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AN ANALYSIS OF THE MEDIA AND GOVERNMENT RELATIONSHIP

Yusuf Yüksel ABSTRACT This article analyzed the relationship between the media and government. Understanding the dynamics of this relationship is essential as it has implications on the public gets and strong democracy. For this purpose, different media systems, theories and approaches (cascade model, indexing approach, theory and hegemonic perspective) were discussed in terms of the media-government relationship. It is clear that the degree of commercialization, political parallelism, and norms of journalistic professionalism in different media systems influence the degree and nature of this relationship. By taking into account these factors, scholars have suggested different theories and models to explain this relationship. Although each theory or model constitutes a unique map for making sense some of the important factors in this relationship, cascade model provides a more comprehensive picture. As suggested in this model, political actors, the media and the public mutually influence and interact with each other at different levels and under certain conditions. Specifically, the interaction of four different variables (cultural congruence, power, strategy, and motivation) influences the government’s capacity of setting agenda, the circulation of the preferred frames and attention and support of the public. All these variables and how they are used in management and political rhetoric were discussed and exemplified in this article. Keywords: Media Systems, News Management, Political Rhetoric, Hegemony, Propaganda Theory, Indexing Approach, Framing, Cascade Model.

MEDYA VE HÜKÜMET İLİŞKİLERİNE YÖNELİK BİR ANALİZ

ÖZET Bu makalede medya-hükümet ilişkileri analiz edilmiştir. Bu ilişkinin dinamiklerini anlamak, kamunun alacağı bilgi ve güçlü demokrasi üzerindeki sonuçları bağlamında önemlidir. Bu amaçla, bu makalede farklı medya sistemleri, farklı medya teori ve modelleri (hegemonya, propoganda teorisi, endeksleme yaklaşımı, çerçeveleme, basamak modeli) medya ve hükümet ilişkileri bağlamında tartışılmıştır. Farklı medya sistemlerindeki ticarileşme oranı, politik paralellik ve gazetecilik mesleğinin kurallarının bu ilişkinin doğası ve derecesini etkilediği açıktır. Bu faktörleri de dikkate alarak, akademisyenler bu ilişkiyi açıklayan farklı teori ve modeller ortaya koymuşlardır. Her bir teori veya modelin bu ilişkideki önemli faktörlerin anlaşılması noktasında özgün bir katkısı olmakla birlikte, basamak modeli daha geniş bir resim sunmaktadır. Bu modelde belirtildiği üzere, politik aktörler, medya ve kamu birbirini karşılıklı olarak farklı seviyelerde ve farklı şekillerde etkilemektedir. Özellikle, model içerisindeki dört farklı değişkenin etkileşimi (kültürel benzerlik, güç, strateji, motivasyon) hükümetlerin gündem belirleme kapasitesi, tercih ettikleri haber sunumlarının (frames) yayınlanması ve kamunun destek ve dikkatini etkilemektedir. Tüm bu değişkenler ve haber yönetimi ve politik retorik bağlamında kullanımı bu makalede tartışılmış ve örneklendirilmiştir. Anahtar sözcükler: Medya Sistemleri, Haber Yönetimi, Politik Retorik, Hegemonya, Propoganda Teorisi, Endeksleme Yaklaşımı, Çerçeveleme, Basamak Modeli.

of discussion among the media and INTRODUCTION communication scholars. Gallons of ink have been spilled by , scholars, and The relationship between the media and politicians in different countries on the government is one of the most popular topics phenomenon of , informed citizens,

 Dr., Polis Akademisi Araştırma Merkezleri Başkanlığı Selçuk İletişim, 8, 1, 2013

national security, the public interest, by itself, but each one constitutes a unique map commercialization, media regulations, media for making sense some of the important factors norms, free speech and similar topics in terms in the relationship of the media and of media and government relations. There is a government. Based on the aforementioned never ending debate between the media limitation, although this study primarily takes owners, journalists and politicians in many ‘cascade model’ to explain the relationship different countries including Turkey on these between the media and government, ‘indexing issues. The last one is about the responsibility approach, ‘propaganda theory’ and of the media in the media leak of minutes of ‘hegemonic perspectives’, with their possible meetings on Imralı Island and the ‘peace implications in certain times under certain process’ that aim to find a political settlement conditions, will also be explained. to the terrorism and Kurdish conflict. In the international arena, the responsibility of media In order to understand these models, the author has been questioned in the different war should first develop a clear understanding of periods such as Afghanistan and Iraq. different media systems that has a role in the dynamic nature of this relationship. As Hallin Critics in different countries have argued that and Mancini (2004: 3) suggest media systems the public is not well informed on certain operate under many different political, issues, specifically about terrorism and national economic, cultural, social systems which, in security. All these discussions and cases have turn, influence the adaptability and application also opened up a prolific space to discuss the of these theories and approaches on explanatory power of different theories and relationship between the media and models that are used to examine the media and governments. In this sense, this article will first government relations. Based on this ground, introduce political and media systems that this study will discuss different media systems influence the relationship between the media and theories in helping us understand the and government. This will be followed by an relationship between the media and explanation of different theories and models government, including political rhetoric and and their implications to explain the media and news management in varied political systems. government relationship. Finally, the paper will be finished by a discussion of difference of the There are many theories and models to explain media and government relationship in different the media-government relations which will find national contexts and applicability of cascade different degree of accepters and rejecters in model in different contexts. the world of scholars. However, there would be little disagreement about the notion that this COMPARISON OF MEDIA SYSTEMS relationship is never fixed, but dynamic in nature which has been influenced by a number The first well-known attempt for comparison of of things including, though are in no way media systems was conducted by Siebert in limited to, on the macro level; political, 1956 which still continues to dominate the economic, social structures, and historical literature. In this study, four theories of the context in which these structures interact, and media are expressed as the authoritarian, the on the micro level; media routines, political libertarian, the Soviet, and the social rhetoric, issues context, and strategies of responsibility. However, according to Hallin politicians. This list can be further enhanced by and Mancini (2004: 8-10), a critical evaluation some other variables, but it is sufficient to of Siebert’s theory shows that it is outdated, show the complexity of factors in place which superficial, and empty of theoretical content to possibly influence the media and government be useful in today’s media research. Hallin and relations and implications of these relations on Mancini (2004: 12) has proposed three models . of media systems ‘liberal model, democratic model, polarized pluralist model’ Within this framework, it is reasonable to say designed on ‘most similar systems’ approach. that none of the theories is comprehensive This approach is suggested to provide valuable enough to provide all the answers all the times insights for each model and have a heuristic

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value for the researcher who deals with depend on their autonomy from government as comparison. There are a of other well as ideological orientations of the media, comparative research regarding the media, the general trend in the media models seem to political communication (see Esser and become more often associated with general Pfetsch, 2004) that has improved the tendencies -catch all- of the public and political knowledge on different media and political orientation (Swanson 2004: 45). communication systems as well as political systems. Although comparative research have Another important criterion that makes a certain limitations (see Gurevitch and Blumler, difference in the government and media 2004), they are a basic way of enhancing the relationship is the development of ‘journalistic understanding of one’s own media system and professionalism’. Different models of contrasting them critically with those prevalent journalistic professionalism can be classified in other countries. It might “serve as an under the degree of autonomy of journalists essential antidote against ethnocentrisms and (i.e., from government, from owner, from premature generalization” (Schmitt-Beck 2004: editor), professional norms (i.e., standards of 293) which, in turn, enables scholars to offer news worthiness, attitudes against official alternative options. ), partisanship, and the claims of public interest (i.e., watchdog versus adversary), and Despite the difficulty of suggesting a complete the role of (i.e., objectivity or model regarding the place of the media in interpretive) (Donsbach and Patterson, 2004: larger political, economic, and cultural 251). systems, it has been basically assumed either as a dependent (effect) variable influenced by The other criterion, ‘the role of the state in the other systems or independent (cause) variable system’, depends on the degree of public that mainly influences other systems (McQuail service broadcasting, and other media 2005: 34). However, it becomes more evident regulations such as libel laws, that, in many cases, there is a reciprocal laws, ownership laws, professional secrecy relationship between the political, social and laws, and broadcasting licensing rights media systems. That is, the media have an (McQuail 2005). All these regulations have impact of their own on other social systems as been negotiated through the political system well as it is rooted in the aspects of other social and influence the role of the government as a structures such as political party system and power to intervene the media as well as political culture. Under this general media’s freedom and ability to resist assumption, Hallin and Mancini (2004: 21) government. adapted four basic criteria to make a comparison: “The development of media Finally, ‘commercialization’ (the development markets-commercialization-, political of media markets) addresses the transformation parallelism, the development of journalistic of media as commercial entities that aims to professionalism, the degree of nature and state make profit by delivering information and interaction in the media system”. entertainment to individuals. The profit orientation, power of public broadcasting, Though it is beyond the limits of this study to media ownership trend and deregulation of give full description of these criteria, some media ownership are some important things basic factors and implications of each criterion that address the range of commercialization in can be helpful to understand the role of them to a media system (Esser and Pfetsch 2004: 26). examine the media and government The commercialization of the media has relationship and adaptability of the certain changed the conditions of politics, theories and approaches in different national practices and the role of media in the system in contexts. In ‘political parallelism’, the media terms of their connection to government, and systems are evaluated in terms of their ties to economic systems (Holtz-Bacha 2004: 213; political parties or their political orientation - McChesney 1999). As Hallin and Mancini commercial or ideological- (Hallin and suggests (2004: 22), with the emergence of Mancini 2004: 26). Although media models commercialization, the media became more

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differentiated from political institutions, but as a party member rather than individual less differentiated from economic systems. representatives, as such they tend to use party channels for communication with the people in IMPLICATIONS OF COMPARATIVE their district, whereas U.S House of RESEARCH Representatives consider themselves primarily as representatives of their district and aim to The media is essential part of any political and improve communication and campaign via social system. They inform, amuse, entertain, their individual web sites. In this sense, despite educate, and inculcate people with the beliefs the increasing use of the web sites in Europe by and values of society and integrate them into parties as well as individual politicians, as the system (Herman and Chomsky, 1988: 3). Chadwick (2006) observers in his study on e- The media provides a sphere for debate and a campaigning in the U.S., internet politics is still set of channels for politicians, candidates, mainly an American phenomenon. political parties, interests groups and public as well as the means of publicity and influence for In another study, Donsbach and Patterson these actors (McQuail, 2005: 18). On the one (2004: 251) examined how the changes in the hand, governments inevitably need for norms of journalism about the objectivity legitimacy for their actions which require influence news selection. In the U.S., justifying their actions publicly. They need to journalists view journalism in terms of cultivate a positive image to get an advantage ‘objective’ style of reporting on ‘facts’ and against their opponents, win public approval ‘balanced’ in the sense of presenting both sides and gain political power by using the media fairly. However, German style gives (Kohut, 2007: 190). On the other hand, the superiority of opinion over news and aims well media, especially , acquire most of reasoned interpretations which is claimed to be the information from official sources to fill out more realistic than the American style of news hole on daily basis with a more objectivism. Thus, their findings show that affordable way (Bennett, 1990: 106). In this U.S. journalists are the most aggressive sense, the relationship of governments and the supporters of press freedom, also face the media are inevitable in every system. However, strongest editorial control in terms of factuality the nature of relationship varies significantly in and accuracy of news (Donsbach and different political and media systems. Based on Patterson, 2004: 271). There are a number of the aforementioned discussion, it would be fair other studies showing how commercialized to say that the role of political actors within the broadcasting, legal regulations, political system of government, the system of politics communication strategies influence the media (i.e., presidential versus parliamentary system, and government relationship. candidate versus party elections), characteristics of the media system (i.e., On the other hand, some scholars assert that commercialization, autonomy of the media, (Esser and Pfetsch 2004; Hallin and Mancini competition), and professional roles of the 2004,) commercialization, globalization, journalist (i.e., objectivity, adversary, public modernization and secularization as well as informant) have inescapable influence on the technology lead to a trend among media and relationship of media and government. All political communication systems toward a these factors reflect the differences among convergence and homogenization. Based on various countries. mainly under the influence of commercialization, the media organizations There are some comparative research that aim to reach the maximum audience which, shows how the differences in national context then, can be translated into maximum profit change the style and form of relationship. For (McChesney 1999: 5). Compatible with this instance, Gruvitch and Blumler, (2004: 325), in purpose, the media mainly pursue the goal of their comparative research as to the influence producing entertainment and information to of different party systems on the way electoral reach maximum audience rather than just campaigns are designed on the web sites, found disseminating information. For this sake, there that in party system, politicians see themselves has been much focus on tabloidization,

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sensational news discourse, dramatization consistent biases (McQuail 2005: 36). As we (McQuail 2005). In addition, the media became don’t have opportunity for independent more differentiated from political parties and validation of information for most of the other political actors as a result of mainly events, public inevitably relies on the media commercialism (Kriesi 2004: 45). Political (Van Gorp 2005: 484). At this point, the media communication systems cannot be thought out does not operate as a fully independent actor. It of this trend. Politics is increasingly becoming has a reciprocal relationship with governments presidentialized. Party centered patterns of which certainly influences the news campaigns rooted in organized social networks management and the information public gets. have been undermined by a media centered Scholars of mass communication have patterns. Political parties tend to blur their developed different theories and models to ideological identities and become catchall explain this dynamic relationship and its parties. This trend is expressed as a turn from consequences on the information public gets. ‘political logic to media logic’ (Esser and Communication scholars mainly have referred Pfetsch 2004: 12). It is hard to say how far the the concept of ‘hegemony’, ‘propaganda homogenization will go, but it has certain model’, ‘indexing approach’, and ‘cascade limitations drawn from different political model’ to explain the relationship between the system, media regulations, public broadcasting, government and the media. professional norms, and state traditions (Hallin and Mancini 2004: 78). Based on our initial purpose, it would be fair to say that national ‘Hegemony’ which was developed by Gramsci, contexts in which media systems work still emphasize the role of powerful groups to makes a significant difference in the nature and constitute a direction to society on economic, style of the media and government cultural, judicial and political levels. Media is relationships. claimed to be as key apparatus of state to produce hegemony. As Hallin (1994: 23) THEORIES OF THE MEDIA AND summarized this view, “cultural institutions GOVERNMENT RELATIONS like the media are part of the process by which a world-view compatible with the existing This part of the study deals with the theories structure of power in society is reproduced”. In and models to explain the relationship between this sense, media does not represent things that the media and government as well as political already exist; it produces what we believe to be rhetoric and news management. The natural, and leading the domination of some relationship between the media and interests (Deetz 1994). Any statement which government has attracted scholarly attention looks like the report of truth or a fact may since the use of propaganda increasingly after involve some taken for granted propositions of the First World War to transform public for dominant . Although Hall (1982) different purposes by the governments. The recognize the active role of human agency to rise of ideological movements in Europe and create meanings and resistance, hegemony the Second World War as well as the rise of the theorists believe that “government officials such as radio and TV keep the information available to the public increased the attention of scholars to the media within such narrow ideological boundaries that and government relationship and its democratic deliberation and influence are all implication on public opinion (Cobb and Elder but impossible” (Entman 2004: 4). Despite 1971: 894). As Lipmann (1922: 29) rightly they accept the likelihood of elite observes “the world that we have to deal with disagreement; this is not the norm. By politically is out of reach, out of sight, out of emphasizing the elite agreement and harmony mind”. In fact, most of the time, we face a on the first place, harmony and consistent world with which we do not have direct information framed by the interests of experience. Under this condition, the media dominant group becomes the (not inevitable) help us reach out the world which is inevitably general tendency of the media (Entman 2003: constructed by certain news frames which are 415). However, hegemony is an abstract selected under different motivations with concept that is not testable in a specific way.

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Taking a perspective, decades, differences among elites are no longer Herman and Chomsky (1988) presented the exception, but the rule. In this sense, ‘propaganda model’ in their 1988 book government elites and other elites have far less ‘Manufacturing : The Political freedom in manipulating and dominating Economy of the ’ to explain the public opinion than the hegemonic perspective dynamics of the media and government suggests (Patrick and Thrall 2007: 95). relationship. Although propaganda model does Although indexing theory recognizes the not directly refer to hegemony, it provides a disagreement of elites in the first place, it is testable theory which basically includes the limited to explain the situations why political components of sustaining hegemonic power of leaders sometimes deviate from certain lines, governments over the system by using the sometimes not, the role of public and media. In this model, the ownership (profit journalists, news text, and how they are related oriented media giants), (main to each other (Entman 2003: 416-417). In order income), heavy reliance to official sources for to address the deficiencies of these approaches, information (beat system, PR operations of Entman (2003, 2004) proposes cascade model government, use of expert), flak (negative which will be explained in the following responses to a media statement and program), section together with framing which is needed and ideology help elites to manage news and to understand the model. marginalize dissent, and in this way allow government and other elite groups to dominate FRAMING AND CASCADE MODEL public discourse and reproduce existing structure of power in society (Herman and The framing theory finds its roots at Bateson’s Chomsky 1988). (1972: 10) usage of this metaphor as “principles of organization which govern In contrast, for the ‘indexing approach’, elite events”. In the following period, many disagreement is central (Bennett 1990; Entman definitions of frame and framing have 1991). The indexing approach argues that when flourished with some common and distinctive there is a consensus between elites on a certain features. For instance, Gitlin (1979: 12) defined issue, media coverage supports and promotes it as “persistent patterns of cognition, government policy. However, where there is a interpretation, and presentation, of selection, lack of consensus between the elites and emphasis, and exclusion, by which symbol- division in the government, the media is free to handlers routinely organize discourse, whether cover the range of views presented by these verbal or visual”. This definition is compatible people which in a way limits the media’s role with the Gamson’s (1989: 157) definition of as mere transmission of propaganda (Bennett frame as a “central organizing principle or idea 1990: 103). That is, “the range of media for making sense of relevant events and opinion in a time of conflict in the suggesting what is at issue”. If we take it as administration will only reflect the range of news frame, this definition implies that a news that conflict and will not, at least in the frame helps the readers make sense of news , go beyond it” (Robertson stories. As Gamson (1989: 157) suggests, this 2004: 458). Thus, the role of media for framing is inevitable part of producing news. independent contribution seems not very likely That is, the news does not portray that in this approach. already exists, but journalists necessarily select some words over others in the organization of Entman (2003, 2004) claimed that hegemony, news which shapes reality and gives the propaganda model and indexing approach have meaning to the news. certain limitations that should be addressed to understand the relationship between the In fact, in order to understand the role of government and media. These models are framing in the cascade model, we need to focus based on mostly the events of the pre-Cold War on the process of news framing. In Entman’s era, and thus limited to respond to changes in (1993: 52) definition, process, selection and international and internal politics, the media salience (highlighting) is the core process of system, and globalization. In the last a few framing, such that “framing is to select some

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aspects of a perceived reality and make them (Patrick and Thrall 2007: 96). While citizens more salient in a communication text, in such a now tend to perceive politics exclusively way as to promote a particular problem through the media (frames), politicians also definition, causal interpretation, moral tend to rely exclusively on the media for their evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation perception of the citizens’ concerns. for the item described”. Framing is highly Especially, “ambiguous events present more critical for government officials and the media opportunities for players outside the to exercise political influence over each other administration, including the media, to affect and over the public because the way how you framing” (Entman 2004: 50). Thus, all the define a problem promote particular forces in the system try to optimize their perceptions, interpretation, evaluation, and control over the events with different degree of solution that benefit one side while obscuring power. the other sides (Entman 1993: 52-54). This framing process entails selecting and At this point, the question is when highlighting certain words, phrases, metaphors, governments’ preferred frame flows down and choosing certain pictures, referring certain dominates thinking and communication at each sources, and making certain contextual level. This depends on the interaction of four references (Reese, Gandy and Grant 2001: 23), variables: ‘Cultural congruence, power, which shapes the way public think about the strategy, and motivation’ (Entman 2003: 37). event or issues and ultimately influences public Motivations and cultural congruence work opinion. The media leak of Imralı minutes of internally, while elite power and strategy meeting and the debate among politicians operate from the outside. When events are provide a good example of the importance of congruent with the cultural schemas of a framing. While Justice and Development Party society, it is more likely to be accepted and (AKP) promote a particular problem definition supported by the public and the media. For by focusing the person leaking this document, some events, like 9/11 in the U.S. (Entman Opposition Parties highlight the content of 2003) or the terrorist attack to civil citizens in these documents to influence the public the Kumrular street, the government, public, opinion in a different way. and the media are so perfectly aligned in terms of cultural congruence that the media CASCADE MODEL organizations are simply instrumentalized by the political actors. That is, the more an event Cascade model addresses the deficiencies of fits established schemas that are dominant in indexing model, and presents a bigger and culture it is more likely that the media will dynamic picture of relationship of different follow the government’s frame preferences forces (the government, elites, media and (Entman 2003: 37). However, the media have public opinion). The main point is that political more autonomy when events are ambiguous. actors, the media and the public mutually Due to the absence of predetermined habitual influence and interact with each other at schemas on some events, like Ergenekon trial different levels, under certain conditions in Turkey, it is much more difficult for (Kriesi 2004: 45-46). In this sense, it governments to manage the media. demonstrates the variation and stratification that emerges as a result of mutual influence In addition to cultural congruence, strategy, among different forces (Entman 2004: 50). power and motivation are other important Political actors, mainly presidents or prime variables that influence political actor’s ability ministers, have the most independent ability to to get circulated their own frames. In terms of produce events and decide which mental motivation, governments try to package frames associations to activate. The media most in a way that fits the motivations of media staff probably report it (Keisen 2004: 46). However, such as autonomy, objectivity, and other the interaction among elites, media, media normative values to get it circulated (Entman frames and the public lead to a complex system 2003: 421). Power and strategy works as of interaction which cannot be simply external forces. For instance, military situations controlled or dominated by one of the actors give power to administration to control the

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facts on the ground. At the same time, the For these purposes, governments seek to power of governments depends on the approval deploy strategies to communicate their ratings and effectiveness of administration. The messages rather than expect their messages to media staff also has some independent power be simply instrumentalized by the media. that arises from their capacity to ask question Based on this discussion, news management and select some words over others in the can be described as the strategic attempts of organization of news and transmit it. Lastly, government to influence media agenda and strategies are related with word choice, frames which, in turn, benefit government in information distribution and withholding, terms of public opinion (Kohut 2007: 191). In timing which is mostly defined by political this view, political actors encompass the actors (Entman 2003: 422). creation, distribution, and control of the information in ways that support government Thus, the goal of the administration is to get cause for a desired effect on public opinion. one-sided news coverage that favors its There are a number of strategies followed by framing of the issue. The more skillfully the governments for this purpose. The success of governments apply power, strategy, and these strategies depends on national context, motivations, the more completely it will issue context, individual context and succeed in and having application of news management skillfully public opinion on its side. Within this context, considering these different factors at work the next section deals with how political actors (Entman 2007: 170). manage news and use political rhetoric to frame issues for their sake. In terms of news management, governments have a set of tools that they can use effectively. NEWS MANAGEMENT AND POLITICAL One of them is having the control of the RHETORIC information on certain issues, especially war and international terrorism. A number of Governments generally try to reinforce the studies show a heavy reliance on official circulation of their preferred frames on the sources on foreign issues by the media staff media and reach the public to get its attention (Herman and Chomsky, 1988; Reese, 2004). and support (Kriesi 2004: 46). This process Especially, in international conflicts, news obliges using some organized attempts on the media typically give much more weight to side of governments because they cannot count official sources in their country due to partly on being able to simply instrumentalize the the accessibility of information and partly the media. The media do not necessarily norm of claiming objectivity by using official concentrate on the “substantive part of the sources. This situation provides an inevitable messages supplied by officials, but they try to power to government sources to adapt their demonstrate their independence by focusing on preferred frames to an issue and event. This the social and personal aspects of the political power is more dominant on military situations contest and on the strategic intentions of the which let governments control ‘the facts on the political actors” (McQuail 2005: 192). The ground’ (Robertson 2004: 35). ‘Embedded media organizations use their power that comes journalism’ illustrates the power of from selection of news (gate keeping), framing government to control the information during of news content. In this sense, the media does the war. In fact, the use of official sources and not only provide information, but also may the practice of embedded journalism inevitably become autonomous actors in the political lead to unintended bias and one-sided news process. In this process, the relationship of the coverage that favors government (Hallin 1988: media and government can be considered in 22). Reese (2004) convincingly expresses how terms of power struggle to influence the agenda embedded journalism undermines the and make their own frames part of the story, in autonomy of journalists in terms of protection, an effort to influence public opinion leading military logic, one-sided news and (McCombs 2004: 12). heroic frames among journalists.

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In addition to institutionalized events, the problem (Entman 1993: 51). It becomes governments can also create pseudo events of more evident that political rhetoric and news their own which gain media attention. They management is inevitable instruments of have important resources for professional political actors, will be much more in the near and political marketing that are future. used to create pseudo events (Herman and Chomsky 1988). “Nearly all political parties DISCUSSION and government agencies employ news managers and doctors whose task is to The scholars of communication mostly focused maximize the favorable presentation of policy on the media and government relations for its and action and minimize any negative aspect” implication on public opinion. The nature of (McQuail 2005: 325). They use their technical this relationship has clear consequences on knowledge about the production and impact of what public gets as news. Although there are political messages and arrange the circulation some scholars who believe in informed public of political messages by using the right media opinion may not be desirable in certain at the right time (Cook 1989; West 2005, situations, it is generally agreed that it is in the 2008). Press conferences, press releases with national interest to have an independent press carefully articulated political messages are fostering informed, independent citizen some of the strategies they use for this purpose. deliberation (Carey 2002: 71). For instance, In his study, Yang (2003: 231) found that more Norris (2004: 115) has suggested both than half of the news on the is independency and access of the media systems originated from press conferences or press are necessary conditions to strengthen good releases. At this point, practice of journalism governance and informed citizenship. Both illustrated as the beat system, need for filling Habermas’s ‘ideal speech situation’ and out news hole on daily basis, and economical Barber’s (2003) ‘strong democracy’ notions pressure to reduce costs serve to governments emphasize the importance of informed to adapt news management more easily. For citizenship that leads independent deliberation instance, Reese (2004) showed how ‘rescue for the democracy. Compatible with these Private Jessica Lynch’ case were packaged by goals, the journalists have also defined their spin doctors in a way which is beneficial both role as watchdog, public interest and to the military for its image management and to maintaining democracy (McQuail 2005). news organizations seeking drama. However, most scholars who studied this relationship clearly showed that the media are Political rhetoric is inevitable part of the news usually passive rather than adversarial, management. The success of any attempt to especially in times of war or international communicate messages to public partly conflicts like terrorism. The media are also depends on the success of rhetoric. As Lakoff criticized for being susceptible to manipulation (2004: 2) states ‘language matters’. It is a key by the powerful groups. As cascade model aspect for political actors to win public and the suggests, although this might be the case for media support for their policies. Rhetoric deals many situations, there are certain cases when with properties of speech or text, message the media can deviate from dominant frames construction, message source, metaphors or and play an active role. The set of opportunities choices (Neuendorf 2001: 12). Word choices and constraints for an active role of the media (emotional, simple, repetitious, unambiguous, depends on the political, media, and economic culturally resonant), the strategic use of systems in which it occurs as well as the information and linguistic tools, generalization, power, strategy, and motivation factors categorization, and stereotyping are among the expressed in the scope of the model. resources that help political actors to have greater control over framing (Jamieson and On the one hand, all these forces work Waldman 2003: 1-5). In terms of framing, the differently in international conflicts. As briefly critical thing is the definition of problem by stated, due to partly the accessibility of using rhetorical tools which in turn determines information and patriotic attitudes and national moral judgment, remedy, and the solution of identity of media professional, the governments

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have an extensive degree of support given by positive aspects of commercialism, some the media during the international conflicts. scholars argue that it has decreased the flow The schemas that originated from previous and quality of information and discussion stories in the media such as ‘support our (Barrett 2004: 435). Although Hallin (1988: 3) troops, patriotism, freedom’ provide cultural did not find strong evidence for the decreased schemas that can be activated during the war or political content in the media, he provided international conflicts (Tunstall 2008: 82). On evidence for commercial and multiplication of the other hand, the media can play much more channels erodes to some extent strong public central and independent role in domestic service broadcasting and enforces more issues, especially in the election process. entertainment oriented ‘’ forms of Decline in ideological differences, weakened political content to reach maximum audience. party identification, individualism, It is obvious that tabloidization, sensational commercialism, the U.S. style presidential, news discourse, dramatization become more competitive democratic environment and new dominant in the media. This argument is technology emerged media as an autonomous important for its implications on the quality of power in the center of political process information given by the media for being (Chadwick 2006: 12). The political informed citizen and participative democracy. communication is mainly mediated by the media rather the political parties which is Another important critique is about the called as ‘media oriented political consequences of having profit orientation on communication’ (Pfetsch 2004: 325). This the news content. The argument is that the situation brings a specific set of interaction owner and editors take into account between political actors and the media in which the commercial and political interests of the political actors aim to attain positive media firm more than quality of papers. In fact, 15 representations and the broadest possible years of uninterrupted support of media giant attention to audiences. News management and Robert Murdock to Margaret Thatcher during political rhetoric conducted by professionalized her ministerial period in the UK for loosing spin doctors become a strategic political monopoly rules is an example of symbiotic resource for political actors in order to relationship of the media owners and political communicate their messages and circulate their actors (Tunstall 2008: 82-84). In the same way, preferred frames (Hacker 2000: 1-2). In the use of media for commercial and political addition, government rhetoric and credibility of interests of media owners has been questioned governments become more critical in order to extensively in Turkey. There are also some convince others to see things as you do and statements of editors of newspapers for the support your goal (Entman 2004). involvement of media owners to news content in some ways thought it is not on daily basis Commercialization is also essential in terms of (Downie and Kaiser 2003: 26). In addition, the its positive and negative effect on the media profit orientation influences the content of and government relationship. “Media papers by cutting downs, closing downs and organizations in highly commercialized media ultimately undermines the notion that systems obey profit oriented imperative of journalism is a public service (McChesney maximum audience reach and thus higher 1999: 45). advertising revenues” (Pfetsch 2004: 356). In this way, the media become more autonomous In this sense, this orientation has some from government and political institution (less implications for the media and government press-party parallelism), while becoming more relationships and the information public gets. dependent to economical systems in terms of Firstly, as illustrated in the example, common advertising, profit and economical regulations interests of the media and government leads to (Tunstall 2008: 82). At this point, while some decrease in quality, increase bias and scholars emphasize the importance of being manipulation of public by news management. independent at least organically from Secondly, cutting the costs leads to more government or parties and availability of reliance to public relation oriented news - multiple sources for public information as pseudo news- which is mostly presented by

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government and interest groups that reflect different countries. In this sense, all the models their preferred frames. Thirdly, the of this relationship, including cascade, that concentration of media ownership can lead to emerged in a specific national context cannot decrease in public interest and watchdog be applied easily to another country. For orientations of the media and become more instance, the role and power of government and status quo, profit and business oriented bureaucracy is different in various countries (McChesney 1999: 45). In addition, increasing due to political system. In addition, the place competition might loose the standards of and power of the media in the system as well as confirmation, accuracy, and fairness. In fact, the norms of journalism (i.e., objectivity versus commercialization has affected many countries interpretive) are quite different which influence in similar ways. However, strong autonomous both selection of news and framing criteria. On public broadcasting (like BBC) culture in some another level, although the level of power of countries and monopoly laws balance the actors, their ability and methods to adapt weaknesses of commercialism to some extent. different strategies, the nature of motivators In contrast, some public broadcasting and culturally congruent concepts and words organizations are more like mouthpiece of change, these variables in general seem to have governments. In general, commercial media a value in different contexts. All these seems more independent from pressure differences shape the way these factors express compared to many public broadcasting themselves in a given country and are very organizations, but they have also their own likely to have a decisive impact on the kinds of dependencies. strategies that will be used based on the opportunities and constraints they set in the The norms of journalism are another important system. So, the role public can play in the factor that makes a difference between system and information they get for different systems. As we already mentioned, in deliberation very much influenced in different the U.S., journalists view journalism in terms systems. of ‘objective’ style of reporting on ‘facts’ and ‘balanced’ in the sense of fairly presenting both However, the basic assumptions of the model sides. Although these norms bring a set of have a value in terms of understanding the standards to journalism, they also mask certain media and government relationship in different deficiencies such as reliance on ‘neutral expert systems and issues. For instance, Turkish or authority’ (Herman and Chomsky 1988:) government is able to get support of elites in which, in turn, creates a bias for the sake of general, the media and public on their policies certain groups and government. Ideological or regarding -Palestine conflict, but they do interpretive stance in other countries has also not enjoy the same level of support on their created its own bias towards government policies regarding Syria which suggests limits intervention. on the government’s ability to control every foreign issue. The problems in refugee camps, Lastly, the role of the state in the system criticism of the policies by the members of depends in different countries. The regulations opposition party, the media, and divided public such as libel laws, hate speech laws, ownership support emerged a different dynamics than the laws, professional secrecy laws are stricter in situation in Palestine case. Similarly, while most of the Western countries (McQuail 2005). Bush administration was able to get support of The idea of is more strongly elites, the media and public before the War in supported in the U.S. However, this idea is Afghanistan, they did not enjoy the same level interpreted in terms of deregulations rather than of support before the War in Iraq. The promoting alternative views and stronger culturally congruent words and images and the democracy on the media (Carey 2002: 71; nation in danger discourse of 9/11 did not have Schiller 1989: 2). the force they once had (Waisbord 2002: 201). 9/11 was a ‘perfect storm’ which influenced All these factors provide valuable insights into not only the government, public but also the understanding the differences and similarities journalists that possess the same cultural values in the media and government relationships in and beliefs which has increased patriotism,

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perception of threat, and fear of being In addition, the new medium of the Internet perceived as unpatriotic among journalists for a certainly has provided new channels of period of time (Kern et al. 2003). 9/11 case can information, new information networks (global, be viewed through the assumptions of local) and frames which is not easily controlled hegemony and indexing. However, as by the governments and powerful big media. discussed, this was not the case in the long run. As McQuail (2005:544) suggests “those who The variables of model (cultural congruence, communicate within the space are linked power, strategy, and motivation) imply a new together in numerous and diverse forms of set of dynamics among government, elites, the network or group. The are many, often quite media, and public which can be analyzed by small, minorities involved, but the participants, this model. It can be concluded that the model if it were possible to aggregate them, would can be applied to understand the different constitute a sizeable minority in any society dynamics in these different issues rather than and also probably a larger minority of the offering a hegemonic or indexing view which active citizens”. As idealistic as it may sound, might be valid in certain cases, under certain it is not impossible to achieve. conditions and periods though. This situation gives a brief picture of this argument about the REFERENCES media’s role being a more complicated role Barber B R (2003) Strong Democracy: which depends on national and issues context Participatory Politics for a New Age, as well as other factors. University of California Media, Berkeley. In addition to different issues, this model can Barrett O B (2004) Judith Miller, the New also be adapted in different countries, if you York Times and the Propaganda Model, know the dynamics of relationship among the Journalism Studies, 5, 435-449. forces in a national context as well as broader political, economical, and the media system. Bateson G (1972) Steps to Ecology of Mind: Thus, the important thing is to understand the Collected Essays in Anthropology, dynamic nature of relationship among different Psychiatry, Evolution, and Epistemology, forces and their interaction based on the Balllantine, New York. variables in the model and the macro level Bennett W L (1990) Toward a Theory of factors that influence the model itself. Media-State Relations in the United States, Journal of Communication, 40, 103-125. CONCLUSION Carey J W (2002) American Journalism On, There are certainly clear differences in each Before, and After September 11, Z Barbie and country. The essential instruments needed for A Stuart (eds), Journalism After September 11, informed public in any country for both foreign Rutledge, New York, pp 71-91. policies and political communication is Chadwick A (2006) Parties, Candidates, and pluralism, independence and access (Norris Elections: E-campaigning, Oxford University 2004). Although scholars mostly assert that the Media, Oxford. public is not well informed in times of war and international conflicts, there are still some Cobb R W and Elder C D (1971) The Politics grounds for hope as suggested by the model. of Agenda-Building: An Alternative Entman (2004: 17) proposed that “it is not Perspective for Modern Democratic Theory, enough for media to present information in ill- The Journal of Politics, 33, 892-915. digested and scattered morsels. Rather, what Cook T (1989) Making Laws and Making citizens need is a counter frame constructed of News, The Brooking Institution, Washington culturally resonant words and images, one that D. C. attains sufficient magnitude to gain wide understanding as a sensible alternative to the Deetz S A (1994) Future of Discipline: The government’s interpretation”. If a counter Challenges, the Research, and the Social frame has been provided in the media side, Contribution, A D Stanley (ed), public do have a better chance to construct Communication yearbook, Sage, California, pp their own opinions. 565-600.

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