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Ducks and Deer, Profit and Pleasure: Hunters, Game and the Natural Landscapes of Medieval Italy Cristina Arrigoni Martelli A

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Ducks and Deer, Profit and Pleasure: Hunters, Game and the Natural Landscapes of Medieval Italy Cristina Arrigoni Martelli A DUCKS AND DEER, PROFIT AND PLEASURE: HUNTERS, GAME AND THE NATURAL LANDSCAPES OF MEDIEVAL ITALY CRISTINA ARRIGONI MARTELLI A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR IN PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN HISTORY YORK UNIVERSITY TORONTO ONTARIO May 2015 © Cristina Arrigoni Martelli, 2015 ii ABSTRACT This dissertation is an ample and thorough assessment of hunting in late medieval and Renaissance northern and central Italy. Hunting took place in a variety of landscapes and invested animal species. Both of these had been influenced by human activities for centuries. Hunting had deep cultural significance for a range of social groups, each of which had different expectations and limitations on their use of their local game animal-habitat complexes. Hunting in medieval Italy was business, as well as recreation. The motivations and hunting dynamics (techniques) of different groups of hunters were closely interconnected. This mutuality is central to understanding hunting. It also deeply affected consumption, the ultimate reason behind hunting. In all cases, although hunting was a marginal activity, it did not stand in isolation from other activities of resource extraction. Actual practice at all levels was framed by socio-economic and legal frameworks. While some hunters were bound by these frameworks, others attempted to operate as if they did not matter. This resulted in the co-existence and sometimes competition, between several different hunts and established different sets of knowledge and ways to think about game animals and the natural. The present work traces game animals from their habitats to the dinner table through the material practices and cultural interpretation of a variety of social actors to offer an original survey of the topic. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is fine to be able to finally sit down and say “thank you!” to all those who, over the years, variously helped make this project come together. The debts of gratitude are indeed many, and hopefully I will not have neglected too many in what follows. The mistakes in this dissertation are of course my own doing. I would like to thank those archivists -- and especially those of the Archivio di Stato di Venezia -- who informed on the location of possible viable “hunting grounds” in the kilometric Italian archival shelves. I am thankful for the efforts of the staff who brought up box upon box of documents. In Tuscany, Alberto Malvolti of Fucecchio provided extensive logistical and scholarly assistance and a healthy dose of Tuscan humor to booth. The section on Tuscany in the present work is heavily indebted to his help. Grazie! At York University, I owe a million thanks to Lisa Hoffmann and Karen Dancy for always and kindly helping out with the nitty gritty of administrative matters. In my early days at York, Bill Irvine, and Carolyn Podruchny inspired me in different ways to pursue my goals. My gratitude goes to the staff in the Inter Library Loan departments of York University and especially Mary Lehane, and of Fogler library (University of Maine Orono). I really could not have written anything without all their hard work and patience. In Toronto I enjoyed the continuous support of wonderful colleagues. Thank you Donna Bilak, Dagomar Degroot, Tim Newfield, and Andrew Watson. Thanks to Richard Unger for friendship and refreshing sarcasm. Thanks to all who at conferences asked questions, made suggestions, and expressed interest and excitement for my work even beyond the limits dissertation and especially Baudouin Van den Abeele and Steven Bednarski. My wonderful committee members struggled through a ridiculously long series of drafts, emendations, corrections, and bad syntax, right to the end. But neither Elizabeth Cohen nor Colin Coates are easily daunted. A very special grazie di cuore to my external committee member extraordinaire , Paolo Squatriti. As these things go, however, it was the chair of my committee, Richard Hoffmann, who bore the heaviest burden. The incidents are too numerous to list as I iv naively fumbled along from my joy and wonder at finding the first actual documents in the archives, to the chagrin of the final editorial process, and all the chapters in between. His endless patience, unfailing trust in the project, constant prompt availability with sound advice, and willingness to provide strong guidance alternated with ample wiggle room to his at times rather dense and hard-headed student was always punctuated with fishing stories, to our mutual benefit. It is an understatement to say that this dissertation would never have come into being without him and I will never be able to thank him enough for the ways in which he helped me make it happen. Most of the present was written in and at the edges of the woods rich in wildlife that cover the northern parts of the state of Maine. I am forever grateful to Russ Aldridge for teaching me to thrive in those woods and, back at the camp kitchen, for providing “scurvy-prevention” during my student years. Over the years, several wet noses and variously stubby wagging tails stubbornly and urgently led the way down trails and through covers too numerous to count. Their single-minded pursuit of upland birds has been an invaluable contribution of discovery, wonder, and learning to many years of work in environmental history. My appreciation of what it means to hunt and what it takes to be around animals I owe to a large extent to them. I lovingly dedicate this dissertation to my parents. It surely represents a crowning piece in their unfailing and very loving, albeit thankfully not uncritical, support of my life’s notoriously numerous “projects.” Their tolerance, curiosity, and loyalty often involved “projects” that they did not share, nor understand. The pursuit of these, however, has allowed me to try to live according to my own heart, trace my own paths, and continuously engage my life in complicated and, to me, important ways. I am ever grateful for this freedom for the problems and challenges it has given me the luxury to engage, and all the long hours of happiness and serenity it has afforded me. I truly hope Edoardo and Elisabetta enjoy reading what follows... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT......................................................................................................iii TABLE OF CONTENTS.........................................................................................................v LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................................ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS..................................................................................................x CHAPTER 1. HUNTING: PERSPECTIVES AND CONTEXT.............................................2 1.1 HUNTING AS INTERSECTION OF HUMAN AND NATURAL WORLDS.................................................................................4 1.1.1 Methodologies and Conceptual Frameworks..........................................8 1.1.2 Animals: Domesticated, Wild, and Game.............................................14 1.1.3 Landscapes, Habitats, and Political Structures......................................23 1.1.4 Organization..........................................................................................32 CHAPTER 2. HISTORIANS AND HUNTING....................................................................35 2.1 EUROPEAN HISTORIOGRAPHY.....................................................................35 2.2 ITALIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY..........................................................................46 2.3 HUNTING MANUALS.......................................................................................57 2.4 ARCHIVAL SOURCES......................................................................................65 CHAPTER 3. PRINCELY PLEASURES: HUNTS OF THE VISCONTI AND SFORZA DUKES..................................................................................76 3.1 TERRITORIES FOR THE DUCAL HUNTS......................................................79 3.1.1 Outer Zone.............................................................................................80 vi 3.1.2 Core Zone..............................................................................................82 3.1.3 Parks.......................................................................................................87 3.2 LABOR: TRAINING ANIMALS, CONTROLLING TERRITORIES................98 3.3.WEALTH AND PLEASURE.............................................................................108 3.4 PROBLEMS........................................................................................................115 3.4.1 Poaching, Stealing................................................................................115 3.4.2 Missing Animals, Missing Wages........................................................117 3.5 CONCLUSION....................................................................................................119 CHAPTER 4. TUSCAN TRANSACTIONS. THE BUSINESS OF HUNTING IN TUSCAN TERRITORIES.........................................................................122 4.1 TUSCAN ENVIRONMENTS.............................................................................124 4.2 ELITE HUNTS IN TUSCANY...........................................................................126
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