Notes Introduction 1. Knolles (1603), sig. A4 v. 2. George Sandys, A Relation of a Journey begun Anno Dominus 1610 (London: for W. Barret, 1615), 46. 3. Andrea Cambini and Paolo Giovio, Two Very Notable Commentaries, trans. John Shute (London: Rouland Hall for Humfrey Toye, 1562), in EEBO, sig. *1 r. 4. Samuel Johnston, The Rambler, II (London, 1767), 95:122, Saturday, May 18, 1751; Robert Southey, The Life and Correspondence of Robert Southey, Charles Cuthbert Southey, ed., II (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1850), 271, Southey to Coleridge, ‘Greta Hall, March 12. 1804’; As for Byron, it was recorded by Count Pietro Gamba that on the 31 of January Alexander Mavrocordato visited Byron shortly after his arrival at Missolonghi (it had been Mavrocordato who persuaded him to travel to Greece in support of the revolution). While they conversed on Turkish history and the geneal- ogy of Ottoman Emperors Byron recalled ‘The Turkish history [i.e. Knolles] was one of the first books that gave me pleasure when a child: and I believe it had much influence on my subsequent wishes to visit the Levant, and gave, perhaps, the oriental colouring which is observed in my poetry‘, see Pietro Gamba, A Narrative of Lord Byron’s Last Journey to Greece Extracted from the Journal of Count Peter Gamba who Attended his Lordship on that Expedition (Paris: A. and W. Galignani, 1825), 144. Further, Byron wrote in the margin of a copy of Issac D’Israeli’s Literary Character: ‘Knolles, Cantemir, De Tott, Lady M.W. Montagu, Hawkins’s translation from Mignot’s History of the Turks, the Arabian Nights, all travels or histories or books upon the east I could meet with, I had read, as well as Rycaut, before I was ten years old’.... The publisher Murray showed this annotated copy to the author, who included them as a note in a subsequent edition, see Issac D’Israeli, The Literary Character, illus- trated by the History of Men of Genius, 3rd ed., I (London: Murray, 1822), 102. 5. For a full account of translations Rycaut’s works and intellectual legacy see Sonia P. Anderson, An English Consul in Turkey: Paul Rycaut at Smyrna, 1667–1678 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 44, 45, and appendix 1, 294–97. 6. The Present State, sig. A4 v. 7. Bartolomej Georgijevic, The Ofspring of the House of Ottomanno (1569), trans. Hugh Goughe, in EEBO, sig. B1 r. 8. The concept of discourse underpinning this formulation owes much to the writing of J. Pocock and Q. Skinner, for summaries see J. Pocock, ‘The reconstruction of a discourse’ in Political Thought and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 67; J. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2nd ed., 2003); Quentin Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978). 141 142 Notes 9. Anthony Grafton, ‘The identities of history in early modern Europe’ in Historia: Empiricism and Erudition in Early Modern Europe (London: MIT Press, 2005), 41–74; Anthony Grafton, What was History: The Art of History in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007); Donald R. Kelly and David Harris Sacks, eds., The Historical Imagination in Early Modern Britain: History, Rhetoric, and Fiction, 1500–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 10. Paulo Giovio, A Shorte Treatise of the Turkes Chronicles, Complyed by Paulus Jouius Bishop of Nucerne, trans. Peter Ashton from Franciscus Niger Bassiantes (London: Edwarde Whitchurch, 1546), sig. *5 r. See Cicero, De Oratore 2.36: ‘Historia vero testis temporum, lux veritatis, vita memoriae, magistra vitae, nuntia vetustatis, qua voce alia nisi oratoris immortalitati commendatur?’. 11. Joad Raymond, ‘News’ in Joad Raymond ed., The Oxford History of Popular Print Culture: Cheap Print in Britain and Ireland to 1660, I (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 377–397. 12. James Hankins, ‘Renaissance crusaders: humanist literature in the age of Mehmed II’, Dumbarton oaks papers 49 (1993), 111–207. On wider fifteenth- century Crusading lobbying, preaching, money raising, and planning see Norman Housley, Crusading and the Ottoman Threat, 1453–1505 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). 13. Nancy Bisaha, Creating East and West: Renaissance Humanists and the Ottoman Turks (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004); Margaret Meserve, Empires of Islam in Renaissance Historical Thought (London: Harvard University Press, 2008). 14. Meserve, Empires of Islam, 18–21. 15. The Corpus EEBO_V2, also developed at Lancaster, is comprised of around 624 million words in 12,284 early modern texts drawn from the Early English Books Online (EEBO) database, and based upon the Text Creation Partnership (TCP) project phase one texts, hand transcribed at an accuracy of over 99.9 per cent. On CQPweb see Andrew Hardie, ‘CQPweb - combining power, flexibility and usability in a corpus analysis tool’, International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 17:3 (2012), 380–409. 16. This search resulted in 53,592 hits for the term ‘Turk’ across 3,548 separate texts, from a survey of 12,284 works. 17. The normalisation was done in order to compensate for chronological vari- ation in the number of words in the database per decade, for example, one would expect more texts and words in the 1670s than the 1570s due to fac- tors such as the print output of these decades and the lower survival rates for older works. 18. Nabil Matar, Islam in Britain, 1558–1685 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Gerald MacLean, Looking East: English Writing and the Ottoman Empire before 1800 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007); Matthew Birchwood, Staging Islam in England: Drama and Culture, 1640–1685 (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2007). 19. Anders Ingram, ‘English literature on the Ottoman Turks in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries‘ (unpublished PhD, University of Durham, 2009); Anders Ingram, ‘The Ottoman Siege of Vienna (1683), English Ballads and the Exclusion Crisis’, Historical Journal 57:1 (2014), 53–80. Notes 143 20. Matthew Dimmock, New Turkes: Dramatizing Islam and the Ottomans in Early Modern England (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005); Birchwood, Staging Islam; Richmond Barbour, Before Orientalism: London’s Theatre of the East, 1576–1626 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Daniel J. Vitkus, Turning Turk: English Theater and the Multicultural Mediterranean, 1570–1630 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); Ros Ballister, Fabulous Orients: Fictions of the East in England 1662–1785 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007). 21. Daniel J. Vitkus, ‘Early modern Orientalism: representations of Islam in sixteenth and seventeenth-century Europe’ in Western Views of Islam in Medieval and Early Modern Europe, eds. M. Frassetto and D. Blanks (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), 207–230; Mustafa Soykut, Image of the ‘Turk’ in Italy: A History of the ‘Other’ in Early modern Europe, 1453–1683 (Berlin: K. Schwartz, 2001). In later work Vitkus adopts more sophisticated models. 22. Vitkus, Turning Turk; Dimmock, New Turkes; Birchwood, Staging Islam; Maclean, Looking East; M. E. Yapp, ‘Europe in the Turkish mirror’, Past and Present 137 (1992), 134–155. 23. Norman Housley, Religious Warfare in Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 131–59; Dimmock, New Turkes, 20–86. 24. For examples of the centrality of the concept of the ‘Other’ in postcolonial writing see Malek Alloula, The Colonial Harem, trans. Myrna Godzich and Wlad Godzich (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987); Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994), 94–120; Satya P. Mohanty, ‘Colonial legacies, multicultural futures: relativism, objectiv- ity and the challenge of otherness’, Publication of the Modern Languages Association 110:1 (1995), 108–118. 25. Note that while focusing on periods of aggressive Ottoman advance into Europe is appropriate for a study of European perceptions of the Ottomans, this is not to imply that the 1600s and 1680s were necessarily key periods for the history of the Ottoman Empire itself. On periodization debates amongst Ottomanist scholars see Christine Woodhead, ed., The Ottoman World (Oxford: Routledge, 2012), 3–4. 26. On trade and diplomacy pre-capitulations see Alfred Cecil Wood, A History of the Levant Company (London: Oxford University Press, 1935), 1–14; Susan Skilliter, William Harborne and the Trade with Turkey, 1578–1582: A Documentary Study of the First Anglo-Ottoman Relations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), 5–79. 27. On the devsirme¸ see Colin Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650 (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 351. For generalist reference on Ottoman terms see Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Master, Encyclopaedia of the Ottoman Empire (New York: Infobase Publishing, 2009). 28. ‘And hereof cometh it to passe, that the better part of them, whom we call Turks (but are indeed the children of Christians, and seduced by their false instructors) desire to be called Musulmans (that is to say, right beleevers) hold it a reproachfull and dishonourble thing to be called Turks’, Knolles (1603), 333; also ‘they call themeselves Islami, that is to say men of one mind’, Knolles (1603), sig. A5 r. 29. Gerald MacLean, Looking East, on ‘Turks’, 6–8; Ingram, ‘The Ottoman Siege of Vienna (1683), English Ballads and the Exclusion Crisis’. 144 Notes 30. On English usage of the terms ‘Turk’ and ‘Moor’ and their diachronic evolution in line with English military and economic power in North Africa from the mid-seventeenth century, see Nabil Matar, Britain and Barbary, 1589–1689 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005), 3, 8–10, 28–33, 171–172. 1 Turkish History in Early English Print 1. William Caxton, Cronicles of Englond (London: William Caxton, 1480), in EEBO, fol. 171 v. 2. William Caxton, The Boke Intituled Eracles (London: William Caxton, 1481), in EEBO, sig. A3 r. 3. See R.N. Swanson, Indulgences in Late Medieval England: Passports to Paradise? (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 58–59, 64, 203, 403; R. N. Swanson, ‘Caxton’s indulgences for Rhodes, 1480–81’, The Library: Transactions of the Bibliographical Society 5:2 (2004), 195–201.