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A Study of Libya and Sudan in the Post Cold War Era (1990-2006)

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A Study of Libya and Sudan in the Post Cold War Era (1990-2006) Durham E-Theses America and the Arab World through the prism of the United Nations- A Study of Libya and Sudan in the Post Cold War Era (1990-2006) ALI-MASOUD, ATIYA,HAMED How to cite: ALI-MASOUD, ATIYA,HAMED (2013) America and the Arab World through the prism of the United Nations- A Study of Libya and Sudan in the Post Cold War Era (1990-2006), Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/9496/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 America and the Arab World through the prism of the United Nations- A Study of Libya and Sudan in the Post Cold War Era (1990-2006) Atiya Hamed Ali Ph.D. 2013 America and the Arab World through the prism of the United Nations- A Study of Libya and Sudan in the Post Cold War Era (1990-2006) Atiya Hamed Ali A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 2013 School of Government and International Affairs University of Durham ABSTRACT There exists a number of important key issues surrounding the drafting of the United Nations (UN) Charter and affecting relations between the United States (US) and the UN - not least of which have been the standards of the UN Charter and the extent to which the US has influenced international decision-making and exploited the UN Security Council in attempts to promote US foreign policy interests and achieve its own political agenda. I query the variables affecting the UN Security Council‘s powers under the auspices of maintaining the international balance of power and raise questions surrounding how the US was able to expand its own foreign policy agenda, specifically toward Arab nations, under the umbrella of the UN. In addition, I examine how the US made efforts to push other UN members in directions that they might not have wanted to follow in specific cases in the Arab World, including those of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, Iraq, Somalia, Libya and Sudan. The research illustrates a significant transformation in the tasks dealt with by the UN Security Council and its performance in the Arab World through the two case studies of Libya and Sudan. Primary data was collected through interviews with four administrators involved in Libyan and Sudanese foreign policy and the UN during the post- Cold War era (1990-2006). The findings reveal a positive correlation between the ability of the US to predominate over decision-making within the UN Security Council and to successfully influence its policies in order to achieve the collective legitimisation of its own actions and political agenda. i DECLARATION I hereby declare that no portion of the work that appears in this study has been used in support of an application of another degree in qualification to this or any other university or institution of learning. ii STATEMENT OF COPYRIGHT The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledge iii DEDICATION Dedicated to my Mother‘s soul which left me with the scholarship to begin this study. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research would not have been possible without the essential and gracious support of many individuals. It is to them that I owe my deepest gratitude. First and foremost, I offer my sincerest gratefulness to my supervisor, Professor Anoush Ehteshami who has supported me throughout my thesis with his patience and knowledge. Without his encouragement, advice and guidance this thesis would never have taken shape. Further, special thanks go to colleagues and the administrative staff at the IMEIS in the School of Government and International Affairs of Durham University for their welcoming support and encouragement throughout the period of my study. I would also like to take the opportunity to acknowledge and express my thankfulness to the Libyan authorities for giving me this chance to continue my higher education and also for all the financial and moral support I received during all this period. I will always feel indebted for that. Lastly, and most importantly, my sincere appreciation also goes to Sudan Embassy to London and Tripoli, as well as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in both countries Libya and Sudan for their kind co-operation. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract………………………………...………………………………………………….i Declaration…………………………………………………………………………......…ii Statement of Copyright…………………………………………………………………...iii Dedication………………………………………………………………………………...iv Acknowledgments..............................................................................................................v Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………...vi List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………….xii List of Charts…………………………………………………………………………….xiii List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………….xiv vi INTRODUTION 0.1 Research Problem………………………………………………………………………3 0.2 Conceptual Framework and International Relations Models…………………………..4 0.2.1 A Changing World - post 1989………………………………………………………4 0.2.2 The Weakness of the UN…………………………………………………………….6 0.2.3 The Arab and Muslim World…………………………………………………….......9 0.3 The Main Theoretical Framework Accounting for American Foreign Policy………..11 0.3.1 The Realist Model…………………………………………………………………..14 0.3.2 The Neorealist Model……………………………………………………………….16 0.3.3 The Neoliberalist Model……………………………………………………………18 0.3.4 The Liberalist Model..................................................................................................20 0.3.5 Conclusion of Theoretical Framework.......................................................................23 0.4 Research Topic………………………………………………………………………..24 0.5 Research Hypotheses………………………………………………………………….24 0.6 The Time Frame of Study……………………………………………………………..25 0.7 Structure of the Study…………………………………………………………………25 0.8 Methodology…………………………………………………………………………..27 0.8.1 Data Sources………………………………………………………………………...31 0.8.2 Case Studies…………………………………………………………………………33 0.9 Historical Overview of the UN......................................................................................36 0.9.1 The League of Nations and the Development of the UN…………………………...37 0.9.2 Qualifying The UN as An International Organization……………………………...39 0.9.3 The UN and Its First Test in the Post-Cold War Era………………………………..41 0.10 US Leadership and Hegemony………………………………………………………44 0.11 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………...56 vii CHAPTER ONE US FOREIGN POLICY AND THE ROLE OF THE UN 1.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………59 1.2 US Foreign Policy in the Post-Cold War Era…………………………………….60 1.3 The Main Internal Actors Involved in the Making of Foreign Policy……………74 1.3.1 The US Congress……………………………………………………………...74 1.3.2 US Presidents………………………………………………………………....77 1.3.3 Bureaucratic Politics Between US Presidents and Congress………………....79 1.4 The US-UN Relationship…………………………………………………............83 1.5 UN Budget Crisis and the Role of the UN……………………………………......91 1.5.1 The UN Assessed Budget………………………………………………….......92 1.5.2 Non-Payment of Assessed Dues……………………………………………......94 1.5.3 The UN Financial Crisis…………………………………………………….......97 1.5.4 The US Debt to the UN……………………………………………………........98 1.5.5 The Effects of The American Withholding Policy on UN Functions………....101 1.5.6 The US Congress and UN Funding………………………………………........103 1.6 Main Features of US Foreign Policy Making in the Middle East………………...105 1.6.1 US Foreign Policy in the Middle East………………………………………....112 1.7 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...120 CHAPTER TWO UNDERSTANDING THE UN CHARTER AND UN SYSTEM 2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………..........124 2.2 Understanding the UN Charter……………………………………………………….125 2.2. 1 Conflict of Interests Arising from the Establishment of the UN Charter………….126 2.2. 2 The UN Charter As 21st Century Document…………………………………….....129 2.2. 3 The Ambiguities of the UN Charter and the Issue of Self-Defence…………..........131 viii 2.3 The Broader Interpretation of the UN Charter…………………………………........134 2.3.1 Criticism of the UN Charter and the Power of Veto………………………………139 2.4 The UN System……………………………………………………………………...141 2.5 The Implications of the US Policy towards the World Bank and IMF……………...143 2.5.1 How the US Influences the World Bank and IMF………………………………...146 2.6 The World Bank……………………………………………………………………..148 2.6.1 The World Bank Presidency……………………………………………………….151 2.7 The International Monetary Fund (IMF)……………………………………………154 2.8 Decision-Making and Shareholder Voting Power in the World Bank and IMF……157 2.9 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..162 CHAPTER THREE THE UN SECURITY COUNCIL PROCEDURES AND WORKING METHODS 3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….167 3.2 The UN Security Council……………………………………………………………168 3.2.1 Evaluating the Performance of the UN Security Council…………………………169 3.2.2 Procedures and Working Methods of the UN Security
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