Commonwealth 2010 An overview of the forests and sectors of the countries of the Commonwealth

Commonwealth Forestry Association he African Development Bank (AfDB) has, since the late 1970s, supported forestry interventions in its Regional TMember Countries (RMCs). A policy, guiding lending to ...at work the sector, has been in place since 1994 and focus has been on arresting deforestation and ecological degra­dation; promoting sustainable production of timber and non-timber products to meet local, national and international requirements; and, more recently, addressing the global issue of climate change. Dr Donald Kaberuka, President of The AfDB seeks to promote sustainable the African Development Bank. econo­mic growth and reduce poverty on the continent, and the forestry sector is an important contributor in achieving these goals. Through its efforts to prioritise projects and programmes that promote national and regional cooperation, there are new initiatives encouraging countries to work together where trans-boundary forest resources require joint management action. The Congo Basin Forest Fund (CBFF) is one such initiative. Ten Central African countries are collaborating to address critical conservation and sustainable in the Congo Basin. Forestry is closely linked to agriculture, food security and sustainable water resources management. These are critical issues in many of the Bank’s regional member countries. To date, the Bank has made significant investments in these sectors and remains committed to providing further support to its RMCs. Increasingly, climate change is becoming a major threat to sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction. This could, ultimately, threaten political stability in some regions as competition over available natural resources increases. Africa is still highly dependent on fuelwood and charcoal as sources of energy and there are no obvious alternatives in the short term. This dependency will continue to exert enormous pressure on forest resources. Addressing this challenge requires both supply-side and demand-side interventions. While more plantations for fuelwood supply will be required, it is clear that more efficient technologies for using biomass will also be required. In addition, adoption of The The AfricanDevelopment Bank various renewable energy options is imperative in order to meet increasing energy demand. In most AfDB regional member countries, the forestry sector has been adversely affected by increasing population growth, weak ...atforestry institutions; andwork significant social, economic and political demands on forest resources. Conflicts and wars have, in some regions, created favourable conditions for illegal exploitation and destruction of ecosystems, exacerbated by the influx of refugees. Private sector operators continue to plunder forest resources with­out regard to environmental conservation and resource sustainability. Concessions and license holders need to be regulated and encour­ aged to adopt efficient extraction and utilisation technologies as well as sustainable forest management principles. Furthermore, they should be encouraged to be responsive to the social needs of affected communities as part of their corporate social responsibilities. Many governments lack financial resources and the technical knowhow needed to implement cutting-edge forestry operations and projects. For countries that are well endowed with forest resources, high indebtedness tends to encourage some of them to overexploit their resource base in order to expand their current income streams. In others, poverty has led to encroachment on the forests for food production. It is imperative that the institution’s regional member countries and their development partners work together to ensure that poverty reduction interventions meet environmental sustainability criteria. Financing and technical capacities for the sector should also be enhanced. Other sectoral interventions such as agriculture, infrastructure and irrigation should complement forestry sector investments to ensure sustainability. Lastly, the Bank has noted emerging positive trends in the sector in some of its regional member countries. Such countries have reorganised their forestry institutions and reformed their forestry policies and laws to make them more responsive to current challenges. Many of them are delegating greater roles and responsibilities to local communities and the private sector in the management of their forestry resources. A greater appreciation of the global values of forests is also observable. Against this background, the AfDB is optimistic about the sector’s future. The Bank is committed to working with other development partners to ensure the The AfricanDevelopment Bank sustainable management of Africa’s forests. Canadian Forestry Schools University of Toronto, Faculty of Forestry o ers: • PhD and MScF graduate programs, and University of British Columbia, Faculty • a unique 16-month Master of Forest of Forestry, in addition to MSc MASc MF and Conservation (MFC) program PhD Programs UBC o ers Bachelor of Science degree • The Faculty of Forestry in collaboration with the programs in: Faculty of Arts and Science, o ers Specialist, Major • BSc Natural Resources Conservation and Minor options within bachelors programs (BSc • BSc Forest Sciences in Forest Conservation Science and BA in Forest • BSF Forest Resources Management Conservation), and • BSF Forest Operations • Major and Minor options within a BSc in Forest • BSc Wood Products Processing Biomaterial Science www.forestry.ubc.ca www.forestry.utoronto.ca

est Scie For nce of & l M University of Alberta, o o a h n c a g S a e t m r Faculty of Agriculture, e e

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o ers nine

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undergraduate programs including four-year BSc • Natural Resources Management with a major degrees in: in Forestry (majors in Wildlife and Fisheries and • Forestry outdoor Recreation are also available) • Forest Business Management (o ered jointly with • MSc and PhD degree programs in Natural the School of Business) Resources and Environmental Studies • Environmental and Conservation Sciences www.unbc.ca/csam/ • Combined BSc degree in Environmental Conservation Sciences/BA in Native Studies (• ve years) www.afhe.ualberta.ca La Faculté de foresterie, de géographie et Lakehead University Faculty of Forestry de géomatique de and the Forest Environment o ers: l’Université Laval o re des programmes uniques • Honours Bachelor of Science in Forestry (HBScF) en français en Amérique du Nord : • Honours Bachelor of Environmental Studies (Forest • BScA en aménagement et environnement forestiers Conservation) (BES) • BScA coopératif en opérations forestières • Master of Science in Forestry (MScF) • BIng coopératif en génie du bois • Master of Forestry (MF) • MSc en agroforesterie, sciences du bois et sciences • PhD (Forest Sciences) forestières www.lakeheadforestry.ca • PhD en sciences du bois et sciences forestières www.­ gg.ulaval.ca University of New Brunswick, Faculty of Forestry and Environmental La Faculté de foresterie de l’Université Management o ers: de Moncton, Campus d’Edmundston, o re : • Degree programs in Forestry (BScF) and Forest • un programme de baccalauréat Engineering (BScFE) • de maîtrise en sciences forestières • Co-op terms www.umce.ca/foresterie • Grad programs leading to MScF, MF, MScFE, MFE and PhD degrees www.unb.ca/forestry/ Support provided by ’s Canadian Forest Service

a4 ad.indd 1 11/25/09 9:37:37 AM Commonwealth Forests 2010

An overview of the forests and forestry sectors of the countries of the Commonwealth Copyright © Commonwealth Forestry Association 2010.

The entire content of this publication is protected by copyright, full details of which are available from the publisher. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval systems or transmitted in any form or by any means – electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise – without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

Published by: Commonwealth Forestry Association The Crib Dinchope Craven Arms Shropshire SY7 9JJ England

E-mail: [email protected] Telephone: +44 (0)1588 672868 Facsimile: +44 (0)870 0116645 Website: www.cfa-international.org

ISBN 978-0-9557113-1-2

The cover pictures are of the Iwokrama Forest in Guyana (upper) and Cathedral Grove, a Coastal Douglas Fir forest on Vancouver Island in Canada (lower). Contents CFA

Message from HRH The Prince of Wales 6 2.2 Area and Change in Extent of Primary Forest, 1990-2010 147 Foreword by Dr Mark Collins 8 2.3 National Importance of Forest Ecological Zones 149 Introduction 9 2.4 Change in Extent of Forest, 1990-2010 150 2.5 Planted Forests, 1990-2010 151 Acknowledgements 12 2.6 Forest Ownership, 2005 153 Annex 3: Management and Conservation 156 Glossary 13 3.1 Management of the Production, Tropical Permanent Forest Estate, 2005 156 Chapter 1: The Forest Resource 16 3.2 Management of the Protection, Tropical By Jim Ball Permanent Forest Estate, 2005 156 3.3 Commonwealth Member Countries of Chapter 2: Sustainable Forest Management 32 International Processes on Criteria and By Jim Ball Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management 157 3.4 Commonwealth Countries with some Chapter 3: Benefits from the Forest 54 Forests under Certification Schemes 157 By Gary Q. Bull, Steven Northway and Jim Ball 3.5 IUCN Protected Area Categories 157

Chapter 4: Forest policy, Law and Annex 4: Wood Production and Administration 66 Consumption, Employment 160 4.1 Production, Trade and Consumption of By Jim Ball Industrial Roundwood in Commonwealth Countries, 2006 160 Chapter 5: Professional Education in Forestry 76 4.2 Woodfuel Consumption in Commonwealth By John Innes Countries, 2006 161 4.3 Employment in Selected Commonwealth Chapter 6: Forest Research in the Countries in the Forestry Sector 162 Commonwealth 96 Edited by P.J. Wood Annex 5: Commonwealth Forestry Associations and Forestry Journals 163 Chapter 7: The Commonwealth and 5.1 Professional Forestry Associations in the the International Forestry Dialogue 118 Commonwealth 163 5.2 Commonwealth Forestry Journals 164 By Jim Ball Annex 6: International Forestry-related Fora, Chapter 8: Main Challenges and Agreements, Conventions and Opportunities in Commonwealth Forestry 134 Regulations 166 By Jim Ball 6.1 Links to International Forestry-related Fora, Agreements, Conventions and Annex 1: Data on Commonwealth Countries 140 Regulations 166 1.1 Land Area and Population, 2006 140 6.2 Ratification of International Forestry 1.2 Socio-economic Indicators Related to the Conventions by Commonwealth Countries, Forestry Sector, 2006 141 2009 166 1.3 Agricultural Land Use, 2000 143 6.3 Tree Species in CITES Appendices I, II and III 167 Annex 2: The Forest Resource 146 2.1 Extent of Forest and Other Wooded Land, Annex 7: Country Information 168 2010 146

C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 5 6 HRH The Prince of Wales

7 CFA Foreword

n the first edition of this excellent volume produced by the Commonwealth Forestry Association just I three years ago, we learnt that the Commonwealth’s forests are disappearing about 70% faster than the rest of the world’s. In this re-evaluation the figures remain broadly the same. Are we doing enough? Clearly not! It is high time for all Commonwealth countries to listen to forestry professionals and civil society groups, and take action to conserve standing forests, restore damaged forests and plant new ones. It is time to demonstrate the innovation, leadership and forest management know-how of which the Commonwealth is capable. We may never see a better opportunity. At the November 2009 meeting of the Commonwealth Heads of Government in Trinidad & Tobago, important management for combined low-level logging, ecotourism, progress was made in building consensual positions on research and community engagement under innovative climate change. Although this did not convert into an financing schemes. Iwokrama is also pioneering measure­ agreement on emissions targets at the Copenhagen ment and valuation of forest ecosystem services. Ideas meeting of the UN Framework Convention on Climate like this need to be multiplied across the Commonwealth. Change (UNFCCC), the Copenhagen Accord did give special As I write this Foreword the final preparations are mention to forests and recognised their “crucial role of being made for the 18th Commonwealth Forestry reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation”. Conference in Edinburgh, Scotland. The Conference The Accord called for the immediate establishment of theme Restoring the Commonwealth’s Forests: Tackling a mechanism to reduce emissions from deforestation and Climate Change catches the moment precisely and pro­ forest degradation (REDD+) thereby storing and captur­ vides an unequalled opportunity for the Commonwealth ing more carbon and mitigating climate change. Such to act. This book is being offered to participants as an pay­ments for ecosystem services could halve deforestation introduction to some of the key issues to be discussed. by 2030, cut emissions of carbon by 1.5 to 2.7 Gt per year, The time is right. We have the evidence base; we have and provide long-term livelihoods for forest people. The international support for action; we have proven models Accord committed developed countries to provide sub­ that work, and we have the Commonwealth conference stantial finance for this purpose, including US$30 billion at which partnerships and plans can be laid. Let us all during 2010-12, and five countries committed US$3.5 work together and put forests back where they belong, billion in interim financing to begin the process of building at the heart of a strategy for humankind’s future. capacity for REDD+ immediately. With long-term benefits of trillions of dollars, this is a worthwhile investment! Already the Commonwealth has shown its commit­ ment to sustainable forestry in the Iwokrama International Centre, Guyana, where 370,000 ha of forest are under Dr Mark Collins, Director, Commonwealth Foundation

8 C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 Introduction CFA

ommonwealth Forests 2010 is published by the n Countries are the primary source of information; Commonwealth Forestry Association (CFA) to they may revise figures from previous assessments. C coincide with the 18th Commonwealth Forestry For example, the figures quoted for a country in a Conference, 2010, held in Edinburgh. The theme of previous FRA may have been extrapolated from an the Conference is Restoring the Commonwealth’s inventory made some years before; when a new Forests: Tackling Climate Change and thus the inventory is made in or after 2005 the figures for emphasis of Commonwealth Forests 2010 is related that year will be revised – but will not be available to this, as a contribution to informing the debates of until FRA2010. the Conference n Definitions may change. FAO agrees definitions The aim of this publication is also to quantify and with countries at regular consultations; the main describe the present state of forestry in the countries change that occurred which affects this report was of the Commonwealth and, from this, to identify the move from “plantations” to the more compre­ common challenges facing Commonwealth foresters hensive “planted forest” (see Chapter 1). and the opportunities arising from them. It also The Commonwealth Forestry Association, which provides a great many links, not only on technical and was founded in 1921, is the world’s longest esta­ policy-related issues but also to the forest services and blished international forestry organisation. It unites research and training institutions of Commonwealth foresters, scientists, students, NGOs, planners and countries. This edition, like its predecessor will be put policymakers throughout the Commonwealth and on the CFA website. beyond in a unique international network that The Commonwealth is a voluntary association of provides professional support to its members and 54 independent countries, Rwanda having joined in forms a key element in civil society debates. This new 2009. The Commonwealth’s population has now publication of the CFA provides facts and figures and grown to over 2 billion people, or 31% of the world’s useful contacts and references together with an population. The countries of the Commonwealth, analysis of the forestry sector and identification spread across all the continents, include some of the of the many challenges facing foresters of the world’s largest both in terms of area and of popu­ Commonwealth. It is organised in three parts: lation, and some of the smallest. Three of its countries the text, in eight chapters; the data in Annexes; are among the most heavily forested in the world and country information. and Commonwealth countries have historically been Commonwealth Forests 2010 is a collaborative among the pioneers of scientific and sustain- effort of foresters of many nations, who are recog­ able forestry. nised in the Acknowledgements. It does not pretend The first edition of Commonwealth Forests was to cover all aspects of forestry, nor every Commonwealth published in 2007, based largely on 2005 data. This country, and not all readers will agree with the aspects second edition incorporates figures updated from the of the forestry sector that have been covered. FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2010. Inevitably some of the information will be out of date There are two points to note concerning the new data by the time it is published, but we hope that readers which affect comparisons with figures from the first will provide feedback to improve the balance and to edition of Commonwealth Forests: update the information.

C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 9 INDIA’S FORESTS AT A GLANCE “India’s Forest and Tree Cover – INTRODUCTION: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats, and the north-eastern states, to dry Contribution as a Carbon Sink”). India is one of the 17 mega diverse alpine scrub high in the Himalaya in the INDIAN COUNCIL OF FORESTRY countries of the world. Despite a high north. Between these two extremes, the RESEARCH & EDUCATION population (17% of world’s population) and country has semi- biotic pressure (18% evergreen forests, ICFRE, an autonomous body of the of world’s cattle) and deciduous monsoon Ministry of Environment & Forests, t h e p r e s s u r e o f forests, thorn forests, Government of India is the premiere forestry e c o n o m i c s u b t r o p i c a l p i n e research organization development, India is forests in the lower of the country. It is o n e o f t h e f e w montane zone and m a n d a t e d t o developing countries temperate montane forests. formulate, organize, where the forest and direct and manage tree cover continues to forestry research; increase . Forest types % of total transfer developed forest area technologies to States STATE OF FORESTS Tropical /Dry Deciduous 38 and other agencies; and impart forestry • The Forest Survey of India, Dehradun education. ICFRE has its headquarter in has published 11 biennial State of Forest Tropical Moist Deciduous 30 Dehradun and has eight institutes and four Reports since 1987 based on satellite Tropical Thorn Forests 6 regional centres to cater to the research needs data supported by ground truthing. of the different agro-climatic zones of the • Scale of interpretation 1:50,000 (SFR, Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests 5.8 country. 2009). Others 20.2 FOREST CONSERVATION POLICY • All forest and tree canopy patches down to one hectare are mapped. Total 100 In order to arrest indiscriminate FOREST MANAGEMENT diversion of forest lands for non forest use, INDIA: VITAL STATISTICS: the Central Government enacted the Forest Area 328.7 million ha The earliest records of indigenous forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, inter-alia management in India date back to the Population 1145 million requiring prior approval of the Central Atharvaveda (12th Century B.C.). The G o v e r n m e n t f o r Livestock population 485 million foundation of present day forest diversion of any forest Plant species 45,500 management, based on the concept of land for non-forestry Animal species 91,200 “sustained yield”, was laid in 1864 with the p u r p o s e s . W h i l e appointment of Dr Dietrich Brandis as approving proposals FORESTS as per SFR, 2009 Inspector General of Forests in India. The for non-forest uses of working plans are f o r e s t l a n d , t h e Forest Class Area in % of generally prepared for schemes like compensatory afforestation, million Total a period of ten to maintenance of safety zone, etc. are ha. Geogra- twenty years, and are mandatory to mitigate the adverse impact of phical generally restricted to such diversions. The project proponent has to Area s e l e c t i o n c u m also pay the Net Present Value of lost Very Dense Forest improvement fellings. environmental services, at a rate fixed (more than 70% 8.35 2.54 Clear felling has been given up in most periodically by the Supreme Court, into a canopy density) forests except in existing plantations. Fund which will be used for improving the Moderately Dense 31.90 9.71 C A R B O N S E Q U E S T R A T I O N forest. Annual deforestation rate was .13 Forest (40% - 70%) POTENTIAL million ha during the 1970’s and came down to 0.02-0.03 million ha per year after the Open Forest 28.84 8.77 India’s forests are a significant net sink Forest Conservation Act was imposed. (10%-40%) of CO2. From 1995 to 2005, the carbon stocks NTFP MANAGEMENT Total 69.09 21.02 stored in our forests and tree cover have increased from 6,245 million tonnes to 6,662 Tree Cover 9.28 2.82 India has more than 3,000 species of million tonnes, corresponding to the increase Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs), worth Total Forest &Tree 78.37 23.84 in forest cover thereby registering an annual about Rs 42,000 million annually which are Cover increment of 38 million tonnes of carbon or of great significance Scrub 4.15 1.26 138 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent worth to rural livelihoods. US$ 120 billion or Rs. Non Forest 255.49 77.72 More than half of the 6 , 0 0 0 b i l l i o n revenue of the Forest Total Area 328.73 100.0 amounting to 11% of Department comes the total emissions of FOREST TYPES OF INDIA f r o m N T F P the country (Govt. of extractions, and about The panorama of Indian forests ranges I n d i a b r o c h u r e , 70% of the forest export incomes come from from evergreen tropical rain forests in the A u g u s t , 2 0 0 9 , NTFP exports. F L A G S H I P S C H E M E S O F • NATIONAL AFFORESTATION metre in 2008, valued at Rupees 759 billion. GOVERNMENT OF INDIA PROGRAMME (NAP) Out of total production of 68 million cubic metre of wood, the production from state • INTENSIFICATION OF FOREST F o r m u l a t e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l forests amount to only 12 million cubic MANAGEMENT Afforestation & Eco-development Board metre, and 31 million cubic metre wood (NAEB), this programme operates through a This scheme supports strengthening of comes from outside the forest including two tier structure of Forest Development forestry administration in the country by way imports. The contribution of forestry sector Agencies (FDAs) at the district level and of infrastructure development and to GDP has been Joint Forest Management Committees technology induction. It also supports area- enhanced from 0.67% (JFMCs) at the village level. Another tier has specific management interventions. The in 2007-08 to 1.70% been added from 2010-11 by creating State State Forest Departments have used this in 2008-09, by adding FDA. Main objectives of the NAP are- scheme for developing facilities like camp the contribution of • Increase and/ or Improvement in Forest offices, forest barracks, maintenance and trees outside forest, and Tree Cover (FTC) creation of patrolling paths and interior estimated around • Rehabilitation of degraded forests and forest roads, better communication through Rupees 430 billion adjoining areas through participatory mobile phones, PDAs, wireless, and field stock value. forest management vehicles. The outlay • Supplementing livelihoods by creating WILDLIFE CONSERVATION for the 11th Five Year community assets, value addition to Plan (2007-2012) is India has 2.5% of the world’s land area forest produce Rs. 6000 million. The but supports around half of the world • Capacity building of the communities achievements over the population of tiger, Asiatic elephant, one for self sustenance of the program l a s t t h r e e y e a r s horned rhino, Indian gaur and snow leopard • Various models of regeneration such as include:- and the only population of Asiatic lion. There added natural regeneration, artificial is a healthy network of 661 Protected Areas (i) Creation and maintenance of fire-lines – regeneration silvi pastoral/pasture (PAs) encompassing about 4.8% of the 252,679 km development etc. geographical area of the country, forming the (ii) Fire Watchtowers – 368 (Nos) During the first three years (2007-10) of nucleus of the biodiversity conservation the 11th five year plan, 0.55 million ha. have strategy of the country. Two major flagship (iii) Construction of Forest Roads – 3019 been proposed to be taken up for plantation. programmes, namely Project Tiger (1973) km. The annual plantation and Project Elephant (1991) are being (iv) Erection of boundary pillars – 269058 area ranges from 0.7 implemented to conserve these species along (Nos) million ha. to 1.25 with their habitats and corridors, and to million ha. in recent address man - animal conflict. As per the (v) Field operational vehicles – 656 (Nos) years, totaling to recent estimation, tiger • JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT around 30 million ha., population is 1411± (JFM) of which around 10 246, as against the total million ha. is ascribed world’s population of Drawing from the National Forest to private land. 3200 wild tigers. There Policy of 1988, the country launched an is a healthy population initiative for involving local communities FOREST CERTIFICATION of about 27,694 wild specially women in Forest Certification has emerged as a elephants. jointly protecting, voluntary market-driven mechanism in r e g e n e r a t i n g National Parks 100 support of Sustainable Forest Management. sustainably harvesting A National Forest Certification Committee WL Sanctuaries 514 and managing the has been constituted to frame the policy forests. This initiative Conservation Reserves 43 guidelines for forest certification for timber of JFM has completed and non timber forest Community Reserves 4 20 years of implementation since the first products, and also to notification by the Central Government in Total 661 develop a mechanism 1990. The village level committees are t o e s t a b l i s h a n Project Tiger Reserves 39 entitled to a substantial share of all Over-lapping independent National incremental growth of timber, fuelwood, Elephant Reserves 27 with existing Forest Certification non-timber products etc. and also get PA network Council. Biosphere Reserves 14 incomes through wages for planting, weeding, cleaning and other operations. Timber Trade Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) No. of JFM Committees : 106,000 Total Industrial demand for wood in The WCCB was set up in 2006 to No. of people involved : 24 million roundwood equivalent (RWE) is predicted to combat wildlife related crimes, and its Forest area under JFM : 22 million ha increase from 58 million cubic metre in 2000 mandate includes to 153 million cubic metre in 2020, with over collation and dissemi- This initiative has resulted in improving 50% supply coming from non forest sources. nation of intelligence the health of the forest besides improving The import of timber and timber products has along with setting up water conservation, and enhanced increased substantially from 2.45 million centralized wildlife livelihoods of millions of people living cubic metre in 2001, to 16.7 million cubic crime data bank etc. inside forest and in fringes areas. CFA Acknowledgements

he Commonwealth Forestry Association offers The credits are listed by chapter with the appropriate grateful acknowledgment to the following for page number given in brackets after each source. T invaluable assistance in the production of this book. Cover: Pete Oxford/Iwokrama International Centre The Forestry Department of the Food and Agriculture (upper), John Innes (lower). Organisation (FAO), whose data are extensively quoted, Message and Foreword: Copyright Chris Jackson (7), kindly made facilities available for the principal author, Commonwealth Foundation (8). who also greatly benefited from advice and support Chapter 1: John Innes (16 & 26), Masakazu Kashio/FAO from Mette Løyche Wilkie (FAO Team Leader, Global (21), Northumbrian Water (24), Susan Braatz/FAO (28). Forest Assessment and Reporting Team). Chapter 2: UN Photo/Michos Tzovaras (33), Pete Oxford/ A special debt is owed to those who contributed Iwokrama International Centre (37), John Innes (41), time and experience to writing Commonwealth Forests: Colin Morton/Forestry Commission of Great Britain (43), n Chapter 3 (Benefits from the Forest) was originally AP/Press Association Images (47). prepared by Professor Gary Bull and Steven Chapter 3: Johan Lejeune/FAO (54), John Innes (58 & Northway, University of British Columbia; 60), Susan Braatz/FAO (61). n Chapter 5 (Education) was prepared by Professor Chapter 4: John Innes (67 & 73), Kenichi Shono/FAO John Innes and Adjunct Professor Hosny El Lakany, (68), Johan Lejeune/FAO (71). both of the University of British Columbia; Chapter 5: Courtesy of the Forest History Society, n Chapter 6 (Research) was prepared by Peter Wood OBE; Durham, NC (76), John Innes (77 & 79), Thomas Hofer/ n The rest of the text was written by Jim Ball. FAO (84), VUSSC (86). Inputs for the revision of several sections was Chapter 6: Jim Ball (97), John Innes (99 & 103), Forestry provided by a great many people, including Peter Berg, Commission Picture Library/Glenn Brearley (105), Kenichi Peter Besseau, Michael Bleby, Shireen Chambers, Ben Shono/FAO (107), Patrick Durst/FAO (111). Chimamai, Julian Evans, Adrian Giddings, Marilyn Chapter 7: National Archives of Australia (118/9), UN Headley, Steven Johnson, Andrew McEwen, Roger Mills, Photo/Paulo Filgueiras (123 upper), Earth Negotiations John Pineau, Peter Savill, R.V. Singh, Thang Hooi Chiew Bulletin/International Institute for Sustainable and Irfan Ullah. Apologies are offered to those whose Development (123 lower & 128), John Innes (131). names have been inadvertently omitted. Chapter 8: Thomas Hofer/FAO (134), John Innes (136). All chapters were reviewed by Alan Pottinger and in Annexes: John Innes (148). addition some of the chapters were reviewed by John The CFA wishes to thank the Commonwealth Foundation Innes, Libby Jones and Jonathan Taylor. The final text for the generous support it provided towards was reviewed by Alan Pottinger and Marcus Robbins. publication of the first edition. Deficiencies in the text or analysis remain, however, the responsibility of the principal author. For this 2010 edition, the CFA worked with Inter­ ISC Acknowledgements national Systems & Communications (ISC) to secure Art and Design Director: Michael Morey advertising partnerships and prepare the book for publi­ Production Editor: Mark Blacklock cation. The book was printed by Buxton Press in the UK. Copy & Picture Editor: Adrian Giddings Publisher: Nigel Ruddin n Picture credits Publications Director: Robert Miskin Thanks are due to the following people and Finance Director: Yvonne O’Donnell Finance Assistants: Maria Picardo, Anita d’Souza organisations for providing pictures, and in particular to Senior Consultants: Derek Armandias, Jeffrey Professor John Innes of the University of British Fearnside, Michael Gaskell, Karin Hawksley, William Columbia, who not only kindly provided pictures from Innes, David Penn his library but took others specially for this publication.

12 C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 Glossary CFA

Forest Other Wooded Land CBD Convention on Biological KP Kyoto Protocol (of the UNFCCC) The definition is that used in FAO’s Land not classified as forest, span­ Diversity LFCC low Forest Cover Countries Global Forest Resources Assessment ning more than 0.5 hectares; with CBFM Community-based Forest M million 20101: trees higher than 5 metres and a Management MCPFE ministerial Conference Land spanning more than 0.5 hec­ canopy cover of 5-10%, or trees CDM Clean Development on the Protection of Forests tares with trees higher than 5 metres able to reach these thresholds in Mechanism in Europe and a canopy cover of more than situ; or with a combined cover of CFA Commonwealth Forestry MDG millennium Development 10%, or trees able to reach these shrubs, bushes and trees above Association Goals thresholds in situ. It does not inc­ 10%. It does not include land that is CGIAR Consultative Group on MTCS malaysian Timber lude land that is predominantly predominantly under agricultural or International Agricultural Research Certification Scheme under agricultural or urban land use. urban land use. (FAO, FRA2005) CHOGM Commonwealth Heads of NGO Non Governmental The definition adds the following Government Meeting Organisation explanatory notes: Plantations CIF Canadian Institute of Forestry NLBI Non-legally Binding 1 Forest is determined both by the Forest or other wooded land of CIFOR Centre for International Instrument on All Types of Forests presence of trees and the absence introduced species and in some Forestry Research NWFP Non-wood Forest Product of other predominant land uses. The cases native species, established CITES Convention on International NZIF New Zealand Institute of trees should be able to reach a through planting or seeding. May Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Foresters minimum height of 5 metres in situ. included areas of native species Fauna and Flora OWL other Wooded Land (see Areas under reforestation that have characterised by few species, COP Conference of the Parties definition above) not yet reached but are expected to straight tree lines and/or even-aged (of CBD, UNFCCC etc.) PEFC Pan-European Forest reach a canopy cover of 10% and a stands. (FAO, FRA2005) CPF Collaborative Partnership on Process tree height of 5 metres are inc­luded, Forests PFE Permanent Forest Estate as are temporarily unstocked areas, Semi-natural Forest CSA Canadian Standards Association PFM Participatory Forest resulting from human inter­vention Forest or other wooded land of CMW Commonwealth Management or natural causes, which are native species, established through COFO (FAO) Committee on Forestry REDD reduced emissions from expected to regenerate. planting, seeding or assisted natural EU European Union deforestation and forest degra­ 2 Includes areas with bamboo and regeneration (FAO, FRA2005). Areas FAO Food and Agriculture dation in developing countries palms provided that height and established by planting are des­ Organisation (of the United Nations) REDD+ As REDD, but with canopy cover criteria are met. cribed as planted semi-natural forest. FLR Forest Landscape Restoration conservation, sustainable manage­ 3 Includes forest roads, firebreaks FMU Forest Management Unit ment of forests, and stock and other small open areas; forest Planted Forests FSC Forest Stewardship Council enhancement in addition in national parks, nature reserves The concept of planted forests FRA (FAO) Global Forest Resources REDD++ As REDD+, but with all and other protected areas such as combines the areas of plantations Assessment terrestrial carbon in addition those of specific scientific, histori­cal, and of planted semi-natural forest, GHG Greenhouse gases RIL reduced Impact Logging cultural or spiritual interest. the justification being that planted Gt Gigatonne (109) SCCF Standing Committee on 4 Includes windbreaks, shelterbelts semi-natural forest has more in Ha hectare Commonwealth Forestry and corridors of trees with an area common with plantations than with ICF Institute of Chartered Foresters SIDS Small Island Developing States of more than 0.5 hectares and semi-natural forest regener­ated by (UK) SFI Sustainable Forestry Initiative width of more than 20 metres. seeding or natural regeneration, in ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre (North America) 5 Includes plantations primarily terms not only of regeneration IFA Institute of Foresters of SFM Sustainable forest used for forestry or protection method but also planting stock, tend­ Australia management purposes, such as rubber-wood ing and management techniques. IFF Intergovernmental Forum on UKWAS UK Woodland Assurance plantations and cork oak stands. Forests Standard 6 Excludes tree stands in agricul­tural Outgrowers and Outgrower IMFN International Model Forest UNCCD United Nations Convention production systems, for example in Schemes Network to Combat Desertification fruit plantations and agroforestry Outgrower schemes are partner­ships IPF Intergovernmental Panel on UNCED United Nations Conference systems. The term also excludes trees between small landowners (the Forests on Environment and Development in urban parks and gardens. outgrowers) and industrial companies, IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on (1992) according to which the outgrowers Climate Change UNDP United Nations Development Primary Forest raise trees on their own land to sell ITTO/ITTA International Tropical Programme Forest of native species, in which to the companies, usually at an Timber Organisation/Agreement UNEP United Nations Environment there are no clearly visible agreed price and sometimes with IUCN World Conservation Union Programme indications of human activity, and support from the company. (International Union for the UNFCCC United Nations Framework ecological processes are not Conservation of Nature and Convention on Climate Change significantly disturbed. (FAO, 2010) Acronyms and Abbreviations Natural Resources) UNFF United Nations Forum on AFCS Australian Forest Certification IUFRO International Union of Forests Scheme Forestry Research Organisations WUI Wildland Urban Interface 1 FAO 2010 Global Forest Resources AOSIS Alliance of Small Island JFM Joint Forest Management WWF World Wide Fund for Nature Assessment 2010 (in press), FAO, States (India) WSSD World Summit on Rome, Italy. C&I Criteria and Indicators JI Joint Implementation Sustainable Development (2002)

C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 13 About

Kenya Forest Service the agriculture, tourism, energy and Forestry and wealth creation: Tree growing www.kenyaforestservice.org is a State manufacturing sectors. improves soil and water conservation, Corporation established in February and soil fertility, which contributes to 2007 under the Forest Act 2005 to Kenya’s forest products and increased agricultural production. provide for the establishment, develop­ industries Wealth creation and employment ment and sustainable management, Timber and wood products: Forests opportunities are realized through farm including conservation and rational especially those managed for commer­ production, development of forest-based utilization, of forest resources for the cial utilization meet the national timber industries and promotion of eco- socio-economic development of the needs. Key species grown for this tourism. Intensified farm forestry, country. purpose include Cupressus lusitanica, commercial production of non-wood The Service has a workforce of Pinus patula, Eucalyptus grandis, products and promotion of out-growers 5,358 staff. Eucalyptus saligna, and a variety of tree schemes supports forest industries The Service’s management structure Eucalyptus clones. Kenya is currently and enhance industrialization and comprises 10 conservancies that are witnessing the emergence of a vibrant employment creation. ecologically demarcated, 76 Zonal forest private sector driven by the commercial offices, and 150 forest stations; 250 forestry subsector. Trade in forest products: Trade is limited divisional forest extension offices are to the national level, while opportu- located countrywide. Non-wood forest products: These are of nities for export of forest products The new law allows for joint manage­ critical importance to the livelihoods exist. Products include timber, paper ment and concession arrangements of rural communities and in sometimes products, carvings, gums and resins, through which the private sector and account for a significant share of charcoal and medicines. To facilitate communities can engage. household incomes. Some include entry into the international markets, gums and resins, honey, essential KFS is promoting forest products Importance of forests in Kenya oils, frankincense, myrrh, fibres, certification and labelling for the wider Kenya has 3.456 million hectares of medicinal and aromatic plants, dying market acceptability. In addition, the forest cover which is equivalent to 5.9% and tanning materials. In addition, Service is promoting value addition of its land area. Out of these, 1.406 some indigenous trees like Prunus for forest products and developing million hectares or 2.4% of total land Africana and Aloe have the potential infrastructure for non-extractive area comprises of indigenous closed to earn Kenya a high income from forest uses. canopy forests, mangroves and plan­ international markets. tations in both public and private lands. For more information, please contact: These forests play an important role in Forest industries: These manufacture Kenya Forest Service the country’s water resource conser­ products such as construction timber, P. O. Box 30513 vation, provide essential environ­mental paper, plywood, block boards, 00100 Nairobi services, habitat for diverse flora and particle boards among others. They Kenya fauna, offer cultural, spiritual and provide employment in the manu­ Tel: +254 20 3754904/5/6 / +254 20 recreational opportunities, and provide a facturing, construction, transportation, 2396440 / +254 20 2502508 variety of food, medicines and wood. and processing sectors thus contri- Fax: +254 20 2395512 / 2385374 In addition, forests make significant buting to improved livelihoods Email: [email protected] contribution to the economy buttressing and incomes. Website: www.kenyaforestservice.org

C H A P T E R 1 CFA The Forest Resource

By Jim Ball, Chair, Commonwealth Forestry Association

xtent of the forest resource BOX Forests in Dependent Territories 1.1 Forests in Commonwealth countries cover over Australia, New Zealand and the UK have a number of E 800 M ha, or just over one-fifth of the world’s Dependent Territories, whose forest areas have been forest area (see Annex 2.1 for national data). This fig­ excluded from Table 1.1 and Annex 2.1. They are listed in ure, which refers to forests with a canopy cover of more Annex 2.1. Some of them, however, have forest or OWL; Niue (NZ), for example, has 19,000 ha of forest (FAO, than 10% and an area of more than 0.5 ha1, includes all 2010) and several others have significant areas of forest types of forest from primary, undisturbed forest, which may contain endemic species of animals or plants through natural and semi-natural forests which have which are often threatened. An example is the Norfolk been modified by human activity, to planted forests. It Island Pine (Araucaria heterophylla) which is endemic to the island of the same name, an External Territory of also includes the area of forests in Rwanda (435,000 Australia, but whose conservation status according to the ha), which was elected to the Commonwealth in 2009. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and The total area of forest in the countries of the Natural Resources (IUCN) is vulnerable. Commonwealth appears to have increased slightly since 2005 when 808 M ha was reported in the first edition of Commonwealth Forests. The African regional total countries has remained the same as in 2005 (27%), as has increased most, largely because of an increase in has the area of forest per head (0.4 ha). the figure for Mozambique – possibly through the Three Commonwealth countries: Canada (310 M ha), b e l o w Canada has the transfer of what was previously reported as Other Australia (149 M ha) and India (68 M ha) are among largest extent of Wooded Land (OWL) – but also because of the inclusion the world’s 10 countries with the largest extent of national forest estate in the of Rwanda. The proportion of forest in Commonwealth national forest estate. Other Commonwealth countries Commonwealth with more than 20 M ha of forest include Mozambique and ranks three in the world. 1 The full definition is in the glossary. (39 M ha), Tanzania (33 M ha), Zambia (49 M ha) in Africa, and Malaysia (20 M ha) and Papua New Guinea (29 M ha) in South-east Asia. Forests also exist in what are not independent Commonwealth countries – see Box 1.1. The importance of forests to a country may not, however, be measured only in terms of area. A different picture emerges when considering the proportion of the land area covered by forest: the Seychelles has 88% of its land area under forest, the Solomon Islands 79%, Guyana and St Lucia have 77% each, followed by Brunei Darrusalam (72%), St Vincent & the Grenadines (68%) and Zambia (67%). A third way of looking at the potential contribution of forests to the country’s environment, economy and culture is to consider the area of forest per head: Guyana has 20.6 ha of forest/ head of population, Canada has 9.5 ha/head, Australia

16 C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 The Forest R e s o u r c e CFA

7.3 ha/head, Botswana 6.1 ha/head, Belize 5.0 ha/head countries with less than 10% of the land area under and Papua New Guinea 4.6 ha/head. forest, and/or less than 0.1 ha of forest per head, which But measuring the adequacy of the forest estate to need to consider how they can meet demand for forest its people’s needs has less to do with those countries goods and services; the special situations of forests in that have a large forest area, a large proportion of the Low Forest Cover Countries (LFCC), Small Island land’s surface under forest, or a high figure for forest Developing States (SIDS) and on mountains are area per head. Rather, it is the many Commonwealth described in Box 1.2.

BOX Forests in LFCC, SIDS and on Mountains 1.2

Forests in these three special situations have several features Island States (AOSIS); and 27 of the 39 AOSIS countries in common: first, the local people are highly reliant on them are members of the Commonwealth, mostly in the Pacific or for products and environmental benefits; second, other the Caribbean – see Annex 2.1. people who live beyond the immediate environs of the Trees are important in SIDS for the provision of products, forests benefit from them; third, the forests themselves are coastal protection and in support of tourism. Most subject to the hazards of extreme climatic conditions; and Commonwealth SIDS are quite well forested; only two are last, they often represent genetic resources or natural LFCC (Maldives and Nauru). But forests on SIDS are especially ecosystems that are not found elsewhere. vulnerable to damage and destruction by hurricanes and LFCC have been defined by FAO as those countries with typhoons, or tidal surges. Climate change threatens unique less than 10% of their land under forest. According to this island tree species and ecosystems, which may have definition there are 55 LFCC countries reported in FRA2005, developed in isolation; some endemic species are being of which nine are Commonwealth countries (listed in Annex conserved ex situ. All Commonwealth SIDS import oil as a 2.1). A meeting of LFCC in 1999 in Iran accepted FAO’s fuel, which accounts for a high proportion of earnings; definition; established the Tehran Process; identified the alternative and affordable renewable energy sources, such potential roles of NGOs, the private sector, research and as wood, are required to reduce vulnerability to price rises. training institutions, and the rural poor; and called for Isolation from markets also limits their commercial increased investment. opportunities. Rural people in these countries, especially the poorest, Mountain forests, found in Commonwealth countries in are highly dependent on the forest for products such as Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Cameroon), the Americas fuelwood and non-wood forest products such as fodder. (only Canada), South Asia (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka), South- Low rainfall is common to LFCC countries, often combined east Asia (Malaysia, New Zealand) and Europe (UK), maintain with high population, and the environment therefore tends water supplies and quality, reduce erosion and protect to be highly degraded. Periodic droughts may affect not only against landslides. They may have greater biological diversity the local people but the forest on which they depend, while and endemism than lowland forests but are likely also to be urban populations, often far from the forest, may also more sensitive to changes in climate. They provide essential source fuelwood or charcoal from the forest. water to both mountain people and to those living There is no internationally accepted definition of a Small downstream, while the local people rely on the forests for Island Developing State. Indeed, some are not small, others fuel, grazing and non-wood forest products, and outsiders are not islands and a few are not developing economies. appreciate the scenic beauty and recreational facilities. SIDS were, however, given an international political identity Mountain forests are often culturally important where they with the establishment in 1991 of the Alliance of Small enshrine sacred groves or trees.

Sources: LFCC – FAO, 2000 and 2003; SIDS – International Forestry Review, Vol. 4 (4), December 2002; Mountain forests – website of the Mountain Partnership www.mountainpartnership.org.

C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 17 CFA The Forest R e s o u r c e

TABLE states that methods are still based on tree numbers and Forest Area in the Commonwealth, 2010 1.1 there is no standardisation of methodology or ground Region Forest Other Wooded Land (OWL)** checking. The resource is highly difficult to classify and Area % land ha Area inventory because it is so heterogeneous, and hence it is (000 ha) area* forest/ (000 ha) often difficult to develop policies for promoting tree head* planting or conserving what exists. Africa 197,713 26 0.5 149,624 Due to the absence of a standardised methodology Americas – Caribbean 1,243 43 0.2 328 the estimates of trees on OWL are not as complete or – Central & North America 326,732 35 9.7 95,644 reliable as on forests, but it is likely that OWL covers Total Americas 327,975 35 8.4 95,972 nearly 400 M ha in Commonwealth countries (Table South Asia 73,424 19 0.1 5,011 1.1). Such woodland may be unmanaged relicts of South-east Asia & Pacific 210,993 24 3.3 143,153 cleared forest, or may be systematically managed stands Europe 3,058 12 <0.1 234 in agroforestry systems, among other forms. All may Total Commonwealth 813,163 27 0.4 393,994 Total World 4,033,060 31 0.6 1,144,687 serve a number of environmental and economic func­

Source: FAO, 2010. tions, which may be similar to forests in principle if not Notes: * land area and population 2006, from Annex 1.1; ** Defined as land not classified as forest, covering more than 0.5 ha, with trees more than 5 metres high and a in extent. But the regional totals, especially that of canopy cover of 5-10% (FAO, 2006a). Africa, show the potential contribution of this resource to forest goods and services, which is often especially Trees are also found outside the areas defined as important to rural people, and to the poor in particular, forests. Pandey (2008), for example, points out that in who may rely on a wide range of non-timber forest India trees have been planted outside forests for products for their domestic energy and livelihoods. hundreds of years, but the resource was boosted after the initiation of social forestry programmes from 1980. n Forest characteristics and forest types Up to 40% of the targets were met through the Most forests in Commonwealth countries have been distribution of seedlings to individuals and organi­ more or less modified by human activities but some sations, but a great deal was also planted by govern­ primary2 forest remains – see Annex 2.2. ments. Private wood-based enterprises also became It may seem encouraging that 28% of the involved, and encouraged farmers to grow timber Commonwealth’s total forest area in 2010 is primary through outgrower schemes (see below). It was forest, but most of that lies in Canada (over 165 M ha). estimated that tree plantations outside forests recently Figures from those Commonwealth countries which made up more than 70% of the total plantation area. reported on primary forests show that in Africa most of Mango (Mangifera indica) comprises 11% of the the primary forest was in South Africa, Malawi, Kenya growing stock, followed by coconut (Cocos nucifera) and Ghana, while in South Asia India reported over 15 5%, Syzygium cumini and Azadarichta indica (both 4%), M ha and in South-east Asia and the Pacific significant suggesting that the main reason for planting trees was areas were reported by Papua New Guinea (26 M ha), not for timber but fruit, shade or firewood. Pandey (2008) discusses the ways in which Indian 2 Defined as forest of native species, in which there are no clearly visible indications of human activity, and ecological processes are not significantly estimates of trees outside forests are obtained, but disturbed (FAO, 2010).

18 C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 The Forest R e s o u r c e CFA

Australia (5 M ha), Malaysia (3.8 M ha) and New appreciated. The goods and services they provide to Zealand (2 M ha). But large areas have been lost even the people who live near them, and essential services since 2005 in Malawi, Sri Lanka, Australia and Papua in maintaining water supplies to the people living New Guinea, as Annex 2.2 shows, while it appears down­stream, are described in Box 1.2. In common that Nigeria lost its final 300,000 ha between 2005 with other fragile ecosystems, montane forests are and 2010. vulnerable to the very natural disasters against which Commonwealth forests cover a wide range of they provide protection. natural forest types, from montane to mangrove and Temperate forests are less well represented in the from boreal to tropical moist forest. Annex 2.3 illus­ Commonwealth, but Canada’s boreal forests are of trates the importance of the forest ecological zones global importance (see Box 1.3). recognised by FRA2000 to the countries of the Commonwealth by ranking the three most represented n Change in the extent of forest – and forest in each country. This has led to some omissions – the degradation small proportions of tropical rain forest (2%), temperate Change in the extent of forest, often called, deforest­ oceanic and montane forest (both 4%) in Australia ation, refers to the loss of forest area from one period do not feature, nor the 7% of tropical montane forest to another. It mostly occurs due to the conversion of in India, or the temperate montane forest of Canada forests to agricultural land, especially in the tropics. (12%) or the UK (2%), and boreal montane forest If the total national forest area is (erroneously) thought (9%) of Canada. Nevertheless, as discussed below, to be indicative of the contribution of a country’s it shows the forest types most important to forests to its and the world’s environmental, social, Commonwealth countries. cultural and economic wellbeing, then the loss of forest It is no surprise that the forest types of importance is thought to indicate the opposite. to most Commonwealth countries are tropical, which Forest loss in the countries of the Commonwealth accords with popular perception. Box 1.3 describes appears to have increased in the period 2005-10, having mangrove formations, one of the most widespread and been more or less stable since 1990. The absolute area important in the rain forest zone. But the importance cleared in that period was nearly 3 M ha/year, or 0.36%, of dry tropical forest types is less well appreciated. concentrated in Africa and South-east Asia and the They represent the highest proportion of the forest of Pacific. The figures may, however, be revised in subse­ 13 Commonwealth countries, including some where quent assessments, since the current numbers have moist forest types might be expected to dominate – been affected by the figures from Australia, where Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania, India and Sri Lanka, remote sensing imagery has not distinguished between for example. Savanna woodland – and other dry tree deaths and trees defoliated in large areas affected formations – are of crucial importance for the by the prolonged drought. If the figures for Australia livelihoods of many people, yet their conservation, are omitted the annual area lost from 2005 to 2010 falls research and the development of management to 2.015 M ha/year, at a rate of 0.3% – still an increase practices for them lag behind. over 2000-05, but much less so. Despite the 2002 International Year of Mountains, There are, however, some more encouraging signs. the importance of montane forests is also less well The area lost in Africa seems to have continued to fall

C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 19 CFA The Forest R e s o u r c e

BOX Two Climatic Extremes – Mangroves and Boreal Forest 1.3

Mangroves The boreal tundra woodland is influenced by cold The figures from the recent Global Forest Resources arctic air and is more open. The better-drained sites Assessment (FAO, 2010) showed that there are over 14 M ha support black spruce and tamarack and some white of mangroves worldwide, of which Commonwealth coun­tries spruce, with balsam poplar, white birch and alder account for nearly 6 M ha, or 40% of the world’s total. Alnus incana along rivers.

Region Area (000 ha) Main countries (>100,000 ha) 1990 2000 2005 2010 Africa 2,091 1,987 1,963 1,948 Nigeria, Mozambique, Cameroon, Tanzania, Kenya, Sierra Leone Americas 406 399 396 393 Bahamas, Belize South Asia 1,102 1,093 1,090 1,129 India, Bangladesh (Sunderbans), Pakistan South-east Asia & Pacific 1,302* 2,309 2,021 2,277 Australia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, Fiji Total Commonwealth 4,901 5,788 5,470 5,747

Source: FAO, 2010. Note: * no figures given for Australia in FRA1990, whereas in 2000 it reported over 1 M ha.

The many wood products obtained from mangroves While there have been small losses of Canada’s boreal forest range from timber, poles and posts to firewood, charcoal in the recent past due to man’s activities (agricultural clearing, and tannin, while non-wood products include thatch, hydro-electric development, oil and gas exploration etc.) the honey, wildlife, fish, fodder and medicine. An important greatest threat now comes from climate change. Global service provided by mangrove forests is coastal protection warming may shift the geographic range of many of the boreal against tidal surges and tsunami. Unfortunately, many forest species northwards by 300 to 500 kilometres, replacing mangrove forests have been converted to salt pans, aqua­ them with species of temperate forest. At the same time the culture ponds or agriculture, although several Common­ occurrence of natural disturbances such as fire, insect and wealth countries, including Bangladesh, India and Malaysia disease infestations, and extreme weather events may increase; have shown increases in the area of mangrove forests in global warming is contributing to the outbreak of Mountain recent years. Pine Beetle in British Columbia, Canada (see Chapter 2). Commonwealth countries possess a significant part of Boreal forest is very important as a reservoir of carbon, the world’s mangrove forests, which form an important which is stored not only above ground but also in the roots resource for the livelihoods of coastal people. and especially the soil. The consequence of global warming will be reduction in area, or even loss, of some of the boreal Canada’s Boreal Forest forest and the release of greenhouse gases, including both Canada’s boreal forest covers 310 M ha, or 77% of Canada’s carbon dioxide and methane – the latter is a greenhouse gas total forest area and nearly one-third of this forest type in the with a global warming potential more than 20 times greater world. The boreal coniferous forest occurs in a mainly than carbon dioxide. The boreal forests as a sink and continental climate. There are large areas of closed stands of potential source of greenhouse gases is, however, often conifers composed of white and black spruces Picea glauca overlooked; it has been called The Carbon the World Forgot, and P. mariana, balsam fir Abies balsamea, and tamarack the title of an article by Carlson et al. (2009) which also Larix laricina, but there are also deciduous species such as describes the Canadian Boreal Forest Conservation Network white birch Betula papyrifera, trembling aspen Populus under which, since 2001, nearly 50 M ha of boreal forest tremuloides and balsam poplar P. balsamifera. have been protected as parks and wildlife refuges.

Sources: Mangroves – FAO, 2003, 2006(a) and 2010; Boreal – FAO, 2002 and Canadian Forest Service, 2003.

20 C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 The Forest R e s o u r c e CFA

l e f t Deforestation and land use change have important implications for climate change and the loss of diversity. slightly while the figures for the South Asia region for forest transition; India had a GDP/head of US$2,670 continue to increase. Country details are in Annex 2.3. in 2002, and Malaysia US$9,120, but Malaysia’s rate of There has too been evidence of a commitment to tackle forest loss increased, not decreased. On the other hand, illegal encroachment, including Uganda where the Chapter 2 shows that Malaysia scored well in many of eviction of encroachers has been ordered by Presidential the attributes of sustainable forest management. directive, and Kenya where the long-running dispute Annex 2.2 and Table 1.2 show the change in the over , charcoal burning and agriculture in area of primary forest from 1990-2010 and 2005-10 the Mau Forest will be resolved through the relocation respectively, i.e. forest of native species, in which there of about 30,000 families (CFA Newsletter, No. 47 of are no clearly visible indications of human activity and December 2009). ecological processes are not significantly disturbed. In addition, Mather (2007) draws attention to the recent net gain of forest in three Asian countries, TABLE Area and Change in Extent of Primary Forest, 2005-2010 1.2 including India, or a “forest transition” from net Region Area (000 ha) % regional % change, deforestation to net reforestation. In the cases of India forest area 2005-10 the article draws attention to changes made in national 2010 2005 2010 forest policy to promote Joint Forest Management since Africa 3,607 3,053 1.5 -15 1990 (see Chapter 2) as being one of the significant Americas 172,928 172,928 52.7 0 means of facilitating that transition. Forest transition South Asia 16,304 16,304 22.2 0 may have occurred in many developed economies in the South-east Asia & Pacific 40,266 37,927 18.0 -5 19th century, possibly related to increasing national Europe 13 13 0.4 0 wealth, and countries such as the UK and New Zealand Total 233,118 230,225 28 -1.2 still show net forest gains. Increasing income per head, Source: FAO, 2010. however, does not now satisfactorily explain the reasons

C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 21 CFA The Forest R e s o u r c e

Canada, with over 165 M ha (53% of its total forest and secondary forest covered 500 M ha, while Lambin area), has the most primary forest and this total has et al. (2003) estimated that the rate of forest remained unchanged since 1990. The greatest degradation for Africa could be almost 50% of the absolute loss of primary forest has occurred in Papua annual rate of the continent’s deforestation. New Guinea, where over 274,000 ha were deforested Degradation is the second “D” in REDD – reducing yearly between 1990 and 2000, a further 250,000 ha emissions from deforestation and degradation – and yearly between 2000 and 2005, and over 400,000 ha could thus be of great significance both for climate yearly between 2005 and 2010. Nigeria lost all of its change mitigation and as a new source of forest remaining 300,000 ha between 2005 and 2010. funding for developing tropical countries. But if REDD Losses of primary forest appear to be continuing in is to be implemented under the revised Kyoto Protocol Africa, but the evidence suggests that the rate of loss then degradation will have to be monitored; its elsewhere has slowed (except for Papua New Guinea) definition, however, is proving difficult since different or even stopped. users have different objectives and perceptions which Deforestation has important implications for climate also complicate its measurement. The challenge was change. Forests play an important role in the climate most recently addressed in a meeting of interested system since they are a major reservoir of carbon, parties in 2009 which compared and analysed the containing some 80% of all the carbon stored in land various definitions from ITTO, the Convention on vegetation, and about 40% of the carbon in soils. It is Biological Diversity (CBD), the UNFCCC and IPCC, the often assumed that global warming is being mainly International Union of Forestry Research Organisations caused by the burning of oil and gas. But in fact the (IUFRO), as well as FAO (the hosts) and its Global Forest cause of between 25% and 30% of all greenhouse gases Resources Assessment (FAO, 2009). A generic definition, released into the atmosphere each year – 1.6 billion “the reduction of the capacity of a forest to provide tonnes – is from deforestation (workshop of the goods and services”, provides for the meantime a UNFCCC with FAO in August 2006, Rome, report on common framework for all of the definitions of http://unfccc.int). international stakeholders and is also compatible with But the figures on deforestation do not reflect the ecosystem approach but clearly there remains more degradation of existing forest whose negative impact work to be done to harmonise the definitions. on forests (and the climate) has been increasingly It should be remembered that degradation can appreciated in recent years; for example, degradation usually be reversed, since forests are a renewable causes the loss of biological diversity and a decline in resource, and thus there are links between forest biomass as well as soil erosion, it leads to economic degradation and the process of forest landscape losses of valuable timber species, it reduces recreational restoration (discussed in Chapter 2).

and cultural values, and is a major source of CO2 and other greenhouses gases. Estimates vary of the extent n Planted forests of forest degradation: the International Tropical Timber The concept of planted forests combines forest areas Organisation (ITTO, 2002) considered that the total formerly called plantations and planted semi-natural area of degraded forests and forest land in 77 tropical forest respectively, which were considered separately countries was 800 M ha, of which degraded primary before 2005 (FAO, 2006c). Both plantations and planted

22 C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 The Forest R e s o u r c e CFA

semi-natural forest establish similar species (often using TABLE Change in Extent of Forest in the Commonwealth, 1990-2010 1.3 improved seed or clonal material), both use intensive Region 1990-2000 2000-2005 2005-2010 establishment and management methods which often 000 % 000 % 000 % include thinning and pruning and, where the objective ha/yr ha/yr ha/yr Africa -1,889 -0.83 -1,868 -0.88 -1,854 -0.91 is wood production, both aim to grow material of Caribbean -1 -0.08 -1 -0.10 -1 -0.11 uniform size and technical specifications. North & Central America -10 n.s. -10 n.s. -10 n.s. Forest plantations were originally established to South Asia 75 0.11 389 0.54 85 0.12 provide industrial timber, mainly in those countries such South-east Asia & Pacific -121 -0.06 -474 -0.22 -1,165 -0.54 as South Africa or the United Kingdom, which had a Europe 19 0.67 11 0.36 7 0.24 small natural forest estate. But since the mid-1980s Total Commonwealth -1,927 -0.23 -1,953 -0.23 -2,939 -0.36 forest plantations have assumed greater importance as Source: FAO, 2010. n.s. = not significant. a source of wood in nearly every country, whatever their forest cover, and also for the provision of protective functions. Evans (2009) sounds a note of warning, area – the anomalous and low figures for Canada in however: “Planted forests, in all their variety, offer 1990 being an example. Note too that rubber (Hevea major opportunities but are no panacea to the ills that brasilensis) is included in planted forest areas above; the beset the world’s forests at large...Tree planting and use of rubber wood for saw timber has been pioneered planted forests have a role to play and are part of the in Malaysia. solution to these ills”. Commonwealth countries with the most planted for­ The total reported area of planted forests in the est are India (10.2 M ha), Canada (8.9 M ha), the United Commonwealth in 2010 was 32 M ha (see Table 1.4 and Kingdom (2.2 M ha), Australia (1.9 M ha), New Zealand country details in Annex 2.6). The Commonwealth total and Malaysia (1.8 M ha) and South Africa (1.7 M ha). for plantations alone in 2005 was 14.2 M ha, so the increase of over 15 M ha due to the inclusion of planted TABLE Area of Planted Forests in the Commonwealth, 1990-2010 1.4 semi-natural forest is considerable; it is largely explained Region Area of planted forests (000 ha) % by the new figures from Canada. change/year 2005-10 Planted forests make up 3.9% of the 2010 1990 2000 2005 2010 Commonwealth forest estate, compared with a global Africa 3,021 3,308 3,684 3,941 1 average of 6.5%, but the rate of increase in the Americas: Commonwealth planted forest area appears to be Caribbean 25 25 26 26 0 growing slightly in recent years. Most Commonwealth Central & North America 1,359 5,822 8,050 8,965 1 planted forests lie in South Asia (34% of the total), Total Americas 1,384 5,847 8,076 8,991 1 followed by the Americas (28%), nearly all of which lies South Asia 6,431 7,955 10,277 10,973 1 in Canada (slightly less than 9 M ha). There is 18% of South-east Asia & Pacific 4,441 4,918 5,362 5,848 1 the total in South-east Asia and the Pacific, 12% in Europe 1,989 2,173 2,218 2,250 0 Africa and 7% in Europe. Total Commonwealth 17,266 24,201 29,617 32,003 1 Planted forest data should be treated with some Total World 264,001 Source: FAO, 2010. caution since not all countries reported their plantation

C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 23 CFA The Forest R e s o u r c e

despite the large area and high demand for all sorts of wood products, they only make up 15% of the forest estate. Some 99% of New Zealand’s industrial wood came from plantations in 1997 (FRA2000) which made up 22% of the forest area, and industrial wood products are the third largest export, after dairy products and manufacturing. It is a country which created a strong plantation programme, whose rate of expansion has now strongly slowed as land is converted back into uses such as grazing which have become more profitable again. The UK, with a similar area of plantations, is also converting some of its plantations back to their original native species composition, but for environmental and conservation reasons. A very wide range of species are used for planted forests in Commonwealth countries. Eucalyptus species are the most common in the tropics and sub-tropics, where they meet a wide range of needs, from firewood to sawtimber, but another increasingly common species, also of Australian origin, is Acacia mangium, which is a major component of the saw timber and pulpwood programmes in Malaysia. Teak (Tectona grandis) is important in India where it is grown for premium saw a b ov e Globally, planted forests constitute about 7% of the timber and peeler logs, and is increasingly being Forest plantations such as Kielder in world’s forest area, but may contribute up to 70% of promoted as an investment by the private sector. Teak is the UK were the world’s industrial wood and fibre (Evans, 2009). grown to a lesser extent in Malaysia and Sri Lanka. Pines originally established to Within the Commonwealth there are several countries are grown in several countries, especially Pinus patula provide industrial where planted forests are highly important in the (in countries of eastern, central and southern Africa), timber. provision of goods and services. In Africa they include Pinus radiata (in eastern, central and southern Africa Rwanda (86% of the forest estate), Mauritius (43%), and in Australia and New Zealand). Poplar species, Swaziland (25%), Lesotho (23%) and South Africa hybrids and cultivars are grown in many countries such (19%). In Swaziland the planed forests are of great as India where they provide veneer logs for the match importance for the provision of timber, but in industry as well as fodder and services such as shade; neighbouring South Africa they have a protective role Populus tremuloides is planted in Canada. Rubber on watersheds, as well as a productive function. (Hevea brasiliensis) is grown in Malaysia not only for In Bangladesh planted forests make up 16% of the latex but also for saw logs. forest estate, where they are important for protection There are three issues being debated regarding the as well as the production of firewood, but in India, selection of species. The first concerns the use of exotic

24 C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 The Forest R e s o u r c e CFA

species, or species planted outside their native range. land, diversification of supply and increased cooperation They include the eucalypts in many African countries, with local communities, while the farmers have an where they have grown so long they are almost alternate and additional source of income, a guaranteed naturalised. Others include Acacia mangium and, in the market, reduced risk, and, in some cases, financial UK, major components of the industrial wood supply support for development. Commonwealth examples such as Sitka and Norway spruce (Picea sitchensis and include (FAO, 2006b): P. abies). The second issue is genetic modification, which n India, Bhadrachalam Paperboards, eucalyptus pulp, is mainly being done on poplar species, and which has 3,210 ha and 1,375 growers; attracted adverse attention in the UK. The third issue is n Solomon Islands, Kolombangara Forest Products, invasiveness, which refers not only to introduced tree sawlogs, 200 ha, 100 growers; species but also insects and diseases – discussed further n Vanuatu, Melcoffee Sawmill, sawlogs, 100 ha, 50 in Chapter 2. growers; Evans (2009) discusses some of the other issues n South Africa, Mondi Ltd, pulpwood, 5,900 ha, 2,854 related to planted forests. They include: growers; n Sustainability questions, including their impact on n South Africa, wattle bark, 436 ha, 430 growers; the site and long-term productivity in later rotations. n Ghana, Swiss Lumber Co. 150 ha, 25 growers; Good management, it is concluded, should reduce n New Zealand, Tasman Forest Industries, pulpwood, the threat of the former while there is no evidence, 11,000 ha, 27 Maori Land Scheme groups. so far, of loss of productivity in subsequent rotations The increase in outgrower schemes reflects also – again, with the proviso of sound management the recent increase in ownership of planted forests practices. by small holders, a trend noted in a FAO publication n risks to planted forests from pest and diseases and (FAO, 2006c). fire (discussed in Chapter 2), from droughts and Trees are also being increasingly used to rehabilitate extreme weather events, and from climate change or to protect sites. Typically trees have been used to (which may lead to increases in all of the previous rehabilitate land affected by erosion or by mining – risks). Again, good management and not putting all either surface mining, or the dumping of mine spoil, but of one’s eggs in the same basket are essential for now trees are used to rehabilitate many other types of reducing the chances of suffering devastating loss. degraded site and on sites irrigated with waste water. Planted trees have long been established through Unasylva (2001) is devoted to this topic. agroforestry, a form of sustainable land use that combines natural or planted trees and shrubs with n Urban forestry crops and/or livestock on the same unit of land, in ways Trees have been planted in towns and cities along roads that increase and diversify farm and forest production and in parks to add to the landscape, for ornamentation while also conserving natural resources. Now this and to give shade in every Commonwealth city for many practice is being further developed into partnerships years. More recently their role in reducing pollution, between small landowners and industrial companies – both from the noise of vehicles and from air-borne long used on tea estates – and known as outgrower particles has attracted attention, while the need for schemes. The forest companies benefit from access to peri-urban forests has been recognised.

C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 25 CFA The Forest R e s o u r c e

Many developing economies have at present low proportions of their people living in urban areas, but a rapid rate of urban growth: Uganda has an urban population of only 13% but a rate of urbanisation of 4.2%/year, while Malawi has 17% of its people living in towns and cities but a rate of urbanisation of 4.8%/year (Annex 1.2). More parks and other open public spaces will be required for recreation – which implies more urban trees. More than half the developing world’s urban popu­ lation lives in slums and sadly, since this proportion is unlikely to decrease greatly as the cities expand, this will offer urban trees the opportunity to fulfil more than their traditional functions. They could, for example, provide wood for construction and domestic energy, stabilise hillsides, drain swamps and rehabilitate sites, even generate income. Introduced species were formerly used in urban tree planting – the jacaranda on Uhuru Highway in Nairobi or the plane trees in London streets – but now there is a move towards the planting of indigenous species in some cities. Urban tree planting in colonial days was often initiated by the forest service, but this role was soon taken over by city authorities who have given increasing responsibility to the units responsible for urban parks and gardens. The three temporal phases of urban tree planting in Malaysia are described in Box 1.4. The challenges will be, and are, to make adequate provision for the maintenance of ambitious urban forestry projects, not just their implementation. Tree a b ov e Half of the world’s people now live in cities – even species must be matched not only to the site character­ Street trees in Singapore – with in forest-rich Canada 78% of the people live in urban istics but to their likely influence on roads and buildings half of the world’s centres – and it is projected that within the next 50 as they develop. Greater numbers of trained pro­fes­ people now living in cities the need years, two-thirds of the world’s population will do so sionals will be required, with skills in multi-disciplinary for urban tree (World Urban Forum 2006). All of the population of urban planning and management, as well as training in planting is growing. Singapore and Nauru live in urban areas, 95% of the the social sciences. people of Malta do, 90% of the UK population, 88% of Connecting urban societies with the natural world, Australia’s and 86% of New Zealand’s (see Annex 1.2). the theme of the 2006 National Conference of the UK’s

26 C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 The Forest R e s o u r c e CFA

Institute of Chartered Foresters, sums up the oppor­ first to do this, since the mid-1980s. New Zealand’s tunities to link urban people to nature through urban experience has been that internationalisation followed forestry. The practice of urban forestry and of arbori­ privatisation – all major plantation areas are owned by culture, formerly the poor relations of the forestry non-New Zealand owners. In South Africa, on the other profession, are now assuming greater importance. hand, the privatisation programme stalled in the late 1990s following democratisation since it was felt, n Forest ownership among other reasons, that it would not contribute to Ownership of forests in the Commonwealth is predo­mi­ addressing social problems. In the end, learning from nantly public, with the exception of forests in Caribbean the New Zealand model, some sales of publicly-owned countries. Annex 2.6 shows that the countries with plantations did go ahead, but with provisions for sales significant proportions of private forest in 2005 were: of 10% of shares to black groups, 9% to employees and n Africa – Uganda (70%), Mauritius (47%) and South the land would be leased in the long term but the State Africa (34%); would retain ownership (Bethlehem and Dlomo, 2003). n Caribbean – Barbados (96%), Jamaica (65%), Saint Mozambique is actively promoting large-scale commer­ Lucia (53%), Grenada (31%), Trinidad & Tobago cial afforestation tax and other incentives and has set (25%) and Bahamas (20%); aside 6 M ha of degraded savanna for this purpose. n South Asia – Pakistan (34%); The target is South African forest industries which are n South-east Asia and the Pacific – Papua New Guinea running out of suitable sites in their own country (97% “other”), Fiji (93%) and New Zealand (37%); (ICF, 2009). n Europe – United Kingdom (64%) and Cyprus (39%). In Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu most of the n Summary forest is owned by customary landowner groups. The forests of Commonwealth countries account for The ownership of OWL follows a similar pattern. more than one-fifth of the world’s forest area or over Many Commonwealth countries have been privati­ 800 M ha; the Commonwealth has the resource base to sing planted forests which were formerly owned by the play a major role in the international dialogue on forests State. New Zealand and the UK have been among the and forest-related issues.

BOX Urban Tree Planting in Malaysia 1.4

Urban tree planting has gone through three phases in emphasis on urban tree planting in the Structural Plan for Malaysia, a process similar to many other countries: Kuala Lumpur. n Pre-independence. Pterocarpus indicus is reported to n landscaping the Nation programme (1995), and a Prime- have been planted in Malacca (1778) and Penang (1802); ministerial nationwide Garden Nation campaign (1997), Kuala Lumpur Lake Gardens (1888) and Penang Botanical both supported by growing public interest in the Gardens established; widespread urban tree planting in environment and demand for attractive surroundings; the 1920s and 1930s. local government nurseries established to meet the n Greening programmes, starting with Kuala Lumpur demand for plants; Landscape Master Plans for every (1973); Landscape Unit established in Dept of Town & town or city council. Country Planning (1981); rules and regulations for the planting, cutting and conservation of trees; greater From Sreetheran et al., 2006.

C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 27 CFA The Forest R e s o u r c e

For example, three Commonwealth countries bution to the livelihoods of many rural people but more (Canada, Australia and India) are among the world’s 10 studies are required to quantify it and the benefits it most forested countries while five more have forests provides, especially to the poorest. covering more than 20 M ha each. Some 28% of the Loss is continuing in Commonwealth forests, appar­ Commonwealth’s forests are classified as primary forest, ently at a faster rate than in the period 2000-05 – mainly in Canada but with significant areas in Africa whereas the world’s deforestation has probably slowed and South-east Asia and the Pacific. All Commonwealth slightly since then. Most of this loss has occurred in forests cover a wide range of natural forest types and certain African and South-east Asian countries. The loss represent a very high level of biological diversity. of primary forest continues too, in South-east Asia but Two forest types of particular importance not only in to a lesser extent in certain African countries. ecological terms but also in terms of environmental, The outlook is, however, not entirely pessimistic. social and economic benefits are the boreal forests of There has been a net gain of forest in some Asian Canada and the mangrove forests of the coastline of countries, a transition from net deforestation to net many Small Island Developing States and other low- reforestation. Commonwealth countries have a long lying countries; both are under threat from the effects history of planting trees and planted forests in now of global warming. cover 32 M ha, or 3.9% of the Commonwealth forest The importance of forests and woodland to rural estate compared with the global proportion of 6.5%. people in low forest cover countries and in montane Several Commonwealth countries rely heavily on zones is often not appreciated by policymakers. Other planted forests for the provision of forest goods and wooded land is another resource that is often omitted services and there is a move towards “outgrower” from national planning; it covers nearly 400 M ha in schemes by smallholders in many countries, reflecting a Commonwealth countries. It makes a significant contri­ global trend. Such schemes can contribute to the

r i g h t The mangrove forests of many SIDS such as the Maldives are under threat from the effects of global warming.

28 C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 The Forest R e s o u r c e CFA

livelihoods or rural people, but there implications for view, FAO Corporate Document Repository, www. policymakers, who should bear in mind the impact on fao.org/DOCREP/004/AC131E. Accessed June 2006. wood supplies of sudden changes in facilitating policies. FAO (2006c), Global planted forests thematic study: Tree planting in towns and cities is attracting increasing results and analysis, Planted Forests and Trees recognition and support. Working Papers, Working Paper FP38, Forest Most forests in Commonwealth countries are Resources Development Service, Forest Resources publicly owned, but some countries have communal Division, FAO, Rome. ownership and several others predominantly private FAO (2009), Towards defining forest degradation: com­ ownership. Some Commonwealth countries have been parative analysis of existing definitions, FAO, Rome. pioneers in the privatisation of forests. FAO (2010), Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 (in press), FAO, Rome. n References ICF (2009), Newsletter of the Institute of Chartered Bethlehem, L. and Dlomo, M. (2003), “Forests, Foresters (UK), Spring 2009. economics and the development agenda”, Paper, International Forestry Review (2002) Vol. 4 (4) – special 12th , Québec City, 21-28 issue on Small Island Developing States. September 2003. ITTO (2002), ITTO Guidelines for the Restoration, Canadian Forest Service (2006), The State of Canada’s Management and Rehabilitation of Degraded and Forests 2004-2005, Canadian Forest Service, Natural Secondary Tropical Forests, ITTO Policy Development Resources, Canada. Series #13, Yokohama. Carlson, M., Wells, J. and Roberts, D. (2009), The carbon Lambin, E.F., Geist, H.J. and Lepers, E. (2003), “Dynamics the world forgot: conserving the capacity of of land-use and land-cover change in tropical Canada’s boreal forest region to mitigate and adapt regions”, Annual Review of Environmental to climate change, www.borealbirds.org/resources/ Resources, 28. carbon/report-full. Mather, A.S. (2007), “Recent Asian forest transitions in Evans, J. (ed.) (2009), Planted forests: uses, impacts and relation to forest-transition theory”, International sustainability, CABI International and FAO. Forestry Review, Vol. 9 (1). FAO (2000), Report of the open-ended international Nyoka, B.I. (2003), Biosecurity in forestry: a case study meeting of experts on special needs and on the status of invasive tree species in Southern requirements of developing countries with low forest Africa, Working Paper FBS/1E, FAO, Rome. cover and unique types of forest, Information Note, Pandey, D. (2008), “Trees outside the forest (TOF) 14th Session of the Near East Forestry Commission, resources in India”, International Forestry Review, Tehran. FO:NEFC/2000/INF.5. Vol. 10 (2). FAO (2002), Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000, Sreetheran, M., Philip, E., Adnan, M. and Siti Zakiah, M. Forestry Paper 140, FAO, Rome. (2006), “A historical perspective of urban tree FAO (2003), State of the World’s Forests 2003, FAO, Rome. planting in Malaysia”, Unasylva, No. 223 Vol. 57, FAO (2006a), Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005, pp. 28-33. Forestry Paper 147, FAO, Rome. Unasylva (2001), issue on rehabilitation of degraded FAO (2006b), Forestry out-grower schemes: a global sites, No. 207 Vol. 52.

C o m m o nwea l t h F o r ests 2 0 1 0 29 Volvo Forestry Solutions

Demonstrating its commitment to forestry The more powerful and purpose- division has been the major investor in customers around the world, the Volvo designed feller buncher carriers feature a the Swedish company El-forest AB, in forestry equipment range now includes well-matched, forestry hydraulic system the development of the world’s first four tracked carriers – FC2121C, with a dedicated pump to power the hot hybrid forwarder, which was demon- FC2421C, FC2924C and FC3329C – saw. Whilst these machines normally carry strated on the Volvo stand at the last and, introduced in September, 2008, a heavy-duty felling head, they can also be Elmia Wood dedicated forestry exhi­bi­- initially into the North American market, equipped with a harvester head for cut to tion in Sweden. three feller bunchers – FB3800C, the length operations. In addition to felling Volvo’s strength in the forestry seg- short tail swing FB2800C and the zero and processing appli­cations, they can also ment is derived not only from the swing FBR2800C. serve as shovel loggers when working with provision of specialist forestry equip- Developed from Volvo standard large trees. ment, but also from the extensive range excavators, the tracked forestry carriers With operator safety never under­esti­ of products offered in the Volvo are designed as versatile, all-purpose mated, all Volvo dedicated forestry Construction Equipment product port- machines. The great advantage of this machines feature a Volvo Forestry Care folio – wheeled and tracked excavators, design is that, depending on seasonality Cab, approved to OSHA, WCB, SAE and wheel loaders, with an extensive range and weather conditions, these machines ISO standards. On the feller bunchers, the of wood handling attachments, haulers, can tackle a variety of forest applications larger cab also provides sufficient space for graders, compact equipment and, of when not being used for harvesting; from the occasional trainer or trainee to be in course, superior Volvo, Renault and forest road build­ing, shovel logging, log the cab alongside the operator. Mack trucks – all of which have an loading, processing, stump harvesting for Alongside quality and safety, as Volvo important role to play in some part of bio-energy to reforest­ation, and so the core values, environmental care is never the forestry process, from building forest process starts all over again. off the agenda, and perhaps never more access roads and harvesting, right Designed for the tough demands of appro­priate than to the environment that through loading, transportation to mills forestry work, Volvo heavy-duty tracked is the forest. Volvo adapts a multi-pronged and the handling of finished products forestry carriers include protection for approach to fuel efficiency through the for onward transportation. both the upper and lower structure, a development of alternative fuels, engine For forestry customers around the purpose-built, “high-walker” undercarriage development to continue to meet the world, this “total solutions” capability to manage difficult terrain and protection ever more challenging emissions regu­ gives Volvo the opportunity to offer every­ for all major components. The FC2421C lations, eco-operating pro­grammes for thing needed in mobile equipment and can also be supplied with an optional machine operators, the develop­ment of related services, both in terms of financial “gull wing” panel opening system, pro­ systems that deliver fuel savings and, of support from Volvo Financial Services to viding unimpeded, easy access to the course, hybrids. customer after-sales support. The focus of engine and components, for easy service As just one example of Volvo’s quest the “total solutions” concept is the best and main­tenance, ensuring maximum for ever more environmentally friendly overall result on the customer’s bottom machine availability. solutions, Volvo’s Technology Transfer line, year after year.

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