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dsp HISTORY Harvey F. Silverman [ ]

One City—Two Giants: Armstrong and Sarnoff: Part 1

EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION Our guest in this column is Dr. Harvey F. Silverman. Dr. vation. An outgrowth of this passion is that of using his Silverman received his Ph.D. and Sc.. degrees from Brown knowledge and engineering skills to develop intelligent University. He earned his B.S.E. and B.S. degrees from Trinity means for deterring the many furry and feathered creatures College in Hartford, Connecticut. He worked at IBM T.J. who very much like to share in the eating, although not the Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, , planting and cultivating. So far, the critters are winning! between 1970 and 1980. During these ten years, he worked As our author mentions at the beginning of this article, in on a number of projects related to image processing methods 1969 he bought the book Man of , which was a applied to earth resources data, analytical methods 1969 paperback version of a 1956 biography of Edwin for system performance, speech recognition, and Howard Armstrong. The book was so intriguing that the development of a real-time I/O system as the manager of Dr. Silverman borrowed an autobiography of . the Speech Terminal Project. In 1980, he joined Brown This was the beginning of a journey where our author University as a professor of engineering. From 1991 to 1998, learned about these two inventors and how such two strong he was the dean of engineering at Brown University. Dr. characters and complex men spent more than 40 years in Silverman is a coauthor on more than 215 journal and confer- competition and race to inventions and pioneering. Our ence papers. Currently, he conducts research on detection of author has made it a habit to educate his students at Brown autism from infant cries, arrays, acoustics, and on a weekly basis about history through Sarnoff and source-location estimation. Armstrong and the dynamics of inventions including patents, Dr. Silverman is an IEEE Life Fellow, was a member of the trade secrets, competition, restraint of competition, and poli- Executive Committee, Trustees at Trinity College from 2001 to tics. Dr. Silverman suggests this story to be an important part 2003, and a Charter Trustee at Trinity from 1994 to 2003. He of education. Of course, some people was nominated for the 1994 ComputerWorld Smithsonian have a different view of the two men and their stories, and Award and received the IEEE Centennial Medal Award in 1984. our author points this out in his article citing a 1956 letter In 1981, he received the IEEE ASSP Society Meritorious Service written by . Award, and he received a number of awards at IBM for his Dear readers, Dr. Silverman is taking us on an intriguing jour- outstanding work on speech recognition and detection algo- ney in the complex lives of Armstrong and Sarnoff. In this col- rithms. At Brown, he supervised and graduated 26 doctoral umn, we publish Part 1 of the journey; in the next issue, we students, and currently he supervises three Ph.D. students. will publish the second and final part of this journey. Dr. Silverman has been an avid vegetable gardener for over 40 years and currently has about 6,000 square feet under culti- Ghassan AlRegib

s an avid reader, crazy-gad- needed to learn more, so I borrowed a good idea for my sophomore electrical get-loving engineer, and copy (it had been given to an outstanding circuits students at Brown to hear their history enthusiast, I Corporation of America (RCA) story, and thus of the beginning of the bought a US$1 paperback researcher by Sarnoff himself) of the electronics era through the history of when I was a graduate commissioned autobiography of David radio invention. Therefore, each Friday of studentA in 1969 titled Man of High Sarnoff written by his cousin, Eugene a semester for about ten minutes each Fidelity, the 1969 paperback version of Lyons, published in 1966. It was clear week, I have been telling the story I will the 1956 biography of Edwin Howard that these two giants of their time had try to relate here. Armstrong by Lawrence Lessing. The lives that intermingled over more than The story is poignant; different story told within was so fascinating that I 40 years. I loaned out the paperback and authors (and original participants) have never had it returned—aside from this, I had widely different viewpoints, as the did little to learn more until about 20 men were strong characters and complex, Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MSP.2011.942836 Date of publication: 1 November 2011 years ago, when I thought it would be a to say the least.

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I shall try to tell it as someone quite became the movers of this new electrical abandoned by the great inventor. Edison inspired by many of the qualities of both industry with new opportunities in was not going to be a player in the elec- men and who has hopefully learned a motors, generators, power distribution, tronics field. little by seeing some instances in which , and lighting so large as to turn In July 1900, two nine-year-olds of some compromising would have led to these electrical corporate giants into the vastly different backgrounds were living better outcomes. growth industry of their day. GE and in . The older of the two, I do point out another wonderful AT&T started the two largest research (18 December source — produced a powerful laboratories for this new industry, while 1890) was born into a “genteel Victorian 2 h documentary called “Empire of the Westinghouse made advances using AC household” [7]. He was the son of John Air” about ten years ago. Also, would you ideas, based on advice and counsel of Armstrong, who worked for Oxford Press. believe that there is a new opinion on the . John ultimately rose to the position of story of FM radio expressed in a 2010 There were some physicists and the manager of the American branch and book by Gary L. Frost, Early FM Radio? engineers of this period who were fasci- was a trustee of the old North At a recent International Conference nated by the possibilities of Presbyterian Church in . His on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal transmission and electronic phenom- mother, Emily Smith Armstrong was a Processing (ICASSP), it became clear that ena. Perhaps Heinrich Hertz is a good graduate of Hunter College and had been the same situations faced by Armstrong, place to start when he, in 1888, demon- a public school teacher for ten years prior Sarnoff, and others in the early days of strated that wireless transmission would to marrying John Armstrong in 1888. the electronics industry still happen occur using a spark generator and a Edwin was the oldest of three, having two today. Trade secrets, patents, competition, “tuned” C-shaped loop that sparked younger sisters. At age nine, he con- restraint of competition, politics, and just across its open end across a room when tracted St. Vitus’ Dance, an early child- simple fate all coalesce to determine the hood disease now associated with winners and losers in our vast electronics IT IS HARD TO BELIEVE rheumatic fever. While St. Vitus’ Dance community just as they did back then. It normally ran its course in a few months, THAT THE CAREER OF ONE is for this reason that I suggest that the it was a full two years that Edwin story should be a part of an electrical OF THE MOST INFLUENTIAL remained at home, schooled by his family engineer’s education. With this article, I MEN OF THE EARLY WIRELESS until his recovery. To get him “into the hope that a few more people will know INDUSTRY WAS DETERMINED sun,” [7] the family moved to Yonkers at some history and thus not be doomed to BY SUCH KARMA! this time to a large house with an attic in repeat it. which he could do his experiments. the spark was initiated by the generator. While he fully recovered, he was left with THE BEGINNING It took a few years, but this principle a lifelong “tic” in which he would “hitch The turn into the 20th century was was demonstrated further by Guglielmo his shoulder forward and twist his neck indeed a time for beginnings. There were Marconi in 1899, transmitting tele- and mouth whenever he was excited or no “electronics,” although the electrical graphic dots and dashes—a device that under stress” [7]. In 1904 and 1905, his age was well along. Morse’s telegraph in appeared to have some useful potential! father, returning from annual trips to 1839 had been the first practical inven- Soon thereafter, the London, brought Edwin two new books, tion that harnessed this new force—elec- in England was founded with the The Boys’ Book of Inventions and Stories tricity. A few decades later, electric American subsidiary, American Marconi, of Inventions. It was thus at age 14 that lighting followed, with electric motors coming a few years later. he decided to be an inventor—his path finding great utility soon thereafter. This During these years too, some experi- was set early. naturally allowed the development of ments of interest were carried out based The other nine-year old was David generators and then power systems for on the light bulb. In 1873, Thomas Sarnoff, who, at this time, had literally cities. The was an invention Guthrie reported thermionic emission, just stepped off a steerage deck, having contemporary to electric lighting and but in 1884, Edison, ever the trial-and- emigrated from a shtetl (a small town) used early forms of that error experimenter, added a second fila- called Uzlian in the province of Minsk in converted sound to an electronic analog ment to his vacuum bulb and saw that Tsarist Russia. He had been born just two that could be sent along wires—continu- electricity would flow from one filament months after Armstrong on 27 February ous analog signals instead of the (digital?) to the other under certain circumstances. 1891, the oldest of three sons. By age five, dots and dashes of the telegraph. While Edison patented what he found (US David showed himself to be handsome However, there was no good way to patent 307031), and this was to be his and bright and knew how to read and to amplify these electronic analogs. In the only true contribution to “science,” he recite passages from the Bible by heart. In , large corporations such as was unable to see the value of the inven- 1896, his father, Abraham Sarnoff, left the (GE), Westinghouse, and tion nor understand the underlying phys- family for America to earn the money American Telephone and Telegraph ics. This was dubbed the Edison effect and necessary to bring the family over to join

IEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING MAGAZINE [126] NOVEMBER 2011 him. Abraham was pious but sickly, and it kids did not make life easy for Jewish boys attic communicating with his amateur- took him four years. During this period, in their neighborhood, but David held his radio cadre. David’s mother was struggling in Uzlian, own although forced by the circumstance In early 1906, Sarnoff decided to try to so his grandmother arranged for him to to grow in toughness. He successfully get a full-time job (when he was about leave the family for four years to “become moved his family to the area and a 15). Having sold newspapers, he decided learned” [9]. He was sent 400 miles away slightly better apartment so that they that being a reporter, ultimately rising to to live and study with his great uncle, a could all play roles in their new business. editor or publisher, was his ambition, so rabbi in Korme. He was following the tra- Armstrong did not have the same fin- he went off to the New York Herald to ditional path for the learned, studying ishing school of the streets. He went on apply. However, he made an error. He 12–14 h a day reading over the Prophets to high school and college, was the cap- asked a man behind a window in the in Hebrew and, later, the Talmud in tain of the Yonkers High School tennis lobby for a job, but that man was with the Aramaic. Perhaps it was in this early team, finished his high school career with telegraph office of the Commercial Cable period that he truly sharpened his mind, an 89.8 average, and was accepted into Company. The man advised him of his learning the disciplines of patience, con- the School of error and then told him of their need for centration, and memory. After four years, Engineering, Department of Electrical a messenger boy and David took the job. his mother sent for him—they were Engineering. During his high school It is hard to believe that the career of one going to America. days, he had become fascinated with the of the most influential men of the early America! When David Sarnoff arrived art of wireless and telephony, wireless industry was determined by such in New York, he spoke no English and had erected a large, 150 ft in his karma! Determined not to remain a mes- moved into a squalid, narrow, fourth- backyard and was making many new senger boy for long, he saw that the teleg- floor railroad flat of a decrepit tenement acquaintances over the miniscule electri- raphers were an important company in the Lower East Side of Manhattan. cal currents in the air using the crude asset, so he took two of his precious dol- Abraham Sarnoff’s condition grew worse, apparatus of the day. He entered college lars and purchased a practice telegraph and he could barely support his family. in 1909, commuting to school on his new key. He was allowed to learn more by Ultimately, he died a few years later when Indian motorcycle his father had bought asking lots of questions and by working David was a young teenager. However, the for him as a graduation present, and his with some of the company telegraphers few years Abraham gave to his family first years were undistinguished. He had a during off times. Nevertheless, this job allowed David to attend public school, one-track mind—wireless—and what he did not last long. Sarnoff also sang in a originally being placed in one of the spe- did not like he largely ignored, but passed synagogue choir for the high holidays to cial classes set aside for new immigrants. his courses. He spent much time in his make a little extra money in the fall and He was reading English and speaking asked for the days off. He was told to take with some fluency before the end of the them—and all the days following as well. year. At the same time, he had to help He was fired! support the family as the oldest son. He Having become quite proficient with a started by peddling Yiddish newspapers, telegraph key, he applied for a job as a rushing after school to grab a bundle, junior operator at the seven-year old making a profit of US$0.25 if he could sell Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of 50 papers in a very competitive selling America—the American subsidiary of the environment. When his father died, David British Marconi Company that controlled was no longer able to attend school, so he a great portion of wireless telegraphic began working full time. About the time messaging (Figure 1). He was hired as an of his bar mitzvah at age 13, he had office boy in September 1906, beginning turned his newspaper peddling into a his lifelong career with the single com- family newsstand at the corner of 46th mercial entity that was to become RCA. Street and Tenth Avenue, the heart of a tough Irish neighborhood called Hell’s THE FATES OF YOUTH Kitchen. As it was for several turning In his junior year, Armstrong came under points in his life, good fortune played a the influence of one of the founders of the role; the US$200 needed to purchase the Department of Electrical Engineering at newsstand was given him by an anony- Columbia, Michael Pupin. A Serbian mous, mysterious middle-aged woman immigrant, Pupin was the head of the who came to his tenement! Twenty years [FIG1] Junior telegraph operator David Marcellus Hartley Research Laboratory later he found out she was a social Sarnoff, Marconi Wireless Telegraph Co. and did his research in the basement of of America, circa 1907. (Image courtesy worker, but he never found out who the of the Hagley Museum and Library . His lab was full of the real donor of the gift was. The tough Irish [DS_1906].) typical electrical engineering (EE) clutter

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which he did on 31 January 1913. This cost him US$0.25. Armstrong became absorbed in his experiments, taking some time to set up a second tube to show off its more controlled oscillating abilities, ultimately so important for and receiv- ers too. While excitedly doing all this, he managed to graduate in June 1913 with a degree in electrical engineering; he was then offered an appointment as a teaching assistant in the department for one year at a salary of US$600—which he accepted. His father, prouder of the new job than his son’s invention or graduation, came through with the money for the patent, which was ultimately filed on 29 October 1913. In this, his first experience with pat- ents, he made an error that proved very costly later on. He insisted that any cover- [FIG2] The invention that started it all for Armstrong, the 1912 feedback age for the oscillator function be sought (regenerative) receiver. This equipment was donated to the Smithsonian Institution in a second patent, not as part of the first following Armstrong’s death. (Image from the Houck Collection site, reprinted with Permission from Mike Katzdorn.) one, as he wanted to develop the idea a little more in the laboratory. The oscilla- tor patent was filed 18 December 1913. and drew aspiring electrical engineers AS A RESULT OF ALL THE In early 1907, 17-year-old David like a mecca. Pupin believed that engi- NOTORIETY, THE COMPANY Sarnoff had all the duties of an office neers needed to be well grounded in basic boy—dusting, cleaning typewriters, and RECOGNIZED THAT science, quite at odds with most EE pro- emptying wastebaskets—but he man- grams of his time. Pupin was also an SARNOFF WAS MORE aged to sometimes practice his telegra- inventor, having sold his patent for the VALUABLE THAN JUST phy communicating with the four Pupin , important for tele- A TELEGRAPHER AND Marconi stations and with Western phony, to AT&T for a goodly sum. In STATION MANAGER. Union. Soon he was trusted to receive 1912, at age 21, Armstrong had an idea messages. His superiors found it amus- that would begin his inventing career. He searching. While still pretty naïve about ing that he read many of the correspon- could not wait to return to Philosophy intellectual property and protection of it, dences he was to file—he was learning Hall in September to develop it. On 22 he was careful enough to put his appara- about the business and at the same time September, he started a group of experi- tus into a “black box” and not reveal what improving his English. He also spent ments that would lead to the regenerative was inside. In the winter, he showed his time with the laboratory technician and, circuit using the principle of partial feed- remarkably clear reception of distant after blowing out dozens of fuses, was back in a three-element tube () to wireless signals to his radio friends from able to set up experiments and do repairs give amplification orders-of-magnitude Yonkers but would not reveal the insides. in the lab. An exciting period was when more than what had been seen before He hinted at his accomplishments to his Marconi himself visited New York and (Figure 2). Moreover, when the amount instructors who advised him to seek a spent some time in his Front Street of feedback was made too large, the cir- patent. However, a patent cost US$150 to workshop. David lugged his suitcases, cuit squealed (oscillated), which turned file and his only source, his father, delivered candy and flowers for him, and out to be an even larger discovery, for refused to give him the money until he experienced the aura of the great inven- now there could be an electronic means graduated in the spring. Father did not tor. Apparently, Marconi saw in David a for generating high-frequency wave- know best here! He sought out support first-rate mind; the man and the boy forms, a necessity for both transmitters from friends and relatives and even sold engaged in very philosophic discussions. and receivers of wireless. his motorcycle, but he could not come A few months after turning 16, Sarnoff With his senior year still to finish and up with the full amount. However, an was promoted to “pony operator” (junior as he did more experimental work, he uncle who had some legal knowledge telegrapher) at the salary of US$7.50 per was sure that he had discovered the advised him to draw up a sketch of his week. A move to Nantucket Island to be answer for which so many had been device and get it dated and notarized, one of the four operators of that station

IEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING MAGAZINE [128] NOVEMBER 2011 earned him his next promotion at age 17 Act making it mandatory for all ships car- mitter in Clifden, Ireland. The transcrip- to “assistant operator” at US$60/month rying more than 50 persons to have and tions were verified a few days later by the and soon thereafter to “full operator” at continuously man a radio system. The company. Sarnoff’s report the next day US$70/month. On Nantucket, he Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of might be considered a turning-point doc- acquired a second-hand bicycle, often America began to make some money! ument, saying, while he would like to see pedaled the seven miles to the Nantucket As a result of all the notoriety, the further tests, “the results obtained were, I Library, and took correspondence company recognized that Sarnoff was thought, quite phenomenal” [9, p. 65]. courses in algebra and geometry. more valuable than just a telegrapher and About two weeks later, Armstrong was In 1909, Sarnoff was made manager of station manager. Near the end of 1912, he asked to demonstrate his apparatus at a Marconi’s Coney Island station, the com- was appointed its radio inspector for ships new Marconi transmission station in pany’s busiest. While taking a US$10 a in New York Harbor and, a few months Belmar, New Jersey. Armstrong and month cut in salary (he was back in New later, the chief inspector for the whole Sarnoff went through the night in a York after all) he was becoming well- country. He was also given the title of drafty wireless shack on a bitter and cold known worldwide by telegraph operators assistant traffic manager, and he served as night copying messages from Clifden, who could recognize his “fist” (the rhyth- an instructor at the Marconi Institute, a Cornwall (England), Nauen (Germany), mic patterns unique to a telegraph opera- training school for radio operators. By the and Honolulu, which all came in strongly tor). In 1911, Sarnoff took an assignment summer of 1914, Sarnoff was named the in the early morning hours. Again, all on the sealing ship, Beothic, and was contract manager for the new American these were verified. Sarnoff’s letter based involved in the first time radio was used director of the Marconi Wireless on this experience was stronger, “the to aid in a medical emergency. He also Telegraph Company of America, Edward most remarkable receiving system in served as the telegraph operator on the J. Nally. There is little doubt that his existence” [9, p. 65]. He recommended SS Harvard. He then was given the task influence was growing well beyond what- acquiring the system without delay. of manager and operator for the 5 kW ever title he now held. When the word of this recommendation (most powerful station in New York) sta- reached Sir Godfrey Isaacs, the managing tion atop Wanamaker’s Department store. THE FIRST MEETING director of the Marconi Company, his With a second station located in their In December 1913, a demonstration of temper flared, saying to the effect, that store in Philadelphia, Wanamaker’s hoped Armstrong’s new apparatus was set up in this young upstart should be fired, being the novelty of radio would attract thou- Prof. Pupin’s laboratory for a group from so ready to spend the company’s money! sands to the stores. For Sarnoff, finally The Marconi Company did not buy into having regular hours allowed him to take ALAS, THE CUT-THROAT Armstrong’s system at that time and a special night course in electrical engi- WORLD BEGAN TO Sarnoff was not fired. What is clear is that neering at Pratt Institute that com- SHOW ITSELF TO the two men always looked back fondly pressed three years into one. on that night in which so much about the ARMSTRONG JUST AFTER Even his diligence and skill, however, possibilities for wireless became evident. could not push his career as well as HE HAD FILED FOR HIS another event (which was fortuitous for PATENT IN LATE 1913. PREWAR him). The 21-year-old Sarnoff was at the In February 1914, Prof. Pupin bragged to key at Wanamaker’s on 14 April 1912 and the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company a group at the University Club in New received weak and static-filled radio mes- of America. By this time, David Sarnoff York City that he had listened to sages from the SS Olympic, saying that had the position of assistant chief engi- Honolulu. The chief engineer of AT&T, the Titanic had hit an iceberg and was neer, and on 6 January 1914, he came J.J. Carty was there and very skeptical, so sinking fast. For the next 72 hours with two older Marconi engineers. The a demonstration was arranged for some Sarnoff stayed at his post, acknowledging two 23-year-old principals, each of genius of their technical personnel. One should the messages and relating the details to talent, appeared and acted very differ- note that AT&T by this time had acquired the public and the assembling crowd that ently: “Armstrong tall, slow-spoken, the rights to the de Forest audion for wire converged on the store. President Taft extremely reserved, with an analytical and telephone use via some rather devi- ordered all other U.S. stations to power mind; Sarnoff short, fluent, aggressive, ous [6, pp. 108–109] indirect purchase by down. Not until the complete list of survi- the entrepreneur” [7, p. 53]. Sur prisingly, an attorney and some desperation on the vors was given to the press did he quit. they hit it off. Sarnoff could see the part of de Forest, who had just had one of Sarnoff had been at the key position and potential for the commercialization of his companies go bankrupt and was on had taken proper action, showing all too what Armstrong showed, likely more so the verge of being indicted for stock clearly that many more lives could have than did his older colleagues. The fraud. AT&T was working extensively on been saved had there been more and Columbia “wizard,” who still kept his the audion and Fritz Lowenstein, an better radio apparatus aboard vessels. apparatus in a covered box, showed clear AT&T inventor, had just used the audion Congress immediately passed the Radio reception of signals from Marconi’s trans- to amplify in a telephone circuit without

IEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING MAGAZINE [129] NOVEMBER 2011 [dsp HISTORY] continued screeching. How dare this unknown col- had seen in Fessenden’s laboratory, so he apparatus in October 1914, the German lege student do better! After disclosing was willing only to give a “black box” company Telefunken and the German the workings of his circuit in the spring demonstration. There was little doubt Embassy used Armstrong’s receiver and of 1914, Armstrong did not hear from that the two men disliked each other at was the first to license his patent, paying that company again. first sight. fees until the United States entered the Somewhat more illuminating is In the summer of 1914, Armstrong’s war in 1917. Armstrong’s first meeting with Lee de instructorship ran out, but a one-year fel- In late 1914–early 1915, Armstrong, Forest at the 1913 meeting of the one- lowship was found and he continued with the help of Prof. Morecraft at year old Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE, work at Columbia with Prof. Pupin Columbia, published and gave talks about one of the predecessors of IEEE). De attacking, for the first time, the problem the properties of the three-element tube Forest lectured at Columbia about his of static in wireless systems. On 6 (triode or audion) that clarified its use as audion and its use in a telephone repeater October 1914, his first patent was issued an and/or oscillator. These were circuit and really wanted to see if the on the regenerative receiver circuit. With the tools that electrical engineers needed rumors he had heard about a Columbia the outbreak of the war in Europe, the to design these devices into various prod- student’s discoveries were true. Armstrong, British cut off all undersea cables to ucts. De Forest, at about this time was however, knew that de Forest had been Germany, leaving Germany only with ridiculing Armstrong’s smoothly drawn admonished a few years before for trying wireless communications to the United curves. He strongly argued that the to patent, essentially, a that he States. After a demonstration of his curves needed to have some “wiggles” in them. The discussions, which were reported in the IRE journals, were quite heated; history has shown that it was clear that de Forest even these years later still did not understand how his invention worked! By 1914, Sarnoff had become the “de facto if not the de jure most effective adviser on technical and commercial poli- cies” [9, p. 68] for the company. He was becoming its spokesman as well. His ideas for tolls, rates, and routing raised some controversy when he presented a paper to the IRE, but ultimately it was his views that prevailed. His opinion as an “out of the box” prognosticator was pre- sented to Vice-President Nally in 1915 when he wrote him a memorandum developing a case for his in infamous “radio music box.” Sarnoff realized that one of the problem issues with his com- pany’s business was that the radio trans- missions were open to the public and not private for the sender and receiver. He thought this could be turned into an asset by using “” to send out to thousands, if not millions, of receivers owned by the public. This was five years prior to the first true broadcasting station in the United States. In the memo, Sarnoff reasoned that they could bring the cost of the receiver down to about US$75 and sell a million of them. While [FIG3] (a) Front and (b) back of a Engineering Department building the numbers were small compared to pass issued to Armstrong before . With his growing reputation among the what really happened, the idea was proved radio community, and his many professional contacts at the IRE and The Radio Club of America, he must have been a frequent visitor to labs such as this one. (Image from by history. Marconi management read the the Houck Collection site, reprinted with permission from Mike Katzdorn.) memo in “wide-eyed amazement,”

IEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING MAGAZINE [130] NOVEMBER 2011 [9, p. 73] considered it harebrained, and it was filed and forgotten. By 1 January 1917, Sarnoff had been promoted to the commercial manager of the growing company, one that was tri- pling its manufacturing capabilities. He was widely recognized as a spokesperson for the wireless industry and was made the secretary of the IRE. He had learned to interpret very intricate issues into a few basic tenets and had dealt with patent entanglements, licensing, and commer- cial rates. While not an inventor himself, he was very current in the technical intricacies of the industry and “his judg- ments on the enfolding science were not warped by the kind of ego drives and emotional reactions that unavoidably affected the views of men like de Forest, Fessenden, and Armstrong” [9, pp. 74–75]. Also, in February 1917, Sarnoff [FIG4] From left: General Ferrie, an unidentified man thought to be his aide, Prof. Abraham, and Armstrong in front of the Eiffel Tower, 1918. (Image from the Houck married Lizette Hermant, a vivacious Collection site, reprinted with permission from Mike Katzdorn.) French-born woman. Alas, the cut-throat world began to show itself to Armstrong just after he had tion. At first he helped build some ness” [7, p. 70]. He was to apply for a filed for his patent in late 1913. Three equipment that was devoid of vacuum patent on this, but the application was claims were made by others for the same tubes and his regenerative circuits. Then dated 30 December 1918, signed in Paris. or similar invention. One was from GE’s he was assigned to work on radio systems It reached the U.S. Patent Office on 8 excellent scientist Irving Langmuir, who for communicating with aircraft. Of February 1919 and was issued very was known for great improvements to the course, this gave him ample excuses to fly quickly on 8 June 1920. This may have , but who had arrived at along with the equipment, which pleased been his most important contribution, regeneration independently some time him immensely. but it was not the patent that caused him after Armstrong. Next was by a German, One evening in Paris, at a time when to have his many patent legal battles. Alexander Meissner, who filed on the German air force stepped up its In February 1919, he rose to the per- 16 March 1914 for a bombing of the city, Armstrong was out manent rank of Major for his distin- for a gas discharge tube. The third was watching the “fireworks” from a bridge guished service. He was asked to give two Lee de Forest, who filed two patents, the over the Seine. He wondered whether he lectures at the Sorbonne: one on regener- first of which was dated March 1914, could somehow detect the very high-fre- ation and the other on the superhetero- about six months after his “interaction” quency (for that time) ignition noise elec- dyne, and was awarded the Chevalier de la with Armstrong. All these were used for tromagnetic emissions from the airplanes Legion d’honneur at the Palace of Justice interference proceedings with Armstrong. and use them in a direction finder to (Figure 4). guide anti-aircraft fire. He had been deal- He was unable to get home until late WORLD WAR I ing with the issue of how to detect these in September 1919 and in absentia was In 1917, Armstrong, a Theodore high-frequency waves with the currently awarded his most prized honor. The IRE Roosevelt progressive, Republican, and available vacuum tubes that could not yet (the larger of the two societies that Protestant Presbyterian, joined into the amplify well at these frequencies. At one became the IEEE in 1963) had awarded patriotism of the era. He was quite intersection on his way back to his apart- its first Medal of Honor to him for his famous among the radio community and ment, the idea hit him for what was to invention of the feedback circuit. This had just been elected the president of the become the superheterodyne system. He award was to play a role in Armstrong’s Radio Club of America in 1916 (Figure 3). immediately hacked together an eight- later situations. He decided to join the Army and was tube receiver. “Where the regenerative Sarnoff, having had many interac- commissioned a captain in the U.S. Army circuit amplified signals up to about one tions with the Navy, the premier service Signal Corps, given short training in the thousand times, the new circuit increased for military radio, also immediately summer of 1917 and had the good for- this by several thousandfold, with unprec- went down to the Brooklyn Navy Yard, tune to be stationed in Paris for the dura- edented stability, selectivity, and quiet- applying for a commission in their

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thing without infringing on patents held by another. AT&T held the de Forest patents and had accumulated many important patents, (principally on improvements for vacuum tubes) over the previous ten years, so a few months after RCA was formed, AT&T became one of the principal owners, purchasing about US$2.5 million in RCA stock. AT&T was to concern itself with all radiotelephony associated with telephone service and the manufacturing of trans- mitter equipment, while GE was to con- trol all and receiver equipment construction. The other large electric corporation, Westinghouse, did not want to be left out of the new arrangement. It had a modest [FIG5] Edwin H. Armstrong explaining the principles of his latest invention, patent portfolio of its own, but soon added “superregeneration” at a meeting of the RCA held at Columbia University, New to it by purchasing the International York City. (Image from the Houck Collection site, reprinted with permission from Radio Telegraph Company, the nearly Mike Katzdorn.) bankrupt successor to Reginald Fes - senden’s National Electrical Signaling communications area. However, his stricted access to the Alexanderson high- Company and later on purchasing the commission was blocked by “race preju- frequency , the rotating rights to all of Armstrong’s patents. When dice in Washington” [9, p. 77]. He re- machine, high-power that Armstrong returned to the United States fused to ask his local draft board for a was developed and controlled by GE. As in the fall of 1919, his only income from deferment and was thus certified for early as 1916, Sarnoff had written a posi- licensing was the US$5,700 that had been active service in the Army. However, tion paper for the Marconi Company that paid by the Marconi Company over the Admiral R.S. Griffin wrote to the board the entity that had this technology previous two years. Thus, while always that Sarnoff was essential in his current would have a substantive advantage in reticent to sign over patent rights, position, “in that the Fleet will not suffer the wireless communications business. Armstrong was convinced by his patent delays due to unsatisfactory deliveries in Three months after the armistice, British attorney to sign over both the feedback existing contracts” [9, p. 77]. So Sarnoff representatives came to complete the and the superheterodyne rights to performed his wartime duty in New York. multimillion dollar deal. The Navy, how- Westinghouse for US$335,000 payable The Germans and the British had suc- ever, had alerted President Wilson that over ten years, and for an additional ceeded in cutting each other’s trans- having foreign control over wireless US$200,000 payable when his oscillator ocean cables, so wireless was more vital communications in the United States patent was cleared from de Forest’s pend- than it had been prior to wartime. In was a bad idea. Assistant Secretary of the ing interference suit. With these in fact, President Wilson signed an order Navy, Franklin Roosevelt, then wrote to hand, Owen Young was able to add that all radio facilities, both commercial GE to postpone the sale of the transmit- Westinghouse to the ownership of RCA and amateur, be taken over by the Navy ters and a conference was held in New effective mid-1921. The deal was that in April of 1917. Nevertheless, under York on 8 April 1919. The head of GE’s Westinghouse was to do 40% of the man- Sarnoff’s principal guidance, the Marconi legal department, Owen D. Young, was ufacturing for RCA while GE was to Company had unprecedented sales of then asked to direct a group that was to retain 60% for itself. RCA was to have no over US$5 million in 1917. He had made let GE forcibly “buy out” American manufacturing rights. contacts with virtually all those in the Marconi. GE completed the sale of the Owen D. Young became the first chief military who dealt with communications American Marconi interests on 20 executive officer of RCA, Edward G. Nally (which would later prove important) and November 1919 for over US$3 million its first president (he had been the man- received many commendations for his and formed the RCA. aging director of American Marconi), leadership during this period. However, there was going to be a and GE’s Alexanderson the chief engi- problem when the government was to neer. Sarnoff retained his position as THE POSTWAR PERIOD allow wireless to return to private indus- commercial manager but was not named In 1919, the British Marconi Company try; the patent structure was very messy to the board of directors. In the begin- wanted to acquire minimally, unre- and no one company could build any- ning, only the memo justifying the idea

IEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING MAGAZINE [132] NOVEMBER 2011 of a “radio music box” that Sarnoff had circuits, so that by 1922, he was earning patent on superregeneration in 1921 (see submitted to the Marconi Company had about US$10,000 per month from these Figure 5) and received a patent in July anything to do with RCA being in broad- licenses alone. 1922, with six more following on the idea cast radio. However, in early 1920, With the terrible crowding in the soon thereafter. Armstrong’s timing could Dr. , a researcher at “normal” radio band, in 1921 the govern- not have been more perfect, as this was at Westinghouse, started some regular ment restricted transmis- the beginning of the broadcasting explo- broadcasts for amateur (typically crystal- sions to the “commercially useless” short sion. Sarnoff was among the first to see set builders using earphones) listeners wave band of over 1.5 MHz! In the the new system. from his home in . He was summer of that year QST, the magazine As RCA started to function, Sarnoff able to convince his company to build a of the American Radio Relay League pro- had the challenge of working through the new transmitter at Westinghouse and to posed a test for this frequency range, maze of licenses and agreements with the broadcast the election results of 1920. wanting to obtain highly reliable trans- large corporate shareholders of RCA all Thus was founded what is accepted missions with Great Britain. Armstrong the while developing the wireless com- as the first radio station, KDKA in and his Radio Club, using a transmitter of munications business and the burgeon- Pittsburgh, which received its license on his own design and a superheterodyne ing of the radio broadcast industry. As no 27 October 1920. It was to broadcast on a receiver setup in Greenwich, Con necticut, corporate entity had foreseen broadcast- clear channel of 360 m (833 kHz). What not only made strong contact with the ing’s spectacular growth, RCA and its cor- followed was a stampede like no other group specifically set up to receive the porate owners had to reach for a part of before it. By 1 May 1922, about 18 “high-frequency” commercial transmis- this new business, often in competition months later, 218 [4, Exhibit G] of what sions, but also with amateurs from with one another. Keeping peace among we would today call commercial broad- Holland, Germany, and Catalina Island in them was no easy task, and Sarnoff casting licenses had been granted. California. This group of amateurs had worked endless hours on agreements, liti- However, with no reasonable regulation, done for about US$1,000 what industry gations, marketing, sales, and planning, most of these were crowded into a few might have done with greater ease, having gained great friendship and trust frequencies. Given interferences and should it have been so inclined. Of course, from Owen D. Young. receivers that tuned badly, amateurs, and Sarnoff was not one to miss the event. He From their first historic meeting in commercial messaging, it was a mess! and a group of RCA aides all came out to that Columbia laboratory in 1914, Sarnoff Armstrong, while devoting a lot of see what had been considered “impossi- and Armstrong remained friendly. After nervous energy to several litigations ble.” Still, it took until about 1927 before the war, it was not unusual for Armstrong regarding all his patents, went back to Congress legislated to use some of these to drop in to Sarnoff’s apartment at Prof. Pupin at Columbia, working closely “short-wave” frequencies to get some breakfast time for “just a cup of coffee” [9, with him trying to solve the problem of semblance of order for the crowded air- p. 112]. Sarnoff’s children called him “the radio interference for the standard ampli- waves. Stations continued to try to drown coffee man.” They were also often tude (AM) transmissions. He out their competitors and, if so inclined, together at the RCA office discussing would work on this problem for the next worked out arrangements so that only Armstrong’s research and plans. While 12 years before the wideband frequency one was on at a time. visiting in 1922, Sarnoff’s secretary, modulation (FM) solution was found, and It was also in 1921 when Armstrong, Esther Marion McGinnis, a tall “strikingly in the course of the research had many preparing to testify at the interference handsome” [9, p. 112] woman of 22, who false starts based on inaccurate hypothe- hearing against de Forest, was going over was out on her own in New York, aban- ses. The wartime experience had some of his old regenerative circuitry to doning the factory town of Merrimac, impacted Armstrong, and he had refute a fact brought into evidence by an Massachusetts, caught Armstrong’s eye. returned as a more confident 28-year-old opposing lawyer. Suddenly, he heard Lively and witty, she politely deflected and was established as an expert among reception so clear that it was very much Armstrong early advances. However, after the growing group of radio amateurs. In beyond what he would have expected Armstrong took a trip to France in 1920, de Forest had reopened his station from the regenerative circuit. He imme- October 1922, bringing back a fancy in New York, broadcasting gramophone diately concluded that he no longer fully Hispano-Suiza automobile, she accepted records and even using some live talent, understood all about regeneration and a ride the next spring. The affair was on. but the Navy closed him down, since he subsequently invented a new system that About this time, RCA was construct- was interfering with their messages. used a second tube to “quench” the ing its first New York broadcasting sta- Dozens of amateur stations were also annoying squeal (oscillations) about tion, building twin 100-ft towers on top of available, and electronics parts shops 20,000 times a second. This allowed an the Aeolian Building on 42nd Street. exploded with radio essentials, mostly for amplification of up to 100,000 times the There were crossarms on each tower on crystal sets. Armstrong had kept the original signal strength, even more than which a man could walk and, 15 ft higher, rights to license his patents to amateurs for the superheterodyne. Now, being a large iron ball. Armstrong, always a bit and many wanted to use his regenerative experienced with patents, he filed for a of a daredevil, enjoyed being in high

IEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING MAGAZINE [133] NOVEMBER 2011 [dsp HISTORY] continued places, so he often came to watch the work and had purchased the rights to the construction; however he also enjoyed patent for a few thousand dollars. climbing up and dangerously balancing Ultimately, Sarnoff’s attorneys were told if himself atop the iron ball. This came to they wanted the Bolitho patent to see a Sarnoff’s attention, and he wrote man named Armstrong. Thus, Sarnoff Armstrong a strong letter to stop doing persuaded his board to offer Armstrong this. However, on the station’s opening US$200,000 and 60,000 shares of RCA day, Armstrong climbed the tower and stock for the exclusive rights to superre- posed for the well-known picture shown generation. This was a very large sum for in Figure 6, some 350 ft above the street. the time. RCA stock was booming, and While this led to Sarnoff banning this transaction made Armstrong an Armstrong from the station, it did not instant millionaire. Unfortunately for affect their friendship. Shortly thereafter, Sarnoff, in a short time RCA and Marion McGinnis accepted Armstrong’s [FIG6] Armstrong atop the new WJZ/ Armstrong concluded that the superre- proposal for marriage. After a harrowing WJY Broadcasting Tower in New York generative system could not be mass pro- City, 15 May 1923. (Image from the trip in his new car from New York to the Houck Collection site, reprinted with duced easily. Superregeneration was used Boston area in December 1923, they were permission from Mike Katzdorn.) for identification, friend, or foe (IFF) married in Merrimac and tried to take the transponders, police radio, ship-to-shore, Hispano-Suiza for their honeymoon to accepted by the public. It successfully and other special purposes later on. Florida. However, the car (and they) trav- avoided the large patent entanglements Despite its magnificent amplification, it eled more by train than they had controlled by RCA, and its design was put could not be made sufficiently frequency expected! They moved into an apartment up by Hazeltine for licensing to a large selective, dooming it for the radio indus- on 86th Street and Riverside Drive. number of RCA’s competitors. RCA’s try of that time. However, Sarnoff seemed The friendship, inventions, and the offerings, often six months behind, had a to always have a lucky streak; for, at the need all came together in 1922 and 1923. very poor share of the marketplace. Thus same time, he had also obtained exclusive RCA, unable to manufacture on its own, Sarnoff saw an opportunity for RCA, rights to Armstrong’s superheterodyne had a very slow development process that having been so impressed with the abili- system. Armstrong had demonstrated his killed sales of RCA radio sets as other ties of the superregenerative system. Of latest design at then Vice-President companies could offer the latest develop- course, first he needed to do “due dili- Sarnoff’s apartment in early 1923. Sarnoff ments. While crystal sets were at first the gence” as the corporate manager, so he was very impressed, having been told by most widespread, new designs using had his patent department search for a his own technical staff that the superhet- vacuum tubes were appearing. One in patent with which RCA could challenge erodyne design was years away. particular, the , invented by Armstrong’s invention. They only found Armstrong also took another set to the Alan Hazeltine, a friend of Armstrong and one marginally similar English patent apartment of RCA Chairman Owen D. a professor at Stevens Institute of granted to a man named John Bolitho. Young, entering with the battery-powered Technology in New Jersey, was widely However, Armstrong had done his home- receiver blasting an opera that had clarity beyond anything he had ever heard. At the time that the licensing arrange- ment with Armstrong was consummated, RCA was about to conclude its yearly commitment for several million dollars with its two manufacturers for radio sets who were to build an improved design developed by the RCA technical staff. With the superheterodyne now in hand, Sarnoff canceled the next meetings needed to conclude the contract. He was willing to sacrifice a year of sales to restart with the technically superior prod- uct. The RCA staff began a crash program to get the superheterodyne system to market in 1924, hopefully leapfrogging its [FIG7] Houck and Armstrong with three superhets: (a) The Signal Corps. set built in Neutrodyne (et al.) competitors. By mid- France, (b) the preproduction second harmonic superhet, and (c) the production second harmonic superhet, the Radiola Superheterodyne, 1923. (Image from the summer of 1923, Sarnoff heard that Houck Collection site, reprinted with permission from Mike Katzdorn.) AT&T (part of the licensed group) was

IEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING MAGAZINE [134] NOVEMBER 2011 preparing to enter the busi- ness with a of its own and was going to install a set in the White House for President Harding. However, Sarnoff’s staff was having a lot of problems developing the superhetero- dyne for production. When Dr. Albert Goldsmith, RCA’s head of their laboratory came to Sarnoff to advise that the project be abandoned and the original contracts reinstated, Sarnoff was in a tough spot. Seeing the crisis, Marion McGinnis suggested, “Why don’t you call Armstrong?” [7, p. 119]. Not only had Armstrong made further developments of the superheterodyne, but, Harry Houck, working with him (see Figure 7), had developed technology suffi- cient for a patent for using the second harmonic in the superheterodyne receiver and had reduced the complexity of the receiver to two knobs. After a few intensive weeks, and successfully getting the new RCA receiver ready for produc- tion, Sarnoff awarded Armstrong an addi- tional 20,000 shares of RCA stock for pulling off this success. This proved to be a good investment, as the new receiver, introduced for sale in early 1924, was a sensation and put RCA far ahead of its competitors (Figure 8). RCA dominated [FIG8] Armstrong and his prototype second harmonic superheterodyne (radio the market for the next three years, also broadcast 24 July 1923). (Image from the Houck Collection site, reprinted with permission from Mike Katzdorn.) working hard to try to mitigate the Hazeltine patents. Surprisingly, the addi- tional shares made Armstrong the largest fight ultimately took 14 years and had a inventor, proud and lonely and single stockholder in RCA. Finally, in severe impact on Armstrong. This is well raised on a pedestal, whom the 1927, a system of more liberal licensing expressed by Lessing, who quoted one of other Armstrongs protected with was put into place that allowed virtually Armstrong’s patent attorneys: the jealousy of a brother and whose everyone to use the patents, making the …there were really three life went forward in the intensely “superhet” available to all manufacturers. Armstrongs, closely related, but dis- individual processes of creation, RCA received modest royalties under the tinct, contained in the same charac- oblivious for long periods of even agreement that it had to share with the ter but separated by the increasingly wife and friends. At the slightest electric companies. Armstrong was never harsh attrition of events. The first of threat to the image of the inventor, paid any royalties by RCA. these was the easy, modest man of all the forces of the whole personali- After the licensing agreement was the private world who could relax ty marshaled to repel the attack. concluded with Westinghouse in 1920, swiftly among friends into inter- In 1922, Armstrong’s patents had been the company backed his decision to pre- course of intangible charm and sustained twice, both by the District pare a suit against the de Forest Radio grace. This private man held a Court and the Second U.S. Circuit Court and Telegraph Company, one of about 25 legion of friends over the years, with of appeals. It was clear from the testi- [10, pp. 86–87] companies that de Forest but one notable disaffectation [de mony that the true inventions were started that ultimately went bankrupt. Forest]. The second Armstrong was Armstrong’s, as the IRE had concluded in This suit, to once and for all mitigate de the man of finance and affairs, who its first Medal of Honor Award in 1919. It Forest’s infringing claims, started hear- could press forward aggressively to was, however, at this point that these ings in the federal court of the southern achieve his ends. A little apart from apparent legal victories started to district of New York in January 1921. This these figures stood Armstrong the unravel. In a patent case such as this, no

IEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING MAGAZINE [135] NOVEMBER 2011 [dsp HISTORY] continued final judgment can be entered until depression. Nevertheless, the corporate either damages are drawn up or the For a viewpoint totally out of departments responsible for putting out winner has waived damages. The stub- agreement to what is presented press releases now worked hard to build born Armstrong refused to waive dam- here, one may read the letter up de Forest as “the father of radio.” ages, against the advice of his supporting written by Lee de Forest in 1956 While somewhat buoyed by the decision Westinghouse attorneys. Meanwhile, the as a criticism to a positive article of the IRE, the patent fight took its toll on on Armstrong published in special master assigned to assess dam- Armstrong continually, from that point Harper’s Magazine in April 1956, ages died suddenly, there were great on, narrowing his group of trusted indi- which is preserved with author delays in appointing a successor, and the ’s response near the viduals. de Forest Company went bankrupt. In end of the Houck Collection. In the second part of this article, we 1924, out of this maze of litigation, de shall finish the story, observing that, as Forest was able to get a decision from the the goals of the two giants diverge, so District of Columbia Court of Appeals friendship between Armstrong and does their relationship. Armstrong, while ordering the Patent Office to issue him Sarnoff. While there were petitions from hurt by losing his long patent battle for immediately patents on both his two Michael Pupin, Alan Hazeltine, and other the regenerative oscillator, still has patent submissions (applied for later of Armstrong’s supporters who believed another breakthrough to reveal in the than Armstrong’s and after he had seen the verdict was a total distortion of the 1930s—FM radio. Sarnoff, while having Armstrong’s apparatus) for the “ultra- scientific facts, the petition was denied. to deal with fiscal problems of the depres- audion” and his regenerative system. On 28 March 1934, the IRE held its ninth sion of the 1930s, has one of his largest Quoting from a private conversation with annual convention at the Hotel Benjamin successes, using RCA as the driving force my Brown University office neighbor, Franklin in Philadelphia. Armstrong for and later even wins for his Barrett Hazeltine, the son of Armstrong’s walked into the meeting of some 1,000 standard for . However, all friend, Alan Hazeltine, “My father always engineers who were stunned to see the the successes did not necessarily lead to said de Forest never understood his own inventor that had been so poorly treated happy endings. circuit.” Now the battle was on again in by the patent system. The Institute had I hope you are looking forward to an interference suit that turned more to been informed that he would like to give reading the story’s conclusion in the legalisms and word games than true a speech, returning the 1918 Medal of January issue of IEEE Signal Processing technical evidence. Also, de Forest’s Honor awarded to him for the discovery Magazine. interests were defended by all of AT&T’s of regeneration. The speech in his pocket legal department, while Westinghouse, began [7, p. 153]: AUTHOR whose advice had been spurned by It is a long time since I have attend- Harvey F. Silverman ([email protected]. Armstrong, no longer supplied its legal ed a gathering of the scientific and edu) is a professor of engineering at force. Two men now held the same pat- engineering world—a world in Brown University. ents. Several suits were filed in Delaware. which I am at home—one in which De Forest sued to have Armstrong’s men deal with realities and where REFERENCES [1] G. L. Frost, Early FM Radio. Baltimore, MD: patent declared null and void in truth is, in fact, the goal. For the Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2010. Philadelphia. With the issue thus con- past ten years I have been an exile [2] S. Fybush. (2005, June 10). Tower Site of the fused, AT&T and de Forest won in both from this world and an explorer in Week [Online]. Available: http://www.fybush.com/ sites/2005/site-050610.html places and in 1927 these findings were another—a world where men sub- [3] L. Gleason and L. Archer, Big Business and upheld by the Third Circuit Court of stitute words for realities and then Radio. New York: American Book–Stratford Press, 1939. Appeals. talk about the words. Truth in that [4] L. Gleason and L. D. Archer, to The losses to de Forest were taken as a world seems merely to be an avowed 1926. New York: American Book–Stratford Press, personal affront by Armstrong, so he object…. 1938. [5] D. G. Godfrey, Philo T. Farnsworth the Father of decided to carry the battle to the The speech was never presented. IRE Television. Salt Lake City, UT: Univ. Utah Press, Supreme Court. This he did in 1931. President Charles M. Jansky went to the 2001. Marion Armstrong worked hard for her podium and announced that, by a unani- [6] M. Katzdorn. (2010, Sept. 7). E. H. Armstrong Web Site. [Online]. Available: http://users.erols.com/ husband, as did his friends from the mous decision of the Institute’s Board, oldradio/index.htm#Y Radio Club. This was the topic for many the medal had been correctly awarded. He [7] L. Lessing, Man of High Fidelity: Edwin Howard discussions at IRE meetings. After some reaffirmed the citation for his discoveries Armstrong. Philadelphia, PA: Bantam Books, 1969. [8] H. M. Library, “David Sarnoff circa 1907,” The wins and losses in lower courts the final of regeneration and oscillations for David Sarnoff Library Photograph Collection, Acces- verdict by the Supreme Court was ren- vacuum tubes. He was given a standing sion 2010.271, 2010. dered on 24 May 1934, siding with AT&T ovation. This is especially poignant in that [9] E. Lyons, David Sarnoff. New York: Harper & Row, 1966. and de Forest. By this time, RCA had it in half of the Board members were [10] W. R. Maclaurin, Invention and Innovation in its own interest to back the de Forest suit employed by AT&T, RCA, or their affiliated the Radio Industry. New York: Macmillan, 1941 as well, which was a first crack in the companies, and this was the depth of the [SP]

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