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Degree Thesis Teacher Education (Upper Secondary School), 300 Credits Degree Thesis Teacher Education (Upper secondary school), 300 credits Oral presentations in a first and second language A case study of student and teacher perspectives on the work process during oral presentations following the five canons of rhetoric English for Students in Teacher Education, 15 credits Halmstad 2021-06-10 Harald Fried, Nils Lundberg HALMSTAD UNIVERSITY ABSTRACT This case study examines the potential differences in the performance level of oral presentations between a student’s L1 and L2 and how teachers can best help to improve students’ ability to perform in the two languages. The aim of this essay is to provide teachers with a mapped diagnostic of differences in the support that students require in the stages of working with oral presentations. The collected data are based on a questionnaire distributed to 32 students and qualitative semi-structured interviews with four volunteering students from the researched classes. The results indicate that students generally perceive a higher difficulty level of preparing and performing an oral presentation in their L2 as compared to their L1 for all stages of the work process. The interviewed teacher did not acknowledge this discrepancy between languages, nor did she recognise the students’ varying experiences regarding difficulty between the different stages. Both students and the teacher recognise the initial step of the work process as demanding of teacher guidance, however, the divergence is present concerning the other stages. All things considered, it was concluded that teacher and student perceptions of the perceived difficulty and support needs differ and therefore adequate teaching cannot be applied under these conditions. 1 Table of Contents 1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………....…………………….……………..…3 2 Theoretical background …………………………………………………………....………….….……………...3 2.1 The five canons of rhetoric ……………………………………………………….…...………....…..4 2.1.1 Inventio ……………………………………....………………………..…………………4 2.1.2 Dispositio ……………………………...………………………………………..………..5 2.1.3 Elocutio ……………………………………………...………………………………..…5 2.1.4 Memoria …………………………………………………....…………………..………..6 2.1.5 Pronuntiatio ………………………………………………………....………….………..6 2.2 The affective filter hypothesis and affective factors …………………………….…………...…....…7 2.3 The monitor hypothesis …………………. ……….…………………………….………...……...…..8 2.4 Previous research …… ……………………....………………………………………...…………….9 3 The present study ……… …………………………….…………………………………….……….………….11 3.1 Research questions addressed ….. …………....………………………………..……………..…….11 3.2 Material and method …...……………………………....……………………….………...………...11 3.2.1 Research respondents ………………………………………………………..………….12 3.2.2 The questionnaire ……………………………………………………………..………...12 3.2.3 The established contact …………………………………………….……..……………..12 3.2.4 The interviews …………………………………………………….………….………....13 4 Results and discussion …....…………………………………………………….……….…………….……..…14 4.1 Student groups and attitude towards the learning situation ………....……….…………...………...15 4.1.1 Student opinions regarding competence, demands and motivation.…………..………....15 4.1.2 Teacher’s impression of student groups and their approach …………………..………..16 4.2 Presentation of results and discussion ………………………………….………….…......………....17 4.2.1 Research regarding the five canons of rhetoric …………….…………..……………….17 4.2.2 Inventio …………………………………………………….…………..……………….18 4.2.3 Dispositio ………………………………………………….……..……………………..21 4.2.4 Elocutio ……………………………………………………………..………………….23 4.2.5 Memoria ……………………………………………………………..…………………26 4.2.6 Pronuntiatio ………………………………………………………...……..…………....28 4.2.7 Potential anxiety during pronuntiatio ……………………………………..…………....30 4.2.8 Similarities and differences between students’ and teacher’s perception of support …..32 5 Conclusion ……………………………………………….……………………………………………………33 6 Limitations and further research ………………………….…………………………………………………...34 7 References …………………………………………………....…………………………………………….….36 8 Appendix 1 ..…………………………………....…………………………………………………………..…..38 Appendix 2 ……………………………………………………………………………………………....….….46 2 1 Introduction Oral presentations form a central part of both the Swedish and English subjects in upper secondary schools in Sweden, and students have to prove their skills every year as they begin a new course in the subject. According to Skolverket (2010), students must be able to express themselves in both languages through writing and speaking, while also adapting their language use to the topic and the communicative situation. Guiding students on their path to meet these requirements is of great importance, and teachers need to provide students with the opportunities to put their skills and knowledge in the relevant areas on display. Aligning with the requirements set by Skolverket, oral assignments tend to involve debates, casual conversation, informative speeches and other presentations. Preparing for an oral presentation requires several steps that will be discussed in this study, but one of the main concerns is how teachers may lack insight into how students perceive the challenges of these presentations. Understanding how students approach assignments aimed for oral presentations may be guided by observing how students grade the difficulties of working by the five canons of rhetoric. This may highlight the sections of the work process that students may view to vary in difficulty, also exploring the possibility of different viewpoints in relation to their first and second language. Providing teachers with this information could help them understand where students may struggle more, allowing the teacher to adapt their teaching to best help their students. The study will also examine students' performances in relation to affective factors such as anxiety, motivation and self-confidence in accordance with Krashen's affective filter hypothesis. Comparisons will be made for the potential differences between these effects in the student’s L1 and L2 (first and second language). This study is meant to provide a mapped diagnostic of potential differences in the support required for students during the different stages of working with oral presentations in their L1 and L2. 2 Theoretical background The following background will present what theories will be applied to analyse the results from the present study. These theories were found to be relevant for analysing how students encounter the concept of oral presentations and the process of preparing these. The theories 3 will also be accompanied by previous research on the subject of second language acquisition, relating to the affective filter hypothesis. 2.1 The five canons of rhetoric Plett (2010, p. 57) states that rhetoric indicates “a process concerning an essential characteristic of humanity, namely speech”. The rules that characterise rhetoric have shaped a system that outlines the process of producing texts. Plett continues by providing a five-phase model describing individual stages of text production. This model is also known as the five canons of rhetoric, named by Cicero1 as the material of which he assumed Aristotle had approved. The art of rhetoric as a whole can be found to be reliant on this model and Cicero used these canons as a foundation for its outlining. While the five canons will be presented in a chronological order, it should be pointed out that they may occur in a different order and can be implemented simultaneously during a work process. The steps may also be revisited several times during the process, and thus a set form is not obligatory. For clarification of the five canons and their content, the work of Cicero (translated by Hubbell, 2017) offers rather concise descriptions. Therefore, complementary input from other works will help expand on the canons and their content. 2.1.1 Inventio Inventio, known as invention, is defined by Cicero (in Ashok, 2017, p. 19) as “the discovery of valid or seemingly valid arguments to render one’s cause plausible”. To expand on this concept, Foer (2012) (cited in Meldrum 2012) recognised inventio as a word representing both inventory and invention. Meldrum proceeds to state that while inventory refers to the memory of an individual, invention revolves around one’s creativity and the invention is first established as a product of using the inventory to create the invention in question. He continues by stating that creating knowledge requires knowledge and refers to how a chess grandmaster observes and adapts his playing style during a game of chess. By memory, patterns have been established, and a grandmaster sees the board in its entirety to recognise previous games found in the memory. Inventio is therefore seen as the process of using knowledge and past memories in the creative process of inventing. The greater amount of 1 Cicero was a Roman orator born in 106 BC. 4 knowledge that has previously been acquired may provide greater starting points in one’s inventio. 2.1.2 Dispositio Dispositio, known as arrangement, is defined by Cicero (in Ashok, 2017, p. 19) as “the distribution of arguments thus discovered in the proper order”. Following the invention, arranging and distributing a text in order is central in conveying its content strikingly. Enos (1985, p. 109) claims that Cicero found the arrangement of text to be of great importance to the composition, and as the invention was localised, the ideas are required to be in the proper place within the discourse. The ideas found during inventio require a proper arrangement to provide a structure for the ideas to fit in and Enos continues by referring to Quintilian2,
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