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China's Nomenklatura System Anthony Arnold John P Froblems of mmUDlsm• SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 1987 Patterns of Soviet Third World Policy NOTE Francis Fukuyama Soviet Arms Transfers Philippine Communism Mark N. Kramer Gareth Porter BOOKS China's Nomenklatura System Anthony Arnold John P. Burns Carol R. Saivetz ,.r IP[p®®TI@ffiQ~ ®~ @®ffiQffiQDDrnD~ffiQ 5 SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 1987 VOL XXXVI Problems of Communism (ISSN 0032-941 x) is a Patterns of Soviet Third World Policy bimonthly publication providing analyses and significant information about the contemporary affairs by Francis Fukuyama of the Soviet Union, China, and comparable states and political movements. Views of contributors, as well as 14 Philippine Communism After Marcos geographic boundaries and names, do not necessarily reflect the policies of the United States Government. by Gareth Porter 36 China's Nomenklatura System On all editorial matters, communications should be by John P. Burns addressed to: The Editors, Problems of Communism, US Information Agency, United States of America, 301 4th Street SW, Washington, DC, 20547, USA. NOTE Telephone (202) 485-2230. 52 Soviet Arms Transfers to the Third World On subscriptions, communications should be by Mark N. Kramer addressed to: The Superintendent of Documents, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 20402, USA, preferably using the subscription form BOOKS provided at the back of this issue. Outside the United States, please address inquiries to the Public Affairs Section, Embassy of the United States of Arnerica. 69 Perspectives on Afghanistan by Anthony Arnold Copyright: Reproduction or republication of texts from 77 Superpowers in the Middle East Problems of Communism is permissible, and no claim of copyright is asserted. However, the Editors request by Carol R. Saivetz that they be advised of reprint usage and that source credit be given both to the authors of individual articles and to Problems of Communism. Should textual items in the journal ever be subject to a claim of copyright, Cover: Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev such claim will be clearly stated. Graphics and pictures and his wife hosted by Egypt's Gamal Abdul-Nasser which carry a credit line are not necessarily owned by at a Cairo sports exhibition in May 1964. Problems of Communism, and users bear responsibility Photo by TASS from Sovfoto. for obtaining appropriate permissions. An annual index for Problems of Communism appears EDITOR in the November-December issue (No.6) of each year except in the case of the first three volumes, which are Wayne Hall covered in a combined index in the November­ December issue (No.6) of Vol. III. Material from the SENIOR EDITOR ASSOCIATE EDITOR journal is also indexed in ABC POL SCI, Bibliographie Sophia Sluzar Maria O. Pryshlak Internationale des Sciences Sociales (all Sections), Current Contents, Economic Abstracts, Historical DESIGNER Abstracts, Index to US Government Periodicals, International Political Science Abstracts, Public Affairs Gary Soderstrom Information Service, Social Sciences Citation Index, Social Sciences Index, Strategic Studies Reference EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Guide, and United States Political Science Documents. Kim Taylor 'iE sa 'NWMPHd NeeD eeee,W;Yw *i a IIh-u 'Ina. ,s yste John P. Burns A ;a *;1 6 &+&'.,..5 '* ; t 'I 9'+ w n its attempt to ensure the success of the Four Mod­ na exist in a hierarchy of ranks. The state bureaucracy is ernizations drive, the leadership of the People's Re­ organized territorially. Below the central government in I public of China has made major efforts in the 1980's Beijing are 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, and to revitalize the cadre management system that was in­ three centrally administered cities (Beijing, Shanghai, stituted in the 1950's and early 1960's and to reestablish and Tianjin), all of equal rank. At the next lower level are control of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) over it. 175 prefectures or prefecture-level units, and below This undertaking marks official recognition of the fact them are more than 2,000 counties or county-level that the success of innumerable reform initiatives units 4 A hierarchy of party committees, extending hinges on correcting the shortcomings of the existing downward from the Central Committee in Beijing, paral­ cadre system, especially those aspects of it that impede lels this structure. the large-scale qualitative elite transformation required In the Chinese administrative hierarchy, ministers by the modernization drive.' and deputy ministers of central ministries in Beijing are A central target of recent changes is the nomen­ of equal rank to governors and deputy governors of klatura system-the critical feature of the cadre man­ provinces. Heads of general bureaus (zongju) at the agement system. The nomenklatura (zhiwu mingcheng center are equivalent to heads of provincial-level com­ biao) system2 consists of lists of leading positions over missions, and heads of bureaus Iju and si) of central which party committees exercise the power of appoint­ ministries and commissions are of equal rank to heads ment, lists of reserve cadre for the available positions, of provincial bureaus (ting and ju) and to heads of and the institutions and processes for making the ap­ prefectures,S propriate personnel changes. The system is arguably the major instrument of Communist Party control over contemporary China's pOlitical, economic, social, and 'For further discussion, see Melanie Manion, "The Cadre Management cultural institutions. Through nomenklatura, a variant of System, Post-Mao: The Appointment, Promotion, Transfer, and Removal of Party and State Leaders," The China Quarterly (London), June 1985, which is employed by all communist parties in power,3 pp.203-33. authorities ensure that leading institutions throughout 'Bohdan Harasymiw described the term "nomenklatura" (meaning the country will exercise only the autonomy granted to ;'nomenclature") in the following terms: "a list of positions, arranged in order of seniority, including a description of the duties of each office. Its political them by the party. importance comes from the fact that the party's nomenklatura-and it alone­ China's nomenklatura operates within a complex hi­ contains the most important leading positions in ali organized activities of erarchy of authority. For example, organizations in Chi- social life." See Harasymiw's seminal article, "Nomenklatura: The Soviet Communist Party's Leadership Recruitment System," Canadian Journal of Political Science (Waterloo, OntariO), December 1969. p. 494. 3For examples from the Soviet Union and YugOslavia, see chapters in John P. Burns is Senior Lecturer in the Department of T. H. Rigby and Bohdan Harasymiw, Eds" Leadership Selection and Patron-Client Relations in the USSR and Yugoslavia, London, George Alien Political Science, University of Hong Kong. Among his and Unwin, 1983, For Poland, see Takayuki Ito, "Controversy over writings on Chinese politics and public administration Nomenklatura in Poland: Twilight of a Monopolistic Instrument for SOCial are Political Participation in Rural China, (forthcoming in Control," Acta Siavica laponica (Sapporo), 1983, pp. 57-103 'Ministry of Civil Affairs of the Peopte's Republic of China, Ed., 1988) and a volume edited with Ian Scott, The Hong Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingzheng juhua liance (Handbook of Kong Civil Service: Personnel Policies and Practices Administrative Divisions of the People's Republic of China), Beijing, Cehui (1984 and 1988). The author wishes to thank Kenneth chubanshe, 1985, p. 1. sSee Kenneth Lieberthal and Michel Oksenberg, Bureaucratic Politics Lieberthal, T. H. Rigby, and Audrey Donnithorne for their and Chinese Energy Development, Washington, DC, us Department of comments on an earlier draft of this article. Commerce, 1986, p. 124. 36 Problems of Communism Sept-Oct 1987 Committee extended its control to the party core groups Background (dangzu) of central ministries, commissions, and bu­ reaus. These party core groups, which are appointed by The nomenklatura system had its beginnings in the central party officials and exist independently of the par­ early 1950's, and by 1955 a system along Soviet lines ty committees that also exist in the ministries, commis­ had been established.6 Party committees exercised sions, and bureaus, play an important role in the imple­ formal authority over senior personnel appointments, mentation of the nomenklatura system. Within each removals, and transfers two levels down the administra­ ministry and commission of the State Council, for exam­ tive hierarchy; the Central Committee in Beijing ap­ ple, party core groups consisting ofthree to five people, proved personnel changes not only of leading cadres at each with a group secretary (usually the minister or a the center, but of senior officials at the provincial and deputy minister) and a deputy secretary, maintain lists prefectural levels. By the 1960's, China's cadre system of positions over which they have authority of appoint­ had become a powerful, party-dominated one. 7 A re­ merit, removal, and transfer of officials. In turn, judging cent study states that a personnel dossier and cadre from the example of the Bank of China, the secretary, evaluation system was in place in the 1960's and that deputy secretaries, and members of the core groups in "cadre appointments, promotions, transfers and re­ similarly key central institutions were included on the no­ movals were deliberated and conducted in an atmo­ menklatura of the Central Committee. 11 sphere of secrecy. "S Overlap existed both between
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