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The Influence of Management and Land Use Diversity at Local and Landscape Scales on Communities of Generalist Predators in Commercial Dessert Apple Orchards

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The Influence of Management and Land Use Diversity at Local and Landscape Scales on Communities of Generalist Predators in Commercial Dessert Apple Orchards The influence of management and land use diversity at local and landscape scales on communities of generalist predators in commercial dessert apple orchards Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Centre for Agri-Environmental Research School of Agriculture, Policy and Development Rachel C. McDonald April 2018 Declaration I confirm that this is my own work and the use of all material from other sources has been properly and fully acknowledged. Rachel C. McDonald i Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude to the University of Reading and East Malling Research, now NIAB EMR, for funding and facilitating this project. I’d like to extend a special thank you to the Worshipful Company of Fruiters for their generous financial support which allowed me to complete the final year of this project. And of course, a big thank you to all of the growers who provided me with information and graciously allowed me to potter about on their farms for a number of years. Thank you to my supervisors, Jean Fitzgerald and Simon Mortimer for your guidance and support throughout the project, and to Mike Garratt who joined the team in the final year. Your input was invaluable. Ben Woodcock, I really can’t thank you enough. Your advice, support and encouragement went above and beyond kindness, and was instrumental in getting this project to print. I owe you a debt of flapjacks! I am hugely grateful to have a number of dear friends and colleagues in my life at Reading, CEH and elsewhere. You have helped me along the way in innumerable ways, from practical advice, equipment and field assistance to a bit of perspective - and a lot of laughs! Your friendship and support means the world to me. And last, but certainly not least, thank you to my parents. Your love and belief in me has never wavered and I would never have got here without you. Xx ii Contents i Declaration ii Acknowledgments iii Contents vii Abstract Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Context ................................................................................................................... 2 1.2. Pests and pest control in apple orchards ............................................................... 3 1.3. Orchard vegetation management .......................................................................... 5 1.4. Generalist predators and land use diversity .......................................................... 6 1.5. Carabids and earwigs in apple orchards ................................................................ 7 1.6. Research aims and thesis structure ....................................................................... 9 Chapter 2 Defining land use diversity at landscape and local scales ................................ 11 2.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 12 2.2. Aims ...................................................................................................................... 14 2.3. Methodology ........................................................................................................ 15 2.3.1. Land use data extraction ...................................................................................... 15 2.3.2. Land use classification at the landscape scale ..................................................... 16 2.3.3. Land use classification at the local scale .............................................................. 17 2.4. Results .................................................................................................................. 17 2.5. Site selection ........................................................................................................ 21 2.6. Site layout ............................................................................................................. 22 Chapter 3 The community composition and pest regulation potential of Carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in commercial apple orchards: the influences of land use diversity and farm management practices on community structure and function. ........................... 25 3.1. Abstract ................................................................................................................ 26 3.2. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 27 3.2.1. Carabids in orchards ............................................................................................. 27 3.2.2. Carabids and insecticide usage ............................................................................ 28 iii 3.2.3. The influence of land use diversity on invertebrates ........................................... 29 3.2.4. Functional diversity .............................................................................................. 31 3.3. Study aims ............................................................................................................ 33 3.4. Methodology ........................................................................................................ 33 3.4.1. Experimental design ............................................................................................. 33 3.4.2. Assessing carabid communities ........................................................................... 34 3.4.3. Measuring community diversity........................................................................... 36 3.4.4. Vegetation composition ....................................................................................... 38 3.4.5. Assessing predation by carabids .......................................................................... 38 3.4.6. Measuring Insecticide Usage in Orchards ............................................................ 40 3.4.7. Analysis ................................................................................................................. 40 3.5. Results .................................................................................................................. 41 3.5.1. The effects of adjacent land use and land use diversity at a landscape scale on orchard carabid communities .............................................................................. 42 3.5.1.1. Activity-density and diversity ........................................................................ 42 3.5.1.2. Community weighted means ........................................................................ 43 3.5.1.3. Diet ................................................................................................................ 45 3.5.1.4. Size ................................................................................................................ 46 3.5.1.5. Daily and seasonal activity ............................................................................ 47 3.5.1.6. Habitat ........................................................................................................... 49 3.5.2. The effects of carabid communities, adjacent land use and land use diversity at landscape scale on pest control in orchards ........................................................ 50 3.5.3. The effects of insecticide usage on the carabid community ................................ 51 3.5.3.1. The effects of insecticides on activity-density .............................................. 51 3.5.3.2. The effects of insecticides on diversity and richness .................................... 52 3.5.3.3. The effects of insecticides on community weighted means ......................... 54 3.6. Discussion ............................................................................................................. 56 3.6.1. The effects of land use at landscape and local scales on orchard carabid communities ......................................................................................................... 56 3.6.2. The effects of land use diversity and carabid communities on pest control ....... 59 3.6.3. The effects of effects of insecticide usage on carabid communities ................... 60 3.7. Summary and recommendations ......................................................................... 62 iv Chapter 4 The European Earwig Forficula auricularia (Dermaptera: Forficulidae) in apple orchards: The influences of land use diversity at local and landscape scales on abundance and pest regulation potential. ............................................................................................ 64 4.1. Abstract ................................................................................................................ 65 4.2. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 65 4.2.1. Earwig phenology ................................................................................................. 66 4.2.2. Earwigs in apple orchards .................................................................................... 68 4.2.3. Earwig distribution and mortality ........................................................................ 68 4.2.4. Earwigs and habitat .............................................................................................. 70 4.3. Study aims ............................................................................................................ 72 4.4. Methodology .......................................................................................................
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