they languages, particularly Eng- were taught (Prabhu 1987), and if lishN in non-English-speaking countries, an English language teacher learned without a degree and with little to no English via the translation method, experience or expertise. But today, this same method is likely to reappear governmental agencies like Mexico’s when the teacher plans, implements, Secretaría de Educación Pública (Min- and evaluates instruction. Many Eng- istry of Public Education) have begun lish teachers around the world—in to require that teachers have a degree Mexico, for example—may still prefer that demonstrates sufficient skill and direct instruction even though they language proficiency. Nevertheless, are often free to choose from a vari- being able to speak English and hav- ety of methods or strategies (Bollin ing a degree do not necessarily lead to 2003). purposeful language teaching, particu- The purpose of this article is to dem- larly with a traditional instructional onstrate interactive and student-cen- approach that isolates language skills tered examples of dictogloss activities without appropriate contextual clues that offer an alternative to traditional in a classroom environment where the dictation (usually reserved for listen- teacher is didactic expert and students ing comprehension) and that can be complacently follow along. applied both within and outside the Traditional methods of teach- English language-learning classroom ing English often include translating (Wajnryb 1990). Dictogloss proce- structures from the target language dures are practical, yet flexible enough to the mother tongue; although this to account for the needs, interests, and method may seem antiquated, it is learning preferences of each learner. But still commonly practiced. Indeed, more than that, the dictogloss activities those teachers who were taught by allow English learners to be active and traditional methods tend to contin- reflective during the learning process.

12 2 0 1 4 N u m b e r 2 | E n g l i s h T e a ching F o r u m Instead of reinforcing a linear approach to in their own words, trying to recall as learning (i.e., input-comprehension-output), many sequences and details as possible. the dictogloss procedures illustrate a learning This stage indicates to the teacher what approach where students have opportunities students recall from the original; the to integrate reading, writing, listening, and teacher uses this evidence to determine speaking skills through social interaction. whether students are keeping up or For this discussion, the terms error and whether further instruction is required. mistake will be used interchangeably, although 4. Analysis and correction. Most of the we recognize that there is a difference between student collaboration takes place in the two in that the former is a more systematic this stage. Students self-assess their own recurrence while the latter is usually a less fre- texts and then form groups in order to quent occurrence. conduct peer assessments. Either individually or as a group, students notice A dictogloss procedure to assess the differences between their own texts and English language learner the original in regard to form, meaning, The original dictogloss procedure was and language use. In this final stage, intended to provide an alternative to tradi- learners assume a more active role, tional grammar teaching through written relying on their individual strengths dictation (Wajnryb 1990). The procedure to collaborate and correct each other. embraced interactive communication through Constructive criticism through peer the following stages: support and teacher guidance helps 1. Preparation. The first stage includes a form relationships that encourage stu- warm-up related to the topic or a pre- dents to collaborate and cooperate liminary speaking or writing exercise; a through social interaction. group discussion around key vocabu- Throughout the stages of the dictogloss lary terms helps activate learners’ prior procedure, the teacher adopts a facilitative knowledge. To conclude this stage, the role to monitor receptive and productive teacher informs learners about what skills, providing ample evidence for assessing they are expected to do during the language skills. For instance, if many students activity. indicate that they do not understand the text 2. Dictation. A story, news report, or other after it has been read twice, the teacher may text is presented in English at a normal decide to present it again. The learners who rate of speed. Learners listen to the are not able to detect certain types of mis- dictation and take notes. The language takes might benefit from participating in a used in the text and the length of the whole-group discussion in which the teacher text depend on the learners’ level of provides feedback and further explanations. English proficiency; maturity level; and This formative feedback leads to changes to interests, needs, and learning prefer- instruction and assessment that guide the ences. The number of times the text is learner to greater language-related outcomes. repeated and the amount of prompt- Following are two lesson plans showing ing required between texts will depend how a dictogloss procedure can specifically on the educational context; the key is promote writing and speaking productive to provide natural input in order to skills among language learners while at the promote listening comprehension skills same time integrating the other skills. For that enable learners to carry out the rest each procedure, we provide alternatives for of the task. That is, listening skills are advanced and lower-level English language treated not as an isolated learning event learners; we also demonstrate how to combine but as a purposeful educative experience. interaction and reflection so that learners at 3. Reconstruction. Students work individu- all levels may utilize the four skills in order to ally or in groups to produce their ver- promote a more dynamic language-learning sions of the original text, capturing experience. We applied the procedures to the essence of the text and generating pre-service English language educators who correct grammar. They recreate the text were at a basic level and whose L1 was

E n g l i s h T e a c h i n g F o r u m | N u m b e r 2 2 0 1 4 13 Spanish. Learners at this level—A2 on the this stage, the teacher presents two pictures Council of Europe (2001) scale—should be that relate to the chosen topic. able to understand sentences and frequently For the purpose of this example, we will use used expressions related to areas of immedi- the topic of a typical college experience in the ate relevance; communicate in routine tasks; United States. Two pictures that depict sce- and describe in simple terms their back- narios related to this topic are presented either ground, immediate environment, and matters as individual handouts or projected onto a of immediate need. screen (for sample pictures see www.flickr. com/photos/carmichaellibrary/3008748339/ A dictogloss procedure to promote sizes/o/in/photostream and www.flickr.com/ writing skills photos/velkr0/3472576304/sizes/l/in/photo Although there are many ways to design stream). The teacher then initiates an instruc- and implement a dictogloss procedure, the tional conversation with the class about key first example promotes writing skills. One vocabulary terms based on the two pic- objective of this example is to allow learners tures. Instructional conversations are a type to integrate the four skills through self-assess- of classroom discourse that permits teachers ment and peer assessment. The procedure to provide a semi-structured group discus- also helps educators determine whether they sion that activates students’ prior knowledge need to change instructional designs or need and critical thinking skills (Díaz-Rico 2004; to guide learners in adapting tactics that will Goldenberg and Gallimore 1991). Instruc- facilitate individual learning trajectories. The tional conversations also serve as a formative six-stage process is an adaptation of the origi- assessment technique that helps teachers col- nal dictogloss procedure and is meant to serve lect oral evidence as to what students already as a flexible framework that can be tailored to know and can do (Eisenkraft 2004). The local contexts. initiation stage typically lasts 5 to 10 minutes, A key component of the procedure is or possibly more depending on the learners’ determining the type of input to be provided. readiness levels and individual preferences of Because our class consisted of first-year col- the teacher. (As much as the pictures facilitate lege students, we designed a written text to the discussion of vocabulary terms, they are expose them to typical university experiences optional. An alternative to using pictures is comparable to their own. The text included to present key vocabulary related to the text.) common idiomatic expressions so they would gain exposure to a wider lexicon. A quick 2. Input stage Creative Commons search led to a variety of The next stage activates the learners’ recep- topic-related pictures that could be reused and tive skills based on authentic input. The remixed freely (as long as attribution is given) teacher reads a short text aloud to the class without the need to get permission from the at a normal rate of speed. Learners are asked original owner of the pictures (see http://cre- to recreate the ideas and correct sequences ativecommons.org). presented in the text. We presented the fol- An alternative to creating an original text lowing text to our students, who were fresh- is to find an authentic text (one that is not man university students studying for bachelor intended for teaching purposes) that is appro- of arts degrees in English language teaching priate for the learners. To support the text, any in Mexico: form of visual aids may be used: realia, props, personal objects, and images. Regardless of We didn’t have much time. As we all the type of text and visuals used, a lot will stuffed our faces, we knew we only depend on what students are asked to do with had a few more minutes to finish the written material, so selecting an appropri- lunch before our next class. Since ate text will require knowing what one plans we arrived late to lunch, we were left for each of the six stages of the procedure. standing as the six of us continued talking about what we were doing 1. Initiation stage this weekend. Most of us were going The procedure begins with an initiation, a to go to the big football game on means of “warming up” to the topic. During Saturday because we wanted to see

14 2 0 1 4 N u m b e r 2 | E n g l i s h T e a c h i n g F o r u m our dear friend Susan march in they can. Learners must recall the essence of the marching band. Suddenly, the the original text by writing one paragraph bell rang, so we all marched right that includes as many details and language into our next class, American His- sequences as possible. At this point, the tory. Since this was a freshman class, teacher has options regarding feedback. One which was required of all incoming approach is to have the learners create the students, it was common to end up stories individually, with no intervention from with few vacant seats in a lecture hall the teacher; this approach allows the teach- that seated well over 100 students. er to see exactly what learners can achieve The good thing about our professor, individually. Another approach is for the though, was that he uploaded all of teacher to provide individual, small-group, or his lectures to YouTube so we could whole-group feedback as needed. Finally, the check them out if we happened to instructor may gather evidence and provide miss a class or if we did not under- whole-group feedback at the end of the stand something during the lecture. stage, giving learners an opportunity to make Professors typically do not take roll, changes to their respective texts as necessary. which means that it is our responsi- Regardless of how much feedback is provided, bility to make sure we keep up with the main objective is to allow learners to create our course readings and homework. as much as possible on their own. This stage Although there is a lot of required contrasts with a later interactive stage that reading for the class, it is possible to encourages collaboration. The time it takes to keep up if you can learn how to pri- complete the independent stage will depend oritize. In other words, it is possible on (1) the amount of feedback the teacher to have a great college experience provides and (2) the degree to which learn- that includes doing well academi- ers are able to notice mistakes on their own. cally while also having an enjoyable When we applied this procedure in our class social life. with no teacher feedback, the independent stage lasted approximately 25 minutes. Several options are available in the input stage. The length of the text and the number 4. Independent internalization stage of times the text is read to the learners will Once the students have completed their depend on their readiness levels (i.e., lan- texts to the best of their ability, the teacher guage proficiency, maturity level, and content hands out the original text or projects it on a knowledge) and the particular objectives of screen for the entire class to view. This process the dictogloss activity (e.g., learning strategies, of comparing personal texts to the original is integrating skills with a focus on written dis- referred to as independent internalization; it course, integrating skills with a focus on spoken allows learners to notice differences in lexicon, discourse, and correcting errors). Moreover, grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and different strategies may be used to facilitate the spelling, among other things. When learners learners’ abilities to comprehend and to repro- notice that a change is needed, they make duce the text: notetaking, drawing a picture annotations to their texts by using a colored or schematic map, and completing an outline, pen or pencil to cross out words and make among others. Depending on how teachers notes along the margins of the text without choose to implement the procedure, they can erasing their original text. Writing out anno- anticipate spending 10 to 15 minutes or more tations allows learners to elaborate on their on this stage. mistakes in punctuation, spelling, word order, verb tense, subject-verb agreement, semantics 3. Independent stage (idiomatic expressions, colloquialisms, etc.), Once the teacher has verified that most and other types of mistakes that relate to the of the learners have completed an outline, a objectives of the individual or course. The list of key words, or a concept map to guide objective of this stage is for learners to use the their organization, learners continue with original text as a model to facilitate deeper the independent stage and reproduce in their detection tactics when recreating the essence own words as much of the original text as of the original text in their own words.

E n g l i s h T e a c h i n g F o r u m | N u m b e r 2 2 0 1 4 15 Because learners do not erase any of their was used during the independent internaliza- work when making annotations, the teacher tion stage. Again, no part of the original text will be able to determine the accuracy of is to be erased. We allocated approximately 20 the self-corrections and decide whether future to 25 minutes for the interactive stage. instructional changes are warranted. Addition- The consensus work of the interactive ally, learners are instructed not to add any stage allows learners to integrate additional missing text should gaps exist between the linguistic skills (listening, speaking, and read- original and their own text because the objec- ing) when peer-correcting each other. For tive is for students to reflect and compare their instance, before learners annotate a text, a creations (i.e., personal recollections of the consensus must be reached that requires oral text in their own words) to the original text. communication about grammar and vocabu- Because texts are to be turned in, the teacher lary-related issues. Decisions at this stage are will ultimately determine not only the students’ made through deliberation, which allows each level of accuracy in self-assessing but also their learner to take on a teaching or leadership role level of listening comprehension. This type of as the opportunity arises. One learner may informal formative assessment allows teach- be stronger in grammar, another in vocabu- ers to determine whether future instructional lary, and a third in word order. Depending changes need to be made and whether changes on what is being corrected in the text, each in the learners’ tactics need to be addressed. We learner exercises leadership skills when teach- needed approximately 20 to 25 minutes for the ing others during the correction process. In independent internalization stage. other cases, more homogeneous groups (i.e., students at the same level) may also benefit 5. Interactive stage from collaborative learning in which peer cor- The interactive stage allows learners to rection results from a group decision-making shift from a self-correcting to a peer-correcting process. As the teacher observes group inter- activity. In groups of three, students exchange actions, inferences can be made at individual texts and look for additional mistakes that and group levels as to the type of subsequent went undetected during the independent interactions needed. internalization stage. When students detect an error, they discuss it with the group (with- 6. Final internalization stage out making any annotations) in order to arrive During the final internalization stage, stu- at a group consensus. When a consensus is dents scrutinize the text, and each learner reached, the student who detected the mistake completes a reflection sheet (see Table 1) by makes the appropriate changes by crossing out indicating the types of errors he or she com- words and making annotations using a pen or mitted, how each error was detected, and pencil of a different color from the one that knowledge of the error.

List the type of error Indicate how the specified error was detected Indicate your knowledge of the error you committed and (check as many as you want) (check one) give an example Grammar, vocabulary, By a By me Other (by book, I knew the I have heard The error is collocation, spelling, etc. classmate notes, dictionary, error. of the error. new for me. teacher, etc.) 1.

Table 1. Reflection sheet

16 2 0 1 4 N u m b e r 2 | E n g l i s h T e a c h i n g F o r u m In our case, working with students who learners to practice writing skills; a dictogloss received no feedback from teachers, the num- can also facilitate learners’ speaking skills. For ber of detected errors via self-correction and this activity, the objective is to use the dicto- peer correction rarely exceeded 10 for each gloss as a means for learners to recall a news learner. If teacher intervention is part of the report while distinguishing between intona- procedure, then the number of errors could be tion units and developing proper intonation. more. Discretion should be used when help- In addition to gaining practice recognizing ing learners list errors in a manageable way: intonation patterns, learners practice listening learners may choose the most common types skills as they recall as much of a news report of errors, errors based on what was discussed as possible. in prior classes, or errors prioritized according So that learners benefit from identifying to individual needs and the goals of the class. intonation units and receive adequate listen- When learners complete the reflection ing and speaking practice, the text must be sheet, they are to articulate the error by pro- chosen carefully. For this particular dictogloss viding examples. For instance, students may example, a Special English report from Voice simply copy a part of their text and any nota- of America (Watson 2012) was used because tions that they or their classmates made, or of its appropriateness for learners at the lower they may also choose to describe their mistake A1 and A2 Common European Framework metalinguistically. Evidence of metalinguistic levels (Council of Europe 2001). Learners at awareness comes from learners using formal these levels will benefit from a Special English terms like grammar, pronouns, verb phrases, report that (1) uses a core vocabulary of 1,500 and collocations to refer to errors they com- words, (2) uses the active voice and avoids mitted. For the purposes of conducting a dic- idioms, and (3) is read at about two-thirds the togloss procedure, the teacher may choose to speed of standard English (Voice of America teach grammar either with little metalinguistic 2011). If learners are at a higher level, a more awareness (i.e., teaching grammar covertly) or authentic text is appropriate. Also, texts may with a strong focus on metalinguistic aware- be chosen based on topics that learners are interested in or need to know about for a ness (i.e., teaching grammar overtly). particular purpose. After learners turn in the reflection sheets, Although one of the unique aspects of a the teacher will review them to note any errors dictogloss is that input is typically presented on the reflection and determine what errors authentically (i.e., the text is not intended for were noticed by the learners themselves. Based teaching purposes and is presented at a nor- on this information, teachers can focus future mal rate of speech), we made the decision to instruction on the types of errors being com- use the Special English program to make input mitted and decide if clarification is needed, more comprehensible for the learners. Com- such as in the case of students interpreting prehensible input has been well researched certain usages as errors when in fact they are in developing strategies and learning tactics correct. Moreover, the reflection sheets also that help the English language learner convert serve as a learning heuristic for each student input into knowledge and skills that can be to reflect on personal types of errors that tend used for useful production or intake (Krashen to recur. The internalization stage personalizes 2003). The following example outlines six the learning process while integrating the four stages that teachers may follow when the skills, self-assessment and peer assessment, and goal is to identify intonation units while also direct teacher feedback. Although we are using providing listening and speaking practice. The the terms error and mistake interchangeably, the example provides practical alternatives and is reflection sheet helps distinguish between the meant to be flexible enough for teachers to two; that distinction also will determine what adapt it to local contexts. subsequent instruction might be necessary. 1. Initiation stage A dictogloss procedure to promote The teacher begins the initiation stage by speaking skills building schemata before the Special English The previous example illustrates how a report is played to the entire class. As with the dictogloss provides opportunities for language written dictogloss, selecting a topic for the spo-

E n g l i s h T e a c h i n g F o r u m | N u m b e r 2 2 0 1 4 17 ken dictogloss will depend on the readiness lev- broadcast can be played back a final time in els, interests, and needs of the learners. For this order to provide one last model for learners. example, we have chosen the topic of “foreign The interdependent stage may take between students.” To make the input stage that fol- 15 and 20 minutes, depending on the context. lows more comprehensible for the learners, the teacher discusses the topic and how the learn- 4. Rehearsal stage ers’ personal experiences and interests relate to During the rehearsal stage, the teacher it. Other characteristics of the news broadcast reviews the visual representations, and each might also be discussed, such as covering a text group informs the teacher who will fill each moving from the general to the specific—the role. This review process assures that each what, how, when, where, with whom, and why group has enough details to produce an accu- of the text—and the overall discourse structure rate script. Upon approval from the teacher, of a news program itself. The initiation stage the students draft their own broadcast scripts, may last 15 to 20 minutes, or more, depending trying to capture as many details of the origi- on the level of language proficiency and the nal as possible. At this point, students may content being discussed. wish to elaborate by creating additional information that supports the original text. The 2. Input stage goal is to include as many points as possible During the input stage, which typically from the original broadcast, then allow room takes 15 to 20 minutes, the teacher plays the for learners to be creative and augment the Special English report one time, uninterrupt- broadcast as they desire. Depending on the ed. Students create a visual representation of size of the class, each group might prepare a the text individually; this representation may five-minute broadcast. take the form of a drawing, graphic organizer, The groups rehearse their broadcasts until outline, or flowchart. Prior experience with they are comfortable with the delivery. Groups these types of visual representations might be are encouraged to time their performances necessary, depending on the maturity level of and perhaps record them in order to evaluate the learners. An alternative is to have listeners their performances just by listening to them- take notes or write down key words. Depend- selves. The teacher can also offer feedback on ing on how much information learners gather the performances. Since this dictogloss varia- after their first listening, the broadcast may be tion has learners read from a script, various repeated until the learners have written down aspects of spoken discourse can be addressed: most of the information they need to recall voice projection, intonation, volume, and the the main points. The information that learn- like. The rehearsal stage can take anywhere ers write down should be detailed enough to from 20 to 40 minutes. prompt communicative discourse but not so The groups then prepare for a final per- complete that they simply read automatically formance in front of the entire class. As an from their notes. alternative, they might choose to record themselves two or three times, then decide which 3. Interdependent stage version is the best and why. Another variation The interdependent stage allows learners would be to have groups produce a video to collaborate with one another. They form of their broadcast and have others assess the groups of three and compare their respective performance based on predetermined criteria. visual representations with the goal of devel- A rubric listing these criteria is a worthwhile oping a single group visual representation assessment tool not only for preparing for the by reaching a consensus regarding as many performance, but also for evaluating perfor- details of the original broadcast as possible. mances, including appropriateness of intona- They also decide on who will assume each tion patterns, voice projection, diction, overall of the roles portrayed in the Special English language proficiency, content knowledge, and report—typically a broadcaster, interviewer, the like. Learners and the teacher can col- and interviewee. The idea is to divide the class lectively develop the rubric before the perfor- into groups based on the number of speak- mance task, or the teacher may introduce a ers in the audio or video. After each group pre-established rubric that is appropriate for has determined the roles and the script, the measuring both the process and the product.

18 2 0 1 4 N u m b e r 2 | E n g l i s h T e a c h i n g F o r u m 5. Performance stage how they view their role as instructional During the performance stage, individual leaders. Instead of thinking of themselves as groups perform in front of the entire class. didactic informants, English teachers might Alternately, in classes of more than 30 learn- be better off considering themselves language- ers, groups can pair up and assess each other. learning designers who create opportunities Rubrics could be used here as well. Once for the greatest number of learners to get the groups have finished their assessment, they most benefit out of every class. form new group pairs to begin the assessment process again. While learners peer- Conclusion assess, the teacher monitors the performances The learners who participated in this dic- and offers additional feedback as necessary. As togloss appreciated the way that all four the teacher moves around the room, common language skills were made purposeful. They errors could be presented in the form of brief also mentioned that the experience of giving instructional conversations, which would also and receiving peer feedback was a new way of include learners’ own assessments of errors realizing how much they had learned and one that were found. that motivated them to become more aware of their increased knowledge and ability. As 6. Reflective stage researchers, we were encouraged by the fact The final stage of the spoken dictogloss that each time the dictogloss procedure was procedure is to have each learner reflect on implemented, learners interacted and sup- individual errors. This reflective stage allows ported each other more over time. As a result, learners to prioritize which errors are most they accepted responsibility for not only their common. The teacher may choose not to use own personal learning but also the learning of the term error, instead framing this stage as an their classmates. opportunity to prioritize areas where learners One key challenge language educators can improve. For any dictogloss procedure face is to create experiences that will live that focuses on errors, the teacher may want on in learners’ future experiences, to use to explain from the beginning the importance Dewey’s (1997) words. The two dictogloss of supporting each other’s language develop- variations in this article emphasize the writ- ment and the need to complement error cor- ing and speaking skills without isolating the rection with something positive. For example, other skills necessary to maintain authen- a demonstration of appropriate language that tic interaction. It is precisely this authentic learners can use to correct each other assists interaction that prepares learners for future them in building the rapport needed in a sup- experiences with English and motivates them portive learning environment. to go beyond what they might do in a more The two dictogloss procedures described traditional language-learning experience (i.e., above are meant to serve as flexible frame- completing decontextualized exercises that works that others can fine-tune to fit local may fail to hold meaning and relevance to contexts. The estimated times will depend in authentic experiences). A dictogloss provides a large part on teacher preferences, learner pro- framework for educators to integrate language files, and the type of course being offered. For skills with social interaction that encourages example, in the case of a spoken dictogloss, learners to take ownership of their learning. more communicative approaches can easily Thus, learning becomes more meaningful and fit within this framework as learners focus relevant for what learners are likely to face in more on creating spontaneous language than the future. on reading from a script. But one essential tenet to all dictogloss procedures is the inte- References gration of language skills, given the aggregate Bollin, G. G. 2003. The realities of middle school of synergies that exist when learning how to for Mexican children. The Clearing House 76 read, write, listen, and speak an additional (4): 198–201. language. Another tenet is the key role self- Council of Europe. 2001. Common European Framework of reference for languages: Learn- assessment and peer assessment have on the ing, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge learning process; in fact, conducting the dic- University Press. www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/ togloss procedure may lead teachers to rethink source/framework_en.pdf continued on page 35

E n g l i s h T e a c h i n g F o r u m | N u m b e r 2 2 0 1 4 19 Integrating Language Skills through… (Continued from page 19)

Dewey, J. 1997. Experience and education. New Benjamin Lee Stewart holds a Master of York: Touchstone. (Orig. pub. 1938.) Education in Curriculum and Instruction: Díaz-Rico, L. T. 2004. Teaching English learners: Technology from Grand Canyon University Strategies and methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. in Arizona and is pursuing a doctoral Eisenkraft, A. 2004. How do we know what they degree in Educational Leadership. know? Presentation at the May 4 Florida Associ- He is a full-time EFL teacher educator ation of Science Supervisors Meeting, Orlando. and researcher at the University of Goldenberg, C., and R. Gallimore. 1991. Changing teaching takes more than a one-shot workshop. Aguascalientes, Mexico. Educational Leadership 49 (3): 69–72. Luis Humberto Rodríguez Silva holds a Krashen, S. 2003. Explorations in language acquisi- BA in ELT from the University of tion and use: The Taipei lectures. Portsmouth, Aguascalientes, Mexico, and an MA in NH: Heinemann. Applied Linguistics from Essex University Prabhu, N. S. 1987. Second language pedagogy. in England. He is studying an Integrated Oxford: Oxford University Press. Voice of America. 2011. Number of foreign stu- PhD in Applied Linguistics at Essex dents in US continues to rise. www.voanews. University. com/learningenglish/home/Number-of- Juan Antonio Torres González holds an Foreign-Students-in-US-Continues-to- MA in ELT from Southampton University in Rise------134036338.html England and is currently the coordinator of Wajnryb, R. 1990. Grammar dictation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. the BA in ELT program at the University of Watson, J. 2012. Making friends not always easy Aguascalientes, Mexico. He is interested in for foreign students. Voice of America Special researching teacher identity. English Education Report. http://learningenglish.voanews.com/content/making-friends- not-always-easy-for-international-students/ 1489846.html

E n g l i s h T e a c h i n g F o r u m | N u m b e r 2 2 0 1 4 35