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An Introduction to Arboviruses of Medical Importance to Europe

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Setting the course scene: An introduction to arboviruses of medical importance to Europe Chantal Reusken [email protected] Arboviruses . Arboviruses (arthropod-borne) grouped based on common mode of transmission between vertebrates by bite of infected arthropod. (biological vs mechanical transmisison). Arthropods like midges, mosquitoes, sandflies and ticks. 2017, new classification: Order Bunyavirales. Families: Hantaviridae, Feraviridae, Fimoviridae, Jonviridae, Nairoviridae, Peribunyaviridae, Phasmaviridae, Phenuiviridae, and Tospoviridae http://www.microbiologybook.org/mhunt/rnavir.gif Families relevant for Public Health Flaviviridae, flavivirus . Dengue virus (DENV) . West Nile virus (WNV) . Yellow fever virus (YFV) . Zika virus (ZIKV) . Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) . St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) . Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) . Omsk haemorraghic fever virus (OHFV) . Kyasanur forest virus (KFDV) . Alkhumra virus (ALKV) 4 Ashraf et al., Viruses 2015 Schematic diagram of flavivirus polyprotein organization and processing. René Assenberg et al. J. Virol. 2009;83:12895-12906 ZIKV ZIKV Worldwide distribution of flaviviruses. Distributions of YFV, JEV, TBEV, DENV, ZIKV and WNV are indicated. Adapted from : Tomohiro Ishikawa, Atsushi Yamanaka, Eiji Konishi A review of successful flavivirus vaccines and the problems with those flaviviruses for which vaccines are not yet available ☆ Vaccine, Volume 32, Issue 12, 2014, 1326–1337 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.01.040 Families relevant for Public Health Togaviridae, alphavirus . Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) . Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) . Western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV) . Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) . Ross river virus (RRV) . Barmah Forest virus . Sindbis virus (SINV) . Mayaro virus (MAYV) . O’Nyong-nyong virus (ONNV) 8 Phylogenetic tree of all Alphavirus species, and selected subtypes and variants, generated from partial E1 envelope glycoprotein gene sequences by using the neighbor-joining program with the F84 distance formula (61). Ann M. Powers et al. J. Virol. 2001;75:10118-10131 Schematic diagram of alphavirus genome organization and processing http://viralzone.expasy.org/all_by_species/625.html Families relevant for Public Health Nairoviridae, Peribunyavirae,Phenuiviridae . Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) . Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) . Toscana virus (TOSV) . Tahyna virus (TAHV) . Sandfly fever virus (SFV) . California encephalitis virus (CEV) . Oropouche virus Lopes, 2011 Eifan et al., 2013 Lifecycle (Weaver and Barret, 2004) I. man is accidental host . Man dead-end host; does not contribute to virus maintenance and amplification. Because: . Man has low viremia -> no infection of vectors and/or . Primary vectors are not anthropophilic . Need: Presence of bridge vectors West Nile virus Usutu virus Japanese encephalitis virus Equine encephalitis viruses Tick-borne encephalitis virus (Weaver and Barret, 2004) II. man is accidental host; two parallel cycles . Man dead-end host; does not contribute to virus maintenance and amplification. Parallel transmission cycle involving amplification in domestic animals Japanese encephalitis virus Equine encephalitis viruses (Weaver and Barret, 2004) III. two parallel cycles . Man develops high viremia, virus transmission can be sustained man-mosquito cycle . Parallel transmission cycles Jungle/urban Yellow fever Sylvatic/urban Chikungunya (Africa) Sylvatic/urban O’Nyong-nyong Zika (Africa) (Weaver and Barret, 2004) IV. man is only amplification host . Man develops high viremia: virus transmission is sustained in man-mosquito cycle. Primary vectors are anthropophilic . High vector/man densities to sustain transmisison (Urban) Dengue virus (Urban) Chikungunya (Indian Ocean/Caribbean Zika virus (Caribbean/Pacific) YFV Monath et al, 2001 Transmisison cycle tick-borne CCHFV Bente et al., 2013 TBEV (Dobler et al., 2010) Alternative transmission routes . Blood-transfusion mediated transmission . Transplant transmission . Trans-placental and perinatal transmission . Sexual transmission . No-socomial transmisison Other ways to look at arboviruses…… . a laboratory perspective -> serologic relationships f.i. flaviviruses: serogroups crossreactivity incl vaccinated . a control perspective -> specific virus-vector relationships f.i. Aedes aegypti YFV, DENV, CHIKV, ZIKV. Culex spp. WNV, JEV, SLEV, RRV, VEEV Specific virus – vector –host associations Transmission cycle: human-mosquito-human (3-12 days) Not all mosquito species will transmit virus “X” Vector competence: susceptibility + transmissibility = infected -> infective A. blood meal B. midgut D. entry midgut epithelial cells E. entry hemolymph-filled hemocoel H. entry salivary glands innate characteristics of vector efficiency of mosquito barrier crossing by specific virus (Beerntsen et al., 2000) Vector capacity ma2VPn C= -logeP V = vector competence m = vector density vs competent host density a = vector daily blood feeding rate (host preferences) P = vector daily survival rate n = extrinsic incubation period (days) efficiency of virus X transmission by mosquito species Y in defined context Other ways to look at arboviruses…… . a laboratory perspective -> serologic relationships f.i. flaviviruses: serogroups . a control perspective -> vector relationships f.i. Aedes aegypti YFV, DENV, CHIKV. Culex spp. WNV, JEV, SLEV, RRV, VEEV . a physician’s perspective -> pathogenic relationships + geographic relationships Main arbovirus syndromes . Often overlap . Fever with general malaise/myalgia . Arthritis/arthralgia and rash . Haemorrhagic fever . Neurological syndrome Arthritis and rash Cleton et al., 2012 Meningo-encephalitis 2931 31maartCleton 2018 et al., Journal of Clinical Virology 2012 29 maart 2018 Hemorrhagic fever Cleton et al., 2012 Diagnostic challenges arboviruses Many diseases display overlapping symptoms and geographical distribution Within genus cross-reactivity! Europe AR NS HS WNV* TBEV* DENV^ East Asia North America DENV^ WNV* CCHFV AR NS HS AR NS HS TAHV LIV DENV^* JEV* DENV^* WNV* CEV/LCV* DENV^ SINV* TOSV* §SFV* WNV TBEV OHFV DENV^ WNV* CHIKV BATV CHIKV* WNV SFTSV CHIKV POWV TAHV SLEV TAHV BANV CCHFV EEEV West and Central Asia TAHV WEEV AR NS HS CTFV DENV^* CHIKV* RVFV* North Africa WNV* WNV* CCHFV AR NS HS TAHV TBEV DENV^* Caribbean and Central America DENV^* TOSV* RVFV* SINV BANV OHFV South and Southeast Asia AR NS HS WNV* RVFV* CCHFV* TAHV AHFV AR NS HS DENV^* OROV* DENV^* CHIKV* TAHV YFV* §SFV* RVFV* DENV^* JEV* DENV^* WNV WEEV SINV DENV^* WNV* WNV* KFDV ZIKV* EEEV TAHV §SFV* ZIKV* TBEV SFTSV OROV* VEEV BUNV TBEV BANV CCHFV CHIKV* ILHV Sub-Saharan Africa CHIKV* TAHV WNV AR NS HS TAHV SLEV DENV^* WNV* DENV^* Flaviridea WNV* RVFV* RVFV* YFV* BUNV NRIV Togaviridae South America ZIKV TAHV ILEV CHIKV* BWA CCHFV AR NS HS SINV BUNV Bunyaviridae DENV^* OROV* DENV^* ONNV ILEV ZIKV* WEEV YFV BWA Reoviridae / Seadornaviridae WNV EEEV Oceania TAHV CHIKV* VEEV AR NS HS ILEV MAYV* SLEV RRV* MEV* DENV^ TATV §WSBV OROV* WNV BFV* JEV NRIV ILHV CHIKV WNV ROCV SINV WNV DENV^ ZIKV §Fever with general malaise/myalgia + AR=Arthritis/arthralgia and rash Fig 1. Geographical distribution of medically important arboviruses that cause febrile disease in HS=Haemorrhagic symptoms humans. Cleton et al 2012 Journal of Clinical virology & Cleton et al 2015 PNTD NS=neurological symptoms Recent emerging viral diseases. Entero 68 Usutu virus MERS Polio Zika Zika Yellow fever Updated from Hilary• D. MarstonVector et-borne al., Sci diseases Transl Med account for 17% of the estimated global burden of 2014;6:253ps10 all infectious diseases. Arbovirus • 50% global population is at risk from vector-borne disease. • The fastest growing vector-borne disease is dengue fever, 30-fold increase incidence over the last 50 years. 40% global population is at risk from dengue virus +/- 390 million infections each year in over 100 countries. Source: WHO, pre-outbreak CHIKV and ZIKV in the New World Kreuder Johnson et al., 2015 Determinants and Drivers of Infectious Disease Threat Events in Europe Semenza et al., 2016 Determinants and Drivers of Infectious Disease Threat Events in Europe A combination of factors increases the threat of vector-borne diseases: • changing social and economic conditions; • globalized travel and trade => pathogen and vector • increased urbanization; population growth •environmental and ecosystem changes. •climate change; •Pathogen adaptationFood to- bornevector/host Vector/rodent-borne Semenza et al., 2016 Globalization; trade Trade in used tires and lucky bamboo Charrel et al., 2007 Sources of Scrap Tires Imported into U.S., 1989-1994 Courtesy of Dr. L. Petersen, CDC Fort Collins Destination of U.S. Scrap Tires Exports, 1989-1994 Courtesy of Dr. L. Petersen, CDC Fort Collins Risks Public Health exotic vectors . (increased) transmission native pathogens . Introduction of novel pathogens (transovarial transmission) . e.g. DENV in Ae. Albopictus in NL ? . Scholte et al., 2008 . Hofhuis et al., 2009. Transmission novel pathogens introduced independently Globalization, travel Increase travel 4 generations Increase in flight routes from/to Paris 30 yrs Cliff and Haggett, 2004 Globally 58,288 flight routes… 1 Earth….within 24-30 hours Bogoch et al., 2016; http://qz.com/605711/zika-is-just-one-flight-away-from-these- 57-countries/ Risk factor: returning viremic travellers = introduction of virus in naive areas where vector is present……. …………autochthonous transmisison Estimated yearly number CHIKV viremic
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  • Sustained RNA Virome Diversity in Antarctic Penguins and Their Ticks

    Sustained RNA Virome Diversity in Antarctic Penguins and Their Ticks

    The ISME Journal (2020) 14:1768–1782 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41396-020-0643-1 ARTICLE Sustained RNA virome diversity in Antarctic penguins and their ticks 1 2 2 3 2 1 Michelle Wille ● Erin Harvey ● Mang Shi ● Daniel Gonzalez-Acuña ● Edward C. Holmes ● Aeron C. Hurt Received: 11 December 2019 / Revised: 16 March 2020 / Accepted: 20 March 2020 / Published online: 14 April 2020 © The Author(s) 2020. This article is published with open access Abstract Despite its isolation and extreme climate, Antarctica is home to diverse fauna and associated microorganisms. It has been proposed that the most iconic Antarctic animal, the penguin, experiences low pathogen pressure, accounting for their disease susceptibility in foreign environments. There is, however, a limited understanding of virome diversity in Antarctic species, the extent of in situ virus evolution, or how it relates to that in other geographic regions. To assess whether penguins have limited microbial diversity we determined the RNA viromes of three species of penguins and their ticks sampled on the Antarctic peninsula. Using total RNA sequencing we identified 107 viral species, comprising likely penguin associated viruses (n = 13), penguin diet and microbiome associated viruses (n = 82), and tick viruses (n = 8), two of which may have the potential to infect penguins. Notably, the level of virome diversity revealed in penguins is comparable to that seen in Australian waterbirds, including many of the same viral families. These data run counter to the idea that penguins are subject 1234567890();,: 1234567890();,: to lower pathogen pressure. The repeated detection of specific viruses in Antarctic penguins also suggests that rather than being simply spill-over hosts, these animals may act as key virus reservoirs.