The Study of Charge Setting for Water Use and Treated Wastewater Discharge Social Analysis- Final Report
Submitted to
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Awash Basin Authority Melka Werer, Ethiopia
Prepared By School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (AAiT) Addis Ababa University P. O. Box. 385, Addis Ababa, Tel. + 251- 111-232437
October, 2018 Addis Ababa
The Study of Water Use and Wastewater Discharge Charge WP1: Social
Prepared by:
1. Dr. Woldeab Teshome 2. Dr. Tesfaye Zeleke 3. Ato Asabneh Molla 4. Ato Tariku Ayele
Approved by: Dr. Geremew Sahilu
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The Study of Water Use and Wastewater Discharge Charge WP1: Social
Table of Contents Table of Contents ...... ii
Acronyms ...... v
List of Tables ...... vi
List of Figures ...... vii
Executive Summary ...... viii
1 Introduction ...... 1
1.1 Background ...... 1
1.2 Problem Statement and Justification of the Study ...... 4
1.3 Terms of Reference ...... 7
1.4 Objective of the Study ...... 7
2 Literature Review ...... 8
2.1 An Overview of Water Charge Setting ...... 8
2.2 Issues to be Considered while Setting Water Charge ...... 8
2.3 Lessons from other Countries ...... 10
2.4 Water Charge in Ethiopian Context ...... 11
3 Methods ...... 13
3.1 Description of the Awash River Basin ...... 13
3.2 Conceptual Framework of the Water Charge Setting ...... 16
3.2.1 Water Consciousness ...... 18
3.2.2 Economic Efficiency ...... 18
3.2.3 Financial Sustainability ...... 18
3.2.4 Social Concerns ...... 19
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3.2.5 Governance of Water Charge ...... 20
3.2.6 Environmental Concern (Water Security) ...... 21
3.3 Method of Data Collection and Analysis ...... 21
3.3.1 Methods of Study ...... 23
3.4 Data Collection Instruments ...... 24
3.5 Sampling ...... 25
3.5.1 Sampling for Irrigation ...... 25
3.5.2 Sampling for Domestic and Non-Domestic Water Supply ...... 29
3.5.3 Sampling For Industrial Water Use and Treated Wastewater Discharge ...... 30
3.5.4 Sampling for Hydropower, Recreation and Aquaculture ...... 31
3.6 Field Work and Data Collection ...... 32
3.6.1 Fieldwork for Irrigation Team ...... 33
3.6.2 Fieldwork for Domestic and non-domestic water supply ...... 33
3.6.3 Fieldwork for Industrial Water Use and Treated Wastewater Discharge ...... 33
3.6.4 Fieldwork for Hydropower, Recreation and Aquaculture ...... 33
3.7 Method of Data Analysis ...... 34
4 Findings, Analysis and Discussions ...... 34
4.1 Irrigation ...... 34
4.1.1 Water Consciousness ...... 34
4.1.2 Social Concern ...... 44
4.1.3 Impacts of Introducing Water Charge ...... 46
4.1.4 Mitigation of Negative impacts ...... 48
4.1.5 Environmental Concern ...... 48
4.1.6 Conclusion and Recommendation ...... 49
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4.2 Domestic and Non-Domestic Water Abstractions and Charge Setting ...... 50
4.2.1 Water Consciousness ...... 52
4.2.2 Social Concerns ...... 62
4.2.3 Impacts of Introduction of Water Charge ...... 64
4.2.4 Mitigation of Negative Impacts ...... 66
4.2.5 Environmental Concerns of Domestic and Non-Domestic Water Supply ..... 68
4.2.6 Conclusions and Recommendations...... 71
4.3 Treated Waste Water Discharge and its Charge Setting ...... 73
4.3.1 Water Consciousness ...... 74
4.3.2 Social Concerns ...... 85
4.3.3 Impacts of Introducing Water Charge ...... 89
4.3.4 Mitigation of Negative Impacts ...... 89
4.3.5 Environmental Concerns ...... 90
4.3.6 Conclusions and Recommendations...... 92
4.4 Hydropower, Recreation and Aquaculture ...... 95
4.4.1 Hydropower ...... 95
4.4.2 Recreation ...... 97
4.4.3 Aquaculture ...... 99
4.4.4 Mitigation of Negative Impacts ...... 104
4.4.5 Concluding Remarks and Recommendations...... 104
5. Key Strategy to Create Awareness among Water Abstractors on the Implementation of Water Charge in Awash Basin ...... 105
References ...... 113
Annex ...... 116
Code______...... 126 Page | iv
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Acronyms
AA Addis Ababa
ABA Awash Basin Authority
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
EEPCo Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FGD Focus Group Discussion
KII Key Informant Interview
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoWR Ministry of Water Resource
MWoE Ministry of Water and Energy
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
ToR Terms of Reference
WTA Willingness to Accept
WTP Willingness to Pay
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List of Tables
Table 1: Sampling and Sample Size for the Survey ...... 25
Table 2: Informants for In-depth Interview ...... 27
Table 3: Key Informant Interview ...... 28
Table 4: Focus Group Discussions ...... 29
Table 5: Industries Visited For Industrial Water Use and Treated Wastewater ...... 30
Table 6: Sample Respondents by Data Collection Methods ...... 31
Table 7: Water Consciousness of Respondents ...... 35
Table 8: Measure of Water Consciousness ...... 36
Table 9: Descriptive Statistics of Water Consciousness ...... 37
Table 10 : Perception of Current Status of Irrigation Water Availability ...... 38
Table 11: Perception of Irrigators on willingness to pay ...... 42
Table 12: Category of Irrigators to be Exempted from Irrigation Water Charge ...... 45
Table 13: Introducing irrigation water charge cause conflict ...... 46
Table 14: Basin Location of Water Supply Extractors/Users ...... 51
Table 15: Summary description of water user association ...... 52
Table 16: View of key informants on the current availability of water ...... 53
Table 17: Respondents’ Own Rating of Current Availability of Water ...... 54
Table 18: Water Consciousness of Key Informants [Summary Statistics]...... 55
Table 19: Key informants’ response to individual items ...... 56
Table 20: Descriptive Statistics of Key Informants’ Total Consciousness Score ...... 59
Table 21: Water consciousness level of water user associations ...... 60
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Table 22: Key Informants’ View on the Social Concern of Setting Water Charge ...... 62
Table 23: Respondent’s Social Concern in setting water charge ...... 63
Table 24 : Social Impact of Setting Water Charge from the View of Key Informants ...... 65
Table 25: Respondents’ View on the Social Impacts of Setting Water Charge ...... 66
Table 26: Key Informants’ Environmental Concern While Setting Water Charge for Water Abstractors and Users ...... 68
Table 27: Respondents’ Environmental Concern While Setting Water Charge for Water Abstractors and Users ...... 70
Table 28: Presence of Mechanisms to Reuse Treated Waste Water ...... 77
Table 29: Releasing treated waste water causes environmental costs ...... 78
Table 30: Factories/Industries Water Consciousness ...... 80
Table 31: Industries’ Willingness to Pay the Would Be Introduced Treated Water Charge ...... 83
Table 32: Water tariff for conventional and recycled water in some countries ...... 84
Table 33: Factories’ Capacity to Pay Waste Water Charge ...... 87
Table 34: Setting Treated Waste Water Charge and Survival of Natural Species ...... 88
Table 35: Respondents’ Opinion on Water Consciousness, Water Charge and Environment ...... 102
List of Figures Figure 1 : Conceptual Framework ...... 17
Figure 2: Perception of Water Consciousness Level of Respondents ...... 38
Figure 3: Willingness to Participate in Water Conservation ...... 40
Figure 4: Awareness Creation Model for the Implementation of Water charge in Awash Basin ...... 105
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Executive Summary
The overall purpose of the water use charge setting and treated waste discharge charge study is to develop suitable, appropriate and implementable water charge in Awash River Basin within the framework of integrated water resource management principles. One of the working sub-teams, the social team, is organized to conduct socioeconomic assessment on irrigation, domestic and non-domestic water uses, treated waste discharge, and hydropower, recreation, and aquaculture water uses to understand their capacity, willingness and affordability to pay. More specifically, the social team studied the social aspects of water use charge setting and treated water discharge, which include to examine the willingness to pay (WTP) for water abstraction and treated wastewater discharge in the Awash Basin; to examine willingness to accept (WTA) charge on treated wastewater disposal in the Awash Basin; and to conduct socio-economic and environmental impact assessment of various categories of water users in Awash basin.
The study team developed a conceptual framework that guided the water charge study, informed with various overdrinking concepts. Based on the reviewed literature, three inter-related major concepts namely, water consciousness; social concern and environmental concern, are identified a as a major constituents of the conceptual framework.
The social team employed different data collection methods that would allow for the triangulation of information including, review of documents, survey, key informant interviews, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and
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observations. The sub-team conducted the fieldwork to collect relevant data for social impact assessment of setting water use charge. To this end, detailed information was collected in terms of water consciousness, willingness to pay, social equity and fairness, conflict over water use and environmental concern. Water user categories including government organizations, municipalities, lodges, industries, cooperatives, commercial farms and irrigators were consulted. Experts from Awash Basin Authority also joined each work package to facilitate the data collection process and also thereby aware the importance of setting water charge and treated waste discharge for the management of our water resources as social and economic good of the nation. In the processes to fetch data from various stakeholders, enumerators were also recruited from respective sites and they were given orientation on how to complete the survey questionnaires.
Based on the objectives set and the methods developed, the social team reports the following major findings:
A). Irrigation: a water consciousness among irrigators was found to be so amazing, as confirmed by 78.4% of the respondents. In addition, 92.2% of irrigators were willing to pay irrigation water charge if set by the basin. On top of the payments for water use, irrigators were much concerned about sustainability, water security and water quality. However, the charge to be set needs to fairly support the poor, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists.
B). Domestic and Non-Domestic Water Supply/Use
The data obtained from the field attested that users were conscious about the current water supply and its future. Water extractors and suppliers such as Page | ix
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municipalities and rural water suppliers, public institutions like universities and industries are conscious about the current use of water. These categories of informants were willing to be charged. Setting water charge is considered as a strategy to ensure water availability in the future. The consulted sub-groups further noted that while setting charge to the different water abstractors and user categories, issues related to affordability, fairness and equity must be at seen at vanguard. The key informants possessed an optimistic view on the social impact of the water charge to be set for abstractors. On the other hand, there are key informants who hold pessimistic view and consequences about the introduction of setting water use charge. In this regard, water extractors could incur additional costs. This in turn may result in imposition of additional payments on end users. Such likely negative impacts can be reduced through awareness raising activities and research uptakes, establishment of affordable water charge for abstractors and users, setting fair and equitable water charge, and creating institution that can monitor and evaluate the implementation of the charge.
Overall, the water use charge setting focuses on the well being of the society and management of environmental resources. The deduction that follows here is that the collected charge from water abstractors and user categories require considering the ways to reconsider the social cost of the environment. C). Treated Waste Discharge
Industries confirmed the presence of some consciousness on the treated waste water which had been released to the eco-systems for years. There was no practice of paying for treated waste water so far in the country. As a result, industries were not willing to fully accept the proposals to introduce treated waste charges for a number of reasons including the tax, technological applications and other factors. Furthermore, the knowledge to reuse treated Page | x
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waste water was also found to be so low and the manner of utilizations of treated waste water was far from the importance of water in the industrial demands. Taken as a whole, the industrial managers and owners had proved the presence of consciousness for treated waste water although the willingness to pay for a proposed charge would be a bit challenging.
The analysis confirms that industries were able to afford the likely introduced charges. Thus, it is unlikely to impose equal payments for treated waste discharges across all industries in the basin and in different streams.
The introduction of charge for treated waste water among the industries could likely cause crisis and challenges. In positive side, industries may start to be more alert about their discharge of treated waste waters including its minimization under all possible options. This would also significantly halt affecting the community and the specious in the ecosystems. Similarly, under the negative side, the impositions of the charge could create rough relations among industries and the government as well as Awash basin authority. Persistent awareness creations among industrial stakeholders and enforcement of prevailing regulatory frameworks are strategies proposed to mitigate the negative consequences of introducing charge for treated waste water from factors and industries in Awash basin. In the current state, the effluents from the industries have been damaging the ecosystems in the niches of industries.
D). Hydropower, Recreation and Aquaculture
The hydropower plants, the recreational centers using water bodies and the fishing communities do not pay for the water they use. They have shown interest to pay water charges if introduced. However, many of them have set conditions to be fulfilled by the Awash Basin Authority such as protecting the water bodies by creating buffer zones. They have suggested that water charge setting should
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consider including income and power generated. The introduction of water charge will not have significant negative impacts on paying organizations and environment.
On the basis of the study conducted, the following key recommendations are forwarded:
i. Provision of Services: providing services such as canal maintenance and clearing, water quality control, flood, siltation and salinity control need to be met by Awash basin,
ii. Awareness creation programs need to be organized among different water categories to minimize resistance due to the introduction of water charge,
iii. The social team underscores the importance of fairness and equity issues in setting water charge. Thus, the intended water charge would be acceptable if fairness and issues of equality are addressed, iv. Introduction of technologies that could promote water conservation and ensure management, and
v. Finally, cognizant of the opinion of various respondents, the social team recommends the introduction of water charge for different water users.
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1 Introduction This part of the report introduces the background of the social dimensions of water use charge setting, provides highlights on basic questions/gaps, and objectives of the study. The report also links up with the terms of reference for the overall study and the social aspects in particular.
1.1 Background
Managing water so as to secure sustainable development, food security and rural livelihoods is becoming increasingly critical, while remaining bulk water supply augmentation schemes are becoming costly in both environmental and economic terms (Gill and Punt, 2010).
One of the socio-economic issues that rise in water abstraction, which also implicates much on setting water charges is conflicts that arise from competing water uses, and from overlapping and competing jurisdictional mandates of agencies dealing with water issues. An integrated approach has therefore important in institutional dimensions that would help to avoid conflicts related to water management. Within the face of continuing water scarcity that is the adoption of integrated water resource management that finally leads into financial coverage through water charge impositions (Berhanu, 2009).
However, in Ethiopia many water facilities are operating with varying and very low charge structures. As result, cost sharing has remained very low; which has greatly constrained service provision due to inefficient operations and limited investments in system expansion and maintenance. In addition, the negligent or low cost sharing experiences have a negative impact on the poorest population, many of who lack adequate access to water facilities and are forced to use expensive and unreliable water sources for their domestic needs. Page | 1
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The health and socio-economic consequences have been also immense (MoWI, 2013).
Beyond some of the social, economic and environmental impact assessment issues captured above in water charge setting in the Awash Basin, it is important to note particular and specific themes stated below: i. Identification of the various categories of water users and relevant actors: the socio-economic impact assessment considers the identification of water use categories is required for setting water charges. In this respect, the Awash Basin hosts several water abstractors and consumers that demands special attention in the implementation of the proposed water charge setting. The major categories are industries, commercial farmers and private business, irrigators, municipalities and individual users. The water charge to be set considers the investment capacities and water consumption levels of these varied categories. ii. Geographic location and water stream [up, middle and lower] divisions: socio-economic assessments indicate that major economic activities and water resources are concentrated in the more populated upstream western zones of Awash Basin. This entails on the variations on water abstractions that leads into disparities on water charge specificity to local contexts and treatment of different user categories.
Differences in geographic locations in the basin entail on the level of infrastructures invested for the development of water facilities. Data on the prevailing investments on water facilities still show the presence of unmet needs. The complexity of the infrastructures invested on water services imply much on the amount of water charge set through the current assessment.
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Hence, water charge settings relay much on the nature of the geographic settings where water abstractions occurred. Water abstractions in rural areas or Kebeles could vary on a number of fronts from water abstractions that develop in urban areas. A simple case could be the availability of networked services or its absence based on settings. Therefore, the impacts of the presence or absence of some features in urban or rural settings entail a lot about the type of water charge s to be studied (Ethiopian Water Resource Management Policy, 2001).
A sense of the economic value of water implies the attachment of different values to different uses of water. These values will vary from setting to setting. For instance, the physical features of the country of Ethiopia are composed of highlands, plateaus and lowlands; the highlands are mostly associated with high rainfall, several springs, lakes, streams and rivers. Because there is plenty of water in the highlands, people do not value water very much. In the lowland areas, where water is scarce; people give more value to water (Berhanu, 2009).
iii. Population dynamics and compositions: in the social, economic and environmental assessment of Awash Basin Authority for water charge setting, population dynamics informs a lot. Aside from others, long-term infrastructure decisions are based on predictions of future demand, as well as current capacity needs determine this capital investment. For example, there has been suspicion that negative population growth resulting in a smaller customer base will result in higher charge s for those remaining customers, as capital used for previous investment decisions must be repaid by fewer households and businesses. Population dynamics are obviously influenced by a range of factors and its role in development remained unquestioned (European Environmental Agency, 2013).
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Experiences dictate that in many African countries the principle of paying for utility services such as power supply and telecommunications is relatively well established. This is not so however with respect to sewerage and water services – including irrigation.
Key constraints include:
• First, the widespread tendency for people to believe that water is a free good, provided by nature and therefore free to consumers. • Second, some have traditionally provided free or subsidized water so that user charges are now resisted, consumers having perceived that past prices represented present values. • Third, because water is a basic human need, there is an appropriate desire that a minimum should be provided to sustain life, regardless of the income level of the beneficiary. • Fourth, since provision of sanitation services has health benefits beyond the individual consumer, to society as a whole, it is often argued that direct recovery of costs is inappropriate. In addition, for high value use of water as mentioned above can be considered in such a way but not cost recovery for commercial purposes. This is often used to justify subsidizing access to sewerage by the rich rather than on-plot sanitation for the poor for whom the health benefits are higher.
1.2 Problem Statement and Justification of the Study
Water is a renewable resource but globally becoming scarcer with time which needs serious attention without further delay. It is a public good that is indispensible to life and every living thing needs to have access to it – human beings have the right to have access to water. However, this water right can lead to misuse and excessive withdrawal and depletion of the resource.
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Therefore, creating awareness and setting water charge and treated waste water discharge is appropriate for the management and security of sustainable use of the basic scarce resource of life. Setting water abstraction charge and establishing treated wastewater discharge fees is a very difficult task because of the unique hydrologic, physical and socio-economic attributes of water attributes. Charge setting involves considerations of equity as well as efficiency. Low-income production areas, especially those served by high-cost systems, may face affordability problems if charges are raised.
The spiritual needs of humans’ water have symbolic properties in many cultures (Linton, 2010). In many religious tracts, water is viewed as cleansing not only the body but also the soul, as well as being seen as a symbol of purity. In addition to their greater capability to manipulate water, humans differ from all other species in the variety of their needs. Beyond physical needs, humans have spiritual and social needs for water. These should also be accounted for in normative discussions of what constitutes water.
Water charging is a key to improve water allocation and encourage conservation. Charges which reasonably reflect economic and social value of water or its scarcity, give useful information and awareness to users so that they can make best choices. Thus water charging can affect water use efficiency, at both the individual and social levels.
The Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation (2002) requires an EIA for any planned development project, one of which could be the water charge project, where it is likely to have a negative social, economic and environmental impact on the people and niche in the basin. The fact that EIAs are not conducted prior to the implementation of water resources projects, for instance, in a river basin context such as the Awash may further exacerbate the environmental, social and economic consequences among the stakeholders Page | 5
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and water claiming categories in the basin (Water Governance Center, 2013). The current effort is to overcome such defects of preplanned impact assessments for water charge setting in Awash basin.
Setting of the water charge will be based on the following core principles:
• Affordability and Willingness to pay: the price for water should be neither too high (and discourage water use) nor too low (and encourage abuses and over use of water). In this regard, the pricing water policy of Ethiopia is based on the fundamental principles of equity, efficiency, affordability and economic value of water. Affordability implies that those who do not have the ability to pay for water should not be denied access to it
• Fairness and equity: The demand for equity implicates that those who consume more water also pay more. The Water Management Policy of Ethiopia (2001) stipulates that water is both an economic and public good so that all citizens regardless of their economic status, gender and any other parameters, should have an access to quality and required quantities of water. Any interventions in the form of water pricing and/or water service costs need to take into account social considerations. Reasonable access to water is part of the universal rights of humans for survival and its pricing needs to strategically consider this fact.
With regard to equity, all citizens of Ethiopia should have access to safe water of acceptable quality, as it is a basic human need. Efficiency implies that every possible attempt should be made to ensure that consumers meet the economic cost of supply whenever it is possible, and this is achieved by basing the price of water on the long run marginal cost of water.
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• Transparency and feasibility: Complete fulfillment of all of the above mentioned objectives of water use charges would imply relatively complex charge systems as well as intricate monitoring mechanisms (including installation, maintenance and reading of different meters.
1.3 Terms of Reference
As it is stated in the ToR and project proposal, the overall purpose of the water use charging and treated waste discharge charge study is to develop suitable, appropriate and implementable water charge in Awash River Basin within the framework of integrated water resources management principles.
One of the teams, the social team, is responsible to conduct socioeconomic assessment on different water users to understand their capacity, willingness and affordability to pay.
1.4 Objective of the Study The objectives of the study are: • Examine the willingness to pay (WTP) for water abstraction and treated wastewater discharge in the Awash Basin; • Examine Willingness to accept (WTA) to forgo water abstraction/harvest and to scarify treated wastewater disposal in the Awash Basin. • Conduct socio-economic and environmental impact assessment
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2 Literature Review 2.1 An Overview of Water Charge Setting The assessment of water charge setting inevitably calls for the analysis of social, economic and environmental dimensions of the people and institutions in the basin. In lieu of this, some overviews have been made and presented herein. The Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation (2002) requires an EIA for any planned development project, one of which could be the water tariff project, where it is likely to have a negative social, economic and environmental impact on the people and niche in the basin. The fact that EIAs are not conducted prior to the implementation of water resources projects, for instance, in a river basin context such as the Awash may further exacerbate the environmental, social and economic consequences among the stakeholders and water claiming categories in the basin (Water Governance Center, 2013).
One of the socio-economic issues that rise in water abstraction, which also implicates much on setting tariffs is conflicts that arise from competing water uses, and from overlapping and competing jurisdictional mandates of agencies dealing with water issues. An integrated approach has therefore important in institutional dimensions that would help to avoid conflicts related to water management. Within the face of continuing water scarcity that is the adoption of integrated water resource management that finally leads into financial coverage through water tariff impositions (Berhanu, 2009).
2.2 Issues to be Considered while Setting Water Charge According to Pinto and Marques (2016), the social concerns dimension is usually assumed to be linked to the adequate and affordable access to a minimum quantity of water at fair and equitable conditions. It gives a due attention to Page | 8
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treat similar situations similarly and different situations differently as per the variables that make variability happen. In the social concern dimension equity and affordability are very important element as far as setting tariff for water and treated waste water is concerned.
Equity: The equity criterion concerned with in measuring the benefits that each customer gets from the water supply and works as a function of the costs induced in the water distribution system. A much related concept with equity is the issue of making subsidy. A project, like this (Water Use and Treated Wastewater Discharge Tariff Study Project) which does not address the very poor will not be certified as just in the equity dimension. For this reason, such kind of projects should provide support to the poor in a viable mechanism which does not create the sense of dependency. I addition care must be taken in order not to subsidize the wrong targets. According to Angel-Urdinola and Wodon (2007), if access rates are improved for the poor in the areas where they live, and if the uptake of service in the areas where service is available also increases for the poor as compared to the population as a whole, this can have a significant impact on the targeting performance of consumption subsidies.
While implementing water tariff, the issue of fairness or equity gets central importance. According to Cooper et.al (2014), equity in pricing for services, such as water, is related to its effect on defenseless water consumers and their ability to pay. As far as the issue of justice is concerned, consideration of how costs are allocated and recovered between current and future customers is very pertinent. Besides, there is also a need to account for the influence of changes (there would be new water tariff) in the approach used to recover the cost of investment and maintenance of shared assets. While addressing equity related issues on the setting of tariff for water and treated waste water, basic
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approaches to fairness like distributive processes, opportunities and outcomes can be considered or taken in to account.
Affordability: affordability, as one element of social concern dimension, is related to the ability-to-pay principle, and thus justifies a special favorable treatment for low-income households for the coverage of their basic water needs, which is a key issue in developing countries with wide income disparities and severe poverty problems. Those who are not able to afford may require subsidy, Pinto and Marques (2016). While making support to the poor who can’t afford the price, incorporating local knowledge is very important. As Whittington, Jeuland, and Barker (2012) argued, incorporating local knowledge of health and environmental conditions and of household preferences and behavior into decisions on the targeting of subsidies among competing interventions requires greater involvement by governments and local decision makers in developing countries. Environmental concern: Since water tariff has its own effect on the future sustainability of water, issues related with water security should be considered in the establishment of water and treated waste water discharge system. Regardless of the various differences that exist among paradigms for water security, there are scholars (Cook etal, 2012) who agreed that quantity and availability of water, water-related hazards and vulnerability, ‘human needs’ (covers a broad range of issues including development related concerns) and sustainability are prominent themes in existing water security research.
2.3 Lessons from other Countries In the Republic of South Africa, water charge strategy is based on sound principles and aims to provide a greater degree of transparency on how raw water is priced in the country. It takes different variables in to account as per the country’s context. It pays a due emphasis to social equity issues, environmental dimensions and affordability aspects. The charging strategy adopts a hybrid Page | 10
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tariff approach in this regard, some aspects of the water charge is levied on the basis of a national charge for particular sector and some others are based on water management specific charges, scheme based or catchment level charge. This will facilitate the development of affordable charges to all users. The water charge also intends to cover costs associated with the management fully, use, costs of conservation and development of water resources and the associated administrative and institutional costs. It urges the polluters to pay for the costs of their water discharge or pollution. The charging strategy has to ensure the provision of water for the ecological reserve and the water sector’s contribution to maintaining water ecosystems in the future as well. Besides, the charging strategy of South Africa is designed by taking multi-year charge determination so that the charge would result in the promotion of longer term planning and greater levels of certainty for water institutions and users.
As the South African experience indicated, the changes connected water tariffs, particularly in irrigation could hold substantial impacts to decrease agricultural production and food security with the possibility of a limited impact on actual quantities of water saved. Thus, the socio-economic effect of increasing tariffs is regressive. Thus, increasing water tariffs may not be a useful demand management tool in South Africa. Tariffs should rather be used as a tool for covering the costs of infrastructure and the management of catchments and should always be approached with caution (Gill and Punt, 2010). There also other authors who attempted to add other parameters such as equity and administrative feasibilities in the exploration of water tariff setting (Dalhuisen and Nijkam, 2002).
2.4 Water Charge in Ethiopian Context Though Ethiopia has no very long history and well organized and applicable water charge system, the country has acknowledged that setting water charge is becoming a must. As it is stated in the water resource management Page | 11
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proclamation, water charge has to be set for any use of water. The proclamation states that “Water charge shall be paid to use water resources for any use allowed under this Proclamation. The amount of water charge shall be as may be specified in the regulations to be issued for the implementation of this Proclamation”.
This implies that any user who needs water must be charged but with exceptions. In this regard, any user who wants to use water for various purposes should present an application permit to Ethiopian Water Resource Management Regulation. The application to be submitted to Supervising Body has to contain (a) the name and permanent address of the applicant; (b) the location of the water resources and the intended place of use; (c) the intended use of the water resources; (d) the volume of water required monthly and annually; (e) the intended method and manner of use of the water resources; (f) where appropriate, investment certificate; and (g) feasibility studies and maps reasonably required by the Supervising Body.
The listed variables while applying to the Supervising Body to get water use permit seem to be considerate to various contexts. For example, where to extract water, where to use it, for what purpose, what amount, way of usage, and feasibility of use are indicated. Had all these been considered while setting water use charge it would have been better as it may ensure water sustainability in the future. However, as it is water resource management proclamation, it is only the amount of water which is boldly given an attention. Failure to see all these variables might have resulted from the absence of well developed and coordinated water charging history in the country.
In Ethiopia many water facilities are operating with varying and very low tariff structures. As result, cost sharing has remained very low; which has greatly constrained service provision due to inefficient operations and limited
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investments in system expansion and maintenance. In addition, the negligent or low-cost sharing experiences have a negative impact on the poorest population, many of who lack adequate access to water facilities and are forced to use expensive and unreliable water sources for their domestic needs. The health and socio-economic consequences have been also immense (MoWR, 2013).
3 Methods 3.1 Description of the Awash River Basin
The Awash River originates near Ginchi town in the upper basin at an altitude of about 3000m and terminates in a series of swamps and lakes in the lower plains. The river flows in an easterly direction through Amhara, Addis Ababa, Oromio, Afar, Dire Dawa and Somali Regional States. Its length goes greater than 1250 km. And, the Awash Basin develops along the Awash River forming one of the 12 basins in the country. The total catchment area of the basin is about 115,523 square kilometers and is divided into a number of sub-catchments. The basin is characterized by wide-ranging agro-climatic zones with extreme ranges of topography, vegetation, rainfall, temperature and soils. Among others, the basin extends from both semi-desert lowlands to cold high mountain zones (Gedion, 2009).
The Awash basin is rich in water resources and most utilized in Ethiopia (Mokonen et. al, 2015). Yet, the management and situation water have become variable, uncertain and increasingly scarce as the local economy rapidly develops. In Awash basin the bulk of economic activity, including industrial production and most major cities abstracted water from Awash River. This further creates a risk as growing volumes of industrial effluent and urban wastewater are contaminating the water and caused scarcity by reducing the quality of
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surface water available for downstream users (Authority, 2014), stay low (Global Green Growth Institute, 2016).
Many of the industrial hotspots in the country are found inside the Awash basin. These include the industrial corridor extending from Addis Ababa to Adama town, Metehara area and Dire Dawa city. For all of the industries the Awash River serves as a source of water abstraction and site for the disposal of their waste. As a result the water in the Awash basin is increasingly becoming polluted by various categories of users. The Awash Basin contains two lakes, namely Besaka and Gedebassa Lake. Awash River is also used for generating energy in Koka 1 and 2 hydropower plants (MWoE, 2014).
The Awash Basin is characterized by a number of small, medium and large scale irrigation schemes; Some 200,000 ha of suitable land could be available for irrigation. The net area currently commended by irrigation is estimated to 89,000ha. Approximately 70% of the irrigable land is owned by the Federal Government, 5% by Afar Regional State and 7% by Oromia Regional State. The remaining 18% is owned by private farms. Some 3% of the land is known to have been abandoned as a result of salinity problems from Lake Beseka (Water Governance Center, 2013).
Despite an apparently abundant supply of water in aggregate terms, the basin routinely suffers from localized water shortages at specific points in space and time, and is prone to destructive episodes of flood and drought. This represents a critical economic vulnerability for the basin (Global Green Growth Institute, 2016).
From an institutional perspective, Awash Basin Authority (ABA) was legally re- established in 2008 with a new regulatory mandate in the Awash Basin, its
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organizational structure and staff requirements in line with its new mandates was approved in 2011 (2003 Ethiopian Calendar).
With the motives to overcome the aforementioned defects related to water, the Awash Basin Authority was mandated to establish a financial framework for service fees and permit based charges for irrigation and waste water discharge. According to (Water Governance Center, 2013), the main responsibilities of Awash Basin Authority include:
• Knowledge-building to allow informed decision-making;
• Information exchange and networking with stakeholders to build a shared vision;
• Coordination of planning to ensure a framework for integrated water resource management, and
• Regulation and enforcement of water use for sustainable and equitable development.
However, in practice, there were a lot of capacity related and financial problems that have limited the operation of the Basin Authority and stakeholders there in. Normally, the basin authority still continues to focus on its operational functions such as the maintenance of primary irrigation networks and also works as a contractor in government funded large-scale irrigation project such as the Tendaho Project in the lower Awash to acquire additional financial resources. It levies water use charges only on four large-scale irrigation schemes found in the upper and middle Awash on a volumetric basis. There is a need for permit system as soon as possible and levy water charges to manage demand in the basin as well as for the Authority to be financially viable and stand on its own but water charge has to be based on rigorous research (Imeru, 2013).
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3.2 Conceptual Framework of the Water Charge Setting
The study team has developed the following conceptual framework that guided the water charge study.
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Figure 1 : Conceptual Framework
Source: Developed by the Social Team, 2018
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3.2.1 Water Consciousness Water consciousness is concerned with the following elements. These are knowledge and manner of utilizing water and treated waste water, willingness to pay (which type of pricing do users prefer), and willingness to conserve or to use water wisely.
3.2.2 Economic Efficiency This dimension, according to Pinto and Marques (2015), implies that allocation of water to users to maximize social welfare by prioritizing uses to the highest value to society and comparing costs with value (by do not misallocating economic resources) should be the goal of water and waste water charge setting.
As per Pinto and Marques (2016), economic efficiency has to do with the provision of water to consumers by upholding the boosting of social benefit. According to Pocher (2012), although application of an efficient charge for water balanced with equity is not an easy task and difficult to achieve, the pricing rate should also allow different costs between users with heterogeneous financial means as much as it has to provide incentives for efficient use of the resource. For him, allocative efficiency prioritizes uses with highest value to society (e.g., merit uses), and by comparing service costs with the inherent value, discourages the misallocation of economic resources.
3.2.3 Financial Sustainability Sustainability of finance in the water and treated waste water price setting, according to Pinto and Marques (2016), is concerned with the appropriate balance between revenues from water users and the costs of supplying water. Cost recovery and revenue stability are the two major elements covered in the financial stability dimension. In the former, there is a need to distinguish between the types of costs which a utility incurs. The second criterion is revenue stability,
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which is of utmost importance for new and maintenance investments, bearing significant outcomes in terms of risk exposure.
3.2.4 Social Concerns According to Pinto and Marques (2016), the social concerns dimension is usually assumed to be linked to the adequate and affordable access to a minimum quantity of water at fair and equitable conditions. It gives a due attention to treat similar situations similarly and different situations differently as per the variables that make variability happen. In the social concern dimension equity and affordability are very important element as far as setting charge for water and treated waste water is concerned.
The equity criterion concerned with in measuring the benefits that each customer gets from the water supply and works as a function of the costs induced in the water distribution system. A much related concept with equity is the issue of making subsidy. A project, like this (Water Use and Treated Wastewater Discharge Charge Study Project) which does not address the very poor will not be certified as just in the equity dimension. For this reason, such kind of projects should provide support to the poor in a viable mechanism which does not create the sense of dependency. I addition care must be taken in order not to subsidize the wrong targets. According to Angel-Urdinola and Wodon (2007), if access rates are improved for the poor in the areas where they live, and if the uptake of service in the areas where service is available also increases for the poor as compared to the population as a whole, this can have a significant impact on the targeting performance of consumption subsidies. In addition to this
Affordability, as one element of social concern dimension, is related to the ability-to-pay principle, and thus justifies a special favorable treatment for low- income households for the coverage of their basic water needs, which is a key
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issue in developing countries with wide income disparities and severe poverty problems. Those who are not able to afford may require subsidy, Pinto and Marques (2016). While making support to the poor who can’t afford the price, incorporating local knowledge is very important. As Whittington, Jeuland, and Barker (2012) argued, incorporating local knowledge of health and environmental conditions and of household preferences and behavior into decisions on the targeting of subsidies among competing interventions requires greater involvement by governments and local decision makers in developing countries.
3.2.5 Governance of Water Charge The governance dimension, according to Pinto and Marques (2016), is concerned with the promotion of minimum management costs to the authorities, providers and customers of the utility, by means of a simpler structure. The charge s shall also be predictable and bear suitable information about the costs incurred (i.e., reliability in water bills). Water charge s shall also comply with all applicable laws.
For Pinto and Marques (2016), in the governance dimension, administrative simplicity and clarity are the two basic elements which are given a due emphasis. The issue of administrative simplicity has to do with the assessment of the social returns generated by the water charge s, comparing between the benefits incurred as well as the administrative and the compliance costs. Clarity, on the other hand, depends on the understanding and acceptance of those charges, which depend on their simplicity, certainty, convenience, and freedom from controversy.
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3.2.6 Environmental Concern (Water Security) This dimension has to do with avoid depletion of critical natural capital, by promoting an efficient use such as encourage water saving, and discourage wasteful water use
Since water charge has its own effect on the future sustainability of water, issues related with water security should be considered in the establishment of water and treated waste water discharge system. Regardless of the various differences that exist among paradigms for water security, there are scholars (Cook et.al, 2012) who agreed that quantity and availability of water, water- related hazards and vulnerability, ‘human needs’ (covers a broad range of issues including development related concerns) and sustainability are prominent themes in existing water security research. Similarly, Loring et al. (2013) identified four congruence core dimensions that should be given emphasis while undertaking research on water security and related issues which in turn have an implication in the setting of water charge. These principal dimensions are (i) water resources availability or supply, (ii)access to water resources (concerned with the distribution and affordability issues); (iii)the utility of water resources (i.e., water resources sufficient to household and livelihood needs); and (iv)the stability of the preceding three major components over time. According to Kim and Jain (2010), stability reflects the necessity of thinking about water (one element of water consciousness) security as a process rather than as an outcome or state condition, one that can have important temporal features such as seasonal variation.
3.3 Method of Data Collection and Analysis The social team employed different data collection methods that would allow triangulation of information including, literature review, survey, key informant interviews, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and observations. In
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consultation with the technical teams, the following six groups of water users were identified. a) Irrigation water users • Large scale • Medium scale • small scale • governmental, • private investment schemes, horticulture (flower farms) • Nontraditional farmers except traditional irrigations which are exempted from permit with Ethiopian water resources management proclamation number 197/2000. b) Urban and rural water users • water abstraction from rivers and ground water well fields for domestic, livestock and municipal water uses c) Hydropower water users • power plants d) Fisheries and/or aquiculture users • commercial fisheries use water for fish production e) Recreational (tourism) water users: • lakes, springs and rivers for income generation recreation such as navigation, parks, • hotels and lodges f) Treated wastewater releasers • Industries discharging treated water • Water for clearing effluent discharges (e.g. volume of water used for washing commercial vehicles)
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3.3.1 Methods of Study The study deployed a number of methods to generate primary and secondary sources. A vivid description of the methods of data collection and study are briefly presented hereunder.
i. Literature Review
The social-team has reviewed of pertinent books, journals, research documents, reports, and legal and policy frameworks in order to grasp the context, earlier trends and operations of water charge setting including the experiences in other countries. Secondary data and official records were collected from relevant ministries and institutions in the Awash Basin. The collection of secondary data has also taken into account the experiences of Addis Ababa.
ii. Survey
Survey method was used to collect data about irrigators’ and fishermen’s socio- economic background, water consciousness, willingness to pay, factors affecting willingness to pay, social equity and fairness, impacts of introducing irrigation water charge and environmental concern of irrigation water use.
iii. In-depth Interview
In-depth interview was employed to collect data from irrigators (large, medium and small scale farmers) operating in the Awash Basin. This method was used to collect data on culture of irrigation, water consciousness, willingness to pay, irrigation water management in realizing fair and equitable access to irrigation water in the Basin.
iv. Key Informant Interview
Key informant interview was held with officials and experts at different levels (Regional, Zonal and Woreda levels). The informants were asked to offer their Page | 23
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opinion on linkage between water and livelihoods of their community, irrigation water use and administration, water supply extraction, recreational water use, the role of introducing water charge in promoting water saving culture of the society and challenges in implementing irrigation water charge in the Basin. Furthermore, data were collected on the potential impacts of introducing/modifying irrigation water charge in the Basin and strategies to mitigate the probably negative consequences of introducing irrigation water charge. The informants were also asked to identify categories of irrigators to be exempted from irrigation water charge payment in the Basin.
v. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
Focus group discussions were conducted with irrigators and fishermen on various topics including irrigation water use, management, and saving. FGD was carried out to capture communities’ view on the issue water consciousness, willingness to pay, impact of introducing or modifying irrigation water charge, challenges of implementing irrigation water charge and services needed for the community.
vi. Observation
Non-participant observation was the method employed to collect data on water use, water management and administration. Irrigated fields of small, medium and large scale were visited on how they irrigate the technologies they used and informants were asked on the value of irrigation water for their livelihood.
3.4 Data Collection Instruments Based on the above data collection methods and early conceptualization of Water Abstraction and Treated Waste Water Charge Setting, four types of data collection instruments were developed: namely survey questionnaire, key
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informant interview (KII), in-depth interview guideline and checklist focus group discussion (FGD). The survey data collection instruments were refined through series of discussions and finally they were coded for data entry and analysis. The data collection instruments were administered according to the data type needed for each Work Package.
3.5 Sampling In a qualitative research approach, the literatures suggest that interviewing 5 to 25 respondents would help to capture reasonable information. With this justification, the social team opted to take the maximum size, 25 respondents from each category, for conducting survey interviews. Thus, survey was conducted with irrigators and fishermen.
3.5.1 Sampling for Irrigation Field visits were conducted to identify different types of irrigators (small, medium and large scale) from Awash Basin. Based on the field visit and list of data obtained, sample respondents were selected. But smallholders irrigating less than two hectare of land individually were excluded since they are not expected to pay water charge by law. But smallholders who formed water user cooperatives and already paying water charge or believed to be potential payers were included in the sample.
Table 1: Sampling and Sample Size for the Survey
Study site Region Zone Sample size Respondents
Wonji Oromia East 30 • Members of cooperatives Shewa • Wonji Sugar Factory
Merti-Jeju + Oromia Arsi 31 • Members of two Fentale cooperatives • Commercial farms • Metahara Sugar Factory
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Amibara Afar Zone 3 45 • Irrigators (small scale) • Commercial farms (small, medium and large scale • Research center Dubti Afar Zone 1 11 • Community
Harbu Amhara South 10 • Members of water user Wollo Cooperatives
Kewet-Yelen Amhara North 31 • Members of water user Shoa cooperatives • Urban Agriculture (Investor) Dire Dawa Oromia, Dire 7 Dawa
Somali
Total 165
Source: Fieldwork, 2018
Multistage sampling was used to select respondents for the survey. First Commercial farms and cooperatives were selected from irrigators. Secondly, respondents for the survey were selected from members of primary cooperatives and irrigators in Awash Basin with the help of experts from Awash Basin Authority in Amhara and Oromia Regional states. But in Afar regional state, respondents were selected from irrigators’ population.
Non-probability sampling was used to select 14 informants for the in-depth interview from irrigators. Chairmen of cooperatives; managers of cooperatives; small, medium and large scale farm representatives were selected from irrigators in the Awash Basin. Their knowledge on the use of water and being representative of the community were the criteria for selection.
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Table 2: Informants for In-depth Interview
Types of Farm Number
Flower Farms
Dummen Oranges (Red Fox) 1
Flowrence 1
Yalkoneh 1
Commercial Farms
African Farm 1
Upper Awash Agro-industry 1
Wonji Sugar Factory 1
Metehara Sugar Factory 1
Trisol Company 1
Kesem Sugar Factory 1
Haji Ahmed Mohammed Badhi Agriculture 1
Melka Sedi Irrigation Farm 1
Demilewu Gebeyehu Agriculture 1
Cooperatives
Wonji Sugar Producers Cooperative Union Manager 1
Tigil Firew Water Users Association Chairman 1
Total 14
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For the key informant interview, 19 officials and experts working in irrigation, agriculture, environment and Afar region Basin Development at woreda, Zone and Regional Level (Afar) were selected purposively. The following table shows office and number of individual selected for key informant interview.
Table 3: Key Informant Interview
Bureau/Offices Number of informants
Oromia Irrigation Development Authority, East Shewa Zone 2
Becho Woreda Irrigation Office 1
Afar Region ---Irrigation Bureau 1
Afar Region---Water Administration Bureau 1
Afar Region----Environmental Protection, Rural Land and Administration 1 Agency
Afar Region----Public Service Bureau 1
Afar Region---Pastoral and Community Resettlement and Basin 1 Development Bureau
South Wollo Irrigation Development Breau 3
Kallu Woreda Agricultural Office 2
Harbu Kebele 01 Agriculture Development Coordinator 1
Kewet Woreda Agricultural Office 4
Yelen Kebele Agricultural Extension Expert 1
Total 19
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Three Focus Group Discussions were conducted with community leaders (cooperatives and community). The plan is to conduct one FGD at Upper Awash. However, due to time shortage to cover vast area it was not held. But, the issues were covered by in-depth interview held with irrigators.
Table 4: Focus Group Discussions
Study site Region Number of Remark participants
Gewane Afar 6 Participants are officials of the woreda
Dubti Afar 6 Participants are community leaders (irrigators)
Kewet Amhara 6 Water user cooperatives heads and deputy heads
3.5.2 Sampling for Domestic and Non-Domestic Water Supply The key informants were selected by applying non-probability sampling, namely purposive sampling. Purposive sampling was chosen as it is found contextually applicable so as to collect data from the government and non-government officials of water supply and extractor offices. A total of 20 key informants were interviewed. Two sites, Gimbich Fentalie and Ephrata and Gidem, were selected to administer the survey. Respondents were selected from Gimbich Fentalie water board committee members, and Ephrata and Gidem water user association members. Accordingly, 33 water board committee members from Page | 29
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Gimbich Fentalie, Oromia Region and 20 water user associations from Ephrata and Gidem, Amhara Region were surveyed.
3.5.3 Sampling For Industrial Water Use and Treated Wastewater Discharge Industries were selected following stratified sampling procedure and drawn proportionally from each stratum. These strata were set based on the type of industry, their size and location; for example, the categories of the industries include pharmaceutical, food & beverage; textile; tannery; and chemical industries. Drawing proportional samples from the upper, middle and lower streams would be instrumental to improve the spatial representativeness and homogeneity assumptions. Accordingly, 26 industries were visited. The team has conducted 16 key informant interviews with managers and experts of the visited industries.
Table 5: Industries Visited For Industrial Water Use and Treated Wastewater
S.No. Industry Location Number of people interviewed
1. Meta Abo Brewery Factory Sebeta 2
2. Yalkoneh Flower Farm Sebeta 2
3. Ayka Addis Textile Factory Sebeta 2
4. Bole Lemi Industrial Park AA(Bole) 2
5. Awash Tannery(Elico) AA(Saris) 2
6. Nifas Silk Paint PLC. AA(Legahar) 2
7. Bekash Chemical PLC. AA(megenag 2 na)
8. Kadisco Hospital AA 2
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9. Addis Ababa Glass Factory AA(Asko) 2
10. Methahara Sugar Factory Methara 2
11. Ethio-Pulp & Paper share Wonji 2 Company
12. Elfora Bishoftu 2
13. Awash Melkasa Chemical Awash 2 Factory
14. Kombolcha Tannery Kombolcha 2
15. BGI Beer Factory Kombolcha 2
16. Kombolcha Textile Factory Kombolcha 2
Total 32
3.5.4 Sampling for Hydropower, Recreation and Aquaculture The team has conducted a small survey with the fishermen in Hayq in Debubu Wollo and Beseka Hayq, South of Methara. The number of respondents was very low since fishing was not allowed for sometime so that reproduction of fish could take place. Further, the fishermen in Beseka Hayq are dispersed since they are not organized in association.
Table 6: Sample Respondents by Data Collection Methods
Data Water, Energy Hydropower Recreation Aquaculture collection and Irrigation method Department
Survey 15 fishermen Hayq, Ardibo lakes in
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South Wollo; and Beseka Hayq, South of Methara
Key 2 Heads of 3 Heads of 2 lodges Awash Park 5 experts informant Misrak Shoa Awash I, II Awash Fall Park Lodge government offices interview and Debube and III and chairman of and Rikum lodge Wollo Water, Hydropower fishing association Hayq lake (South Energy and Plants Wollo) Mines Offices
Focus 1 FGD Members Group Lego-Ardibo Fishing Discussion Association
3.6 Field Work and Data Collection The social team, composed of four sociologists, has intensively participated in the fieldwork being apportioned among the four work packages namely: • Irrigation, • Industrial water use and treated waste water, • Domestic and non-domestic water supply and • Hydropower, recreation and aquaculture.
The sociologists conducted the fieldwork to collect the relevant data for social impact assessment. To this end, detailed information was collected in terms of water consciousness, willingness to pay, social equity and fairness, conflict over water use and environmental concern. Various stakeholders including government organizations, industries, cooperatives, commercial farms and Page | 32
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irrigators were consulted. Experts from Awash Basin Authority also joined each work package to facilitate the data collection process. Enumerators were recruited in the field and they were given orientation how to complete the survey questionnaires.
3.6.1 Fieldwork for Irrigation Team The basic objective of this field visit was to collect data to set irrigation water charge from irrigators in the Awash Basin. As stated earlier, data were collected from small, medium and large scale irrigators and officials and experts. Data were collected on irrigation water consciousness; willingness to pay for irrigation water charge; irrigator’s perception of irrigation water use and administration/management; impact of introducing/modifying irrigation water charge and irrigators’ perception of status of irrigation water in their area.
3.6.2 Fieldwork for Domestic and non-domestic water supply
The sociologists, as member of Work Package 3, have collected data from urban and rural water suppliers, industries and universities. Survey and key informant interviews were conducted in different sites.
3.6.3 Fieldwork for Industrial Water Use and Treated Wastewater Discharge Based on the field survey schedule, data collection for treated wastewater discharge charge study was conducted from May 7-26, 2018 in three identified survey routes. These were from Addis Ababa and Sebeta; industries in the Eastern and Northern part of from the basin.
3.6.4 Fieldwork for Hydropower, Recreation and Aquaculture Awash I, II Hydropower plants (koka) were visited. Heads and experts in the appropriate government water related offices were visited and key informant interviews were carried out. Lodges, lakes and fishermen associations were
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visited. Surveys were administered to fishermen in Hayq, Ardibo lakes in South Wollo; and Beseka Hayq, South of Methara.
3.7 Method of Data Analysis The social team has collected both qualitative and quantitative data. The qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis, which involved the categorization of emerging concepts and ideas into themes. In addition to the thematic analysis, narration of cases obtained from the field were also presented and further analyzed. The quantitative data were analyzed by using descriptive techniques such generation of tables, frequencies, percentages, graphs and measures of dispersions. Overall, both the qualitative and quantitative data were reasonably triangulated.
4 Findings, Analysis and Discussions This section presents the findings of the social aspects of irrigation, domestic and non-domestic water uses, treated waste discharge, and hydropower, recreation and aquaculture. Based on the findings, analysis and discussions, mitigation for perceived negative impacts due to the introduction of water charge and recommendations are presented.
4.1 Irrigation
4.1.1 Water Consciousness Water is an important resource for irrigators and government in the basin. The livelihood of smallholder farmers and business of firms are dependent on water and land in the Awash Basin. Government’s plan realizing food security, promoting agricultural investment and socioeconomic development depends on the availability and accessibility. To secure the benefit of irrigation water on sustainable manner, investment in the service, environment and water conservation are needed. This depends on irrigators’ conscious of the benefit of water, willingness to pay for the irrigation water charge and the necessity of water conservation participation.
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Water consciousness were addressed by assessing perception of community on water (values of water), knowledge of irrigators on availability of irrigation water (scarcity) and manner of its utilization, irrigators experience and willingness to conserve water, irrigators willingness to for water and the link between water and the livelihood of people living and making their livelihood in the Awash River Basin. Finding of the study showed that the consciousness level of irrigators is increasing with increase in the use of water for irrigation and the resultant income. The following table shows the result of the study:
Table 7: Water Consciousness of Respondents
Items Frequency Percentage Perception of water as scarce resource No 33 20.1 Yes 131 79.9 Total 164 100.0 Source: May to June, 2018 Field Survey
The value of water is not similar across upper, middle, and lowers awash. The value of water and scarcity of water increases as one move from upstream to downstream of the river. Informants attributed this to water shortage and improvement in living conditions through irrigation. Though variation observed, water from Awash River is the most valuable resource for irrigators and pastoralists whose survival depends. It is source of agricultural production, drinking for both animals and human being and existence of large scale commercial farms in the basin. An expert from East Shewa Zone Irrigation Development Authority equates water from Awash River with “petroleum resource”. Survey data collected also showed that 79.9% (131) irrigators considered irrigation water as a scarce production resource in Awash River
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Basin. However, water is abundant flower and fruit farms located in Southwest Shoa, Oromia Regional state.
Perception of social and economic value of water is another indicator of water consciousness. Irrigators in the basin are conscious that water from Awash River is the source of livelihood for many smallholder farmers, agro-pastoralists, and pastoralists in the Basin. National, regional and local level governments’ strategy to realize food security is also centered on water in the basin, as stated by informant. The river is used as an important resource used for realization of food security in food insecure areas like Fentale woreda, Oromia region, Shewa Robit, Amhara Region and Afar region. The Basin also attracted many international and national agricultural investments (large, medium and small). Improvement in income and living conditions of many members of water users’ cooperatives observed, as informants stated, were due to the Awash River. Irrigators and experts on the area were aware of the importance of the water and worried much for the declining quantity and quality of water in the basin.
Table 8: Measure of Water Consciousness
Response Mean Median Standard Variance Deviation
Poor irrigation water management in the 4.32 4.00 0.801 0.642 community
Conserving water is my duty and responsibility 4.52 5.00 0.661 0.438
Water charge introduction encourage proper 4.22 4.00 0.923 0.851 water use
Everybody should pay for Irrigation water use 4.3 4.00 0.970 0.940
Current irrigation water charge is low 3.74 4.00 1.014 1.029
Source: May to June, 2018 Field Survey
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A five item Likert scale (strongly agree=5, agree=4, neutral=3, disagree=2 and strongly disagree=1) was used to measure water consciousness of irrigation water users. The minimum and maximum score for each item is 1 and 5. 3 is neutral score, below indicates water unconsciousness. Mean, median and standard deviation are computed for each item. The mean score for each item ranges from 3.74 to 4.52. The aggregate mean of water consciousness is about 4.22. This indicates that irrigators are water conscious in Awash River Basin.
Five item Likert scale (strongly agree=5, agree=4, neutral=3, disagree=2 and strongly disagree=1) were used to measure water consciousness of irrigators. The overall score ranges from 5 to 25.
Table 9: Descriptive Statistics of Water Consciousness
N 162
Mean 18.0123 Median 18.0000 Mode 20.00 Std. Deviation 2.90424 Range 13.00 Minimum 10.00 Maximum 23.00 Source: May to June, 2018 Field Survey
The mean, median, standard deviation of score of the Likert scale for water consciousness is 18, 18 and 2.9 respectively. The mean and median score are above the value of neutral. The neutral value is used as dividing line to divide the data as water conscious or not. Based on these criteria, 77.4% of the respondents are conscious of social, economic and political value of water.
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Figure 2: Perception of Water Consciousness Level of Respondents
Perception of knowledge of current status of water for irrigation is another issue assessed water consciousness status of irrigators in the Awash Basin. Table 10 shows knowledge of perception of extent of availability of water for irrigation in the Basin. It indicates the perception of scarcity of water in the Basin but not real quantity and quality of water the irrigator required.
Table 10 : Perception of Current Status of Irrigation Water Availability
Cumulative Frequency Valid Percent Percent Very inadequate 1 .9 .9 Inadequate 32 28.8 29.7 I do not Know 6 5.4 35.1 Adequate 58 52.3 87.4 Very adequate 14 12.6 100.0 Total 111 100.0 Source: May to June, 2018 Field Survey
Survey conducted showed that current water for irrigation is adequate for 52.3% and very adequate for 12.6%. But qualitative data indicated that water scarcity is seasonal and varies across regions: upper, middle and lower Awash River.
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Irrigators’ perception of water scarcity for irrigation increases as one move from upper Awash to lower Awash. Key and in-depth interview informants indicated that middle and lower Awash Basin experienced high water scarcity while it is not serious concern for flower farms located from Holeta to koka areas. They stated that they can access good quality water from different sources, mainly shallow well. Areas situated between Koka dam to Metehara Sugar factory experience high water scarcity during dry seasons and when drought occurs. But the intensity of scarcity and perceived quality of irrigation water deteriorates as one move down in those areas. The problem is high and serious between Metahara sugar factor and Tendaho dam. But informants indicated that Tendaho dam alleviated the problem of water scarcity downstream of it though poor quality remains the main problem of pastoralists and agro-pastoralists.
Informants stated the main factors for deterioration of quantity and quality of water:
• Increase size of irrigator population and irrigated land, • Increase in industrial and urban waste disposal to Awash River and its tributes, • Drought and uneven rainfall affecting the country, and • The flow of Beseka Lake into Awash River.
Generally, findings from survey and qualitative data showed that majority of irrigators are consciousness of the role of water in irrigation for economic, social cultural and political development of different categories of the population. As one moves downstream across the basin, the survival of all living things depends on water from Awash River and its tributes. An informant from Semera stated that water is everything for Afar pastoralists and agro-pastoralists. Their conscious has been increasing from time to time. Informants stated the following as the main factors for increasing water consciousness:
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• Participation in irrigation and water scarcity occurring due to raise in number of irrigators, • Raise in awareness of the importance of water for irrigation from time to time among irrigators, • Water from Awash River is linked with livelihood of irrigators, • Improvement in the livelihoods of Irrigators as compared to non-irrigators, and • Many companies invested in the Basin hoping sustainable use of water from the river for irrigation.
Water consciousness can also be measured on the basis of investment people made to sustain water resource, one of which is conserving the environment, water and efficient use of water. Respondents were asked whether they are willing to conserve water resource. Irrigators understood that the social, economic and political developments are influenced by the availability of water. Figure 1 below showed that 92% of irrigators are willing to participate in water conservation activities.
Figure 3: Willingness to Participate in Water Conservation
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There is experience, as informants stated, that smallholders are participating in natural resource conservation campaigns regional governments are undertaking each year. Large scale commercial farms also claimed that they are supporting government campaigns and undertaking environmental conservation activities as their own responsibility.
4.1.1.1 Irrigators Willingness to Pay Irrigation Water Charge Qualitative data collected through interview indicated that irrigation water charge payment is not a new phenomenon in the Awash River Basin. Informants from commercial farm and Wonji sugar producers’ cooperatives union stated that they have been paying irrigation water charge since 1990s. However, not all irrigators have been paying irrigation water charge in the Basin. On the basis of experience of payment, two categories were identified through field research:
A. Currently Irrigation Water Charge Payers: Commercial farms, some flower farms and legally established water user cooperatives/unions have water using license and have been paying charge for water they use for irrigation. These are all public commercial farms and private commercial farms from Oromia Regional State and Amibara area of Afar regional state. They have the license to use the water and paying on the basis of volumes they are used for irrigation. The Basin Authority has been collecting 3 birr per 1000m3 water charge in areas where irrigation infrastructures were established since the middle of 1990s. B. Unlicensed Irrigators: smallholders, agro-pastoralists, pastoralists and illegal “water users” for irrigation are not paying for the water they have been using. These categories, though smallholder irrigating less than two hectares, pastoralist and agro-pastoralists exempted from payment, they including government (both federal and regional) have been extracting water from
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Awash River and its tributes without license from the Awash Basin Authority. Free raiding in extraction (without license) and use of water for irrigation define A wash Basin Water use for irrigation. Irrigators in South West Shoa Zone (Oromia Region), Amara Regional State and Lower Awash and pastoralists have no experience of payment. For irrigator downstream of Tendaho dam and Amahara regional states, the issue of irrigation water charge is a new issue.
Table 11: Perception of Irrigators on willingness to pay
Items Frequency Percentage Willingness to pay for irrigation water charge No 31 19.4 Yes 129 80.6 Total 160 100.0 Source: May-June, 2018 Field Survey
Respondents and informants were asked to express their willingness to pay for irrigation water use. Table 11 depicts that out of 164respondents, 160 respondents offered response for the questions aimed at measuring “willingness to pay irrigation water charge for the water they are using for irrigation”. 80.6% (129) of respondents stated that they are willing to pay irrigation water charge for the water they have been using for irrigation. Unwilling respondents attributed their unwillingness to pay to water is God’s gift (30.3%), can’t afford (28.8%), payment for other inputs (25.8%) and small size of irrigable land (15.2%) respectively. Informants from commercial farms raised addition of cost on companies operating in a loss demotes irrigators and forces them to change investment to other sectors.
Informants and focus group discussants believe that the amount of money they have been paying for the irrigation water they have been using is less than the value of the water for social, economic and political developments at Page | 42
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individual, local and national level. The existing water charge is considered by respondents insignificant compared to the water value such as source of life, income, and wellbeing of people living in the area, both directly and indirectly.
However, irrigators expect services from the Basin Authority for the water charge they have been paying and going to be introduced. The main services expected from the Basin Authority for water charge they are paying are:
Canal Maintenance and Clearing: Informants stated that Awash Basin Authority had provided canal maintenance clearing services for years to irrigators on payment basis. But the Authority ceased canal maintenance and clearing services five years ago. The stoppage of this service, as stated by informants, increased cost on irrigators, influenced seeding time and interrupted production and productivity in the area. Sharing Information: Informants claimed that Awash Basin Authority didn’t inform irrigators about time of release of water from koka dam, mainly during rainy season. Due to lack of information that made irrigators to prepare to save or collect their crops, they claimed that they lost many hectare of crops due to flooding. The destructive nature of flooding increases in Afar Region, middle awash and lower Awash. Flooding and siltation has been becoming the major problem of the irrigators in the Basin. They expect Basin Authority to control siltation and investment in construction of flooding control across the buffer zones of the river. Cooperation with irrigators: Awash Basin Authority is not working in cooperation with irrigators. Informants stated the existence of weak cooperation between Awash Basin Authority and irrigators. Informants stated that detachment in terms of interaction and service provision is not helpful in realizing water security.
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Salinity: Informants raised salinity as a serious problem mainly in Afar Region. Irrigators require the Authority to design strategy to alleviate the problem of salinity of re-initiate structures constructed during Dergue’s regime. Construction of reservoir: Informants and FGD participants at Shoa Robit, Kewet Woreda of Amhara regional state raised the need of reservoir in alleviating irrigation water scarcity occurring in the area.
The other concern raised in reforming irrigation water charge in the basin is amount of charge. Informants stated that the charge must be fair. Irrigators expected fair charge that encourages efficient water use and irrigation and investment in agriculture. They claimed that irrigation is a tiresome activity that requires huge investment. Thus, addition of high water charge discourages irrigators and agricultural investment in the Basin. A foreign working in foreign agricultural company in the basin said that irrigation water charge is low in many countries as compared to other sector water abstractors.
4.1.2 Social Concern Irrigation is high priority area for Ethiopian government in realizing food security and improving living conditions poor smallholders in the country (MoA, 2011). The Growth and Transformation Plan of the country also provided emphasis for irrigation. Thus, realizing fair use of irrigation water is the concern different categories of irrigators. Informants stated that the irrigation water charge to be introduced should not be exclusionary or designed in a way benefits one and disadvantaged other.
Data obtained through survey, key and in-depth interview and FGD showed that there must be groups exempted from the payment. The categories to be exempted include smallholder farmers, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists have to be excluded from irrigation water use charge payment. However, significant numbers of informants hold the view everybody has to pay for the water they
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are using for irrigation. They believe that water should be extracted on the basis of license. The worries of those informants are the adverse effects of the charge on irrigation at infant stage among pastoralists, agro-pastoralists and subsistence smallholders
Table 12: Category of Irrigators to be Exempted from Irrigation Water Charge
Items Frequency Percent Female Headed Households 21 15.9 Poor Smallholder farmers 94 71.2 People with disability 13 9.8 Minorities in the area 4 3.0 Total 132 100 Source: May to June, 2018 Field Survey
Table 12 indicates that 71.2% of the respondents believe that poor smallholder farmers have to be exempted from irrigation water charge payment. The finding indicates the necessity of protection of lower socio-economic strata of irrigators in setting irrigation water charge.
i. Conflict Among Uers
Conflict among irrigation water users in Awash Basin is common. Informants attributed the conflict prevailing there not to irrigation water charge but to water shortage during dry season and power/electricity interruption that has been interrupting the water allocation day and time of irrigators. In addition, water theft by illegal water users and deviant irrigators is another factor instigating conflict among irrigators. Illegal irrigation water users divert irrigation water to their irrigated land by putting stone, wood, soil and other materials in the main canal, secondary or tertiary canals.
However, informants indicated the existence of conflict management system developed by irrigators to manage conflict over water use and allocation and
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sanction those who breach the rule, i.e., irrigation water allocated to members for specific date and time in a week. Violation of the time of allocation results in financial payment in the area.
Respondents and informants were on their perception of reforming and introducing irrigation water charge on respondents. Table 13 depicted that 49.4% can be sources of conflict in the basin.
Table 13: Introducing irrigation water charge cause conflict
Frequency Valid Percent Cumulative Percent No 80 50.6 50.6 Valid Yes 78 49.4 100.0 Total 158 100.0 Source: Social Team, 2018 The main factors indicated for the conflict include accessibility (36.5%), purpose of water abstraction (16.5%), amount of payment (13.5%), water apportion (11.8%), inability to create ownership rights overland (10.6%) and others (9.4%). Furthermore, 15,5% and 8.5% expect tension between government and users and between users themselves. These indicate that conflict and tension with government and among users is expected to be minimal. However, there is clue for the occurrence of resistance or tension that the introduction of irrigation water charge instigates. One has to expect these especially in areas where the charge is to be introduced for the first time.
4.1.3 Impacts of Introducing Water Charge Survey conducted and qualitative data indicated that reforming and introducing irrigation water charge have positive and negative impacts. Irrigators demand zero or low irrigators water charge (Abu-Zied, 2003). Irrigation water charge is an additional cost to irrigators in the Basin.
A. Positive Impact
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The introduction or modification irrigation water charge:
• Promotes water saving by raising water consciousness of irrigators: water conservation and saving are low in the basin. Furrow irrigation is dominated in the basin. The addition of cost promotes efficient use of irrigation water. • Ensure maintenance of ecosystem by collecting fund for watershed development activities: Fund/budget is the main constraining factor in investment in water conservation investments. • Increase capacity of the Awash Basin Authority to give services for clients (irrigators), and • Help to realize water security and solve problem of water shortage by constructing reservoir people are asking. B. Negative Impacts
The possible negative impacts of introducing/modifying irrigation water:
• Increases cost on irrigators and force investors operating in loss in the basin to worry about their investment: Agricultural investment involves and number of costs and risky business for fluctuation of price of their outputs and increasing in price of inputs. • Impact on Food Security: irrigation water charge may demote production of cereal crops in the basin. This may influence the target of realizing food security at local and national levels. • Resistance and tension: Experiences showed that it is common to observe resistance and tension when new projects are introduced. The tension between users and governments occurs if the amount set is high and affect survival of irrigators in the basin.
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• Increasing cost of irrigation water charge without introducing various services may instigate tension between users and Awash Basin Authority.
4.1.4 Mitigation of Negative impacts Irrigation water charge is a sensitive issue that involves political, history, social, religious and economic dimensions throughout the world (Abu-Zeid, 2003). It is necessary to reduce the negative impacts or the consequences possible negative impacts of the reforming and introducing irrigation water charge. The Basin Authority should undertake the following measures to implement smoothly the irrigation water charge:
• Advocacy: Advocacy for two to three years in areas where irrigation water charge is to be introduced for the first time is required before actually commencement of collection of irrigation water. The focus of the authority should be water security, sustainability, allocation and the negative impacts of free raiding in water abstraction. • Introduction of projects that aimed at realizing sustainable access to water for irrigation throughout the Basin. Shortage of irrigation water, flooding and salinity are the major problems of irrigators. Thus, projects aimed at solving those problems such as reservoirs building, flood and salinity control mechanisms in a plan by the money collected. • Presentation of the model for irrigation water charge to irrigators with the aim of collecting the charge eases tension between users and government. • Keeping the amount of charge, as much as possible, consider irrigators ability to pay.
4.1.5 Environmental Concern Water use, management and saving are not uniform among different forms of irrigators throughout the Awash Basin. Flower farms in the Basin have been Page | 48
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applying water saving technologies and using water efficiently. However, uses of water saving technologies among smallholders, cooperatives or commercial farms are absent or low. Informants indicated the existence of high water wasting in the basin. This is because furrow irrigation is the dominant irrigation system in the Basin.
Informants claimed that Siltation, flooding, salivation and perception of poor water quality are the major concern of irrigators in the basin. Informants stated that urban and industrial wastes and water from Beseka Lake are polluting water of Awash River. In addition, Beseka Lake is seen as a serious threat by people downstream of the lake, Afar regional state irrigators. All informants believe that the reforming the existing water tariff system and licensing irrigation water use positively contributes to water saving and reduces adverse effects of careless use of irrigation water.
4.1.6 Conclusion and Recommendation Sub-conclusions and sub-recommendations are drawn regarding the social study of and charge setting on irrigation water use. Hence, the key ideas are depicted as follows.
i. Conclusion
Irrigation water charge setting and reforming is a complex phenomenon that involves social, economic, political, historical and religious issues. In addition, it is also influenced by water consciousness level of irrigators and water consciousness influences willingness of irrigators to pay for irrigation water charge.
The study indicated that water consciousnesses of irrigators are high, about 78.4%. In addition, 92.2% of irrigators (respondents) are willing to pay irrigation water charge to be reformed or introduced in the basin. Sustainability, water security and water quality are the concern of irrigation water for production. Page | 49
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However, they emphasized protection of the need of the poor, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in setting/reforming water charge. The amount to be introduced shouldn’t discourage but rather promotes investment agriculture, environmental protection and realization of food security in the basin and national level.
ii. Recommendation
On the basis of study conducted and for the smooth implementation of irrigation water charge, the realizations of points outline hereunder are worthy to mention: o Registering and licensing all irrigators (smallholders, pastoralists, agro- pastoralists, small, medium and large scale farms): this is can help to control illegal irrigation water abstraction and facilitate for equitable use of irrigation water in the basin.
o Organizing all irrigators into irrigation water users Associations in the Basin: raises inclusion of many irrigators into water charge payment systems.
o Provision of Services: Providing services such as canal maintenance and clearing, water quality control, flood, siltation and salinity control are demanded by irrigators. The Basin authority is expected to provide or facilitate provision of those services in the Basin.
o Creating strong linkage system with irrigators and local level administrators to implement irrigation water charge in the Basin.
o Advocacy: awareness rising must come is needed for the implementation of irrigation water charge in the Basin. It eases the possible of the occurrence of tension between irrigators and government in the basin.
4.2 Domestic and Non-Domestic Water Abstractions and Charge Setting This section is delimited in providing an analysis the social dimensions to be considered while setting charge for domestic and non-domestic abstractors.
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The main target was to identify social forces to be considered than searching for a single number to be included in the water charge setting. In this regard the social team had collected data from key informants from the different domestic and non-domestic water abstractors. Besides, the team had also gathered survey data from rural water user associations, Ephrata and Gidem and Gimbichu Fentalie, from Amara and Oromia regions respectively. These associations are found in Upper Awash Basin. The survey data is presented parallel with the data obtained from key informants.
Table 14: Basin Location of Water Supply Extractors/Users
Water supply Basin Location extractor/user category Out of Lower Middle Awash Upper Awash Awash Basin Awash Basin Basin Basin
Frequenc Percent Frequenc y Percent Frequenc y Percent Frequenc y Percent Municipality water 1 10.0% 2 20.0% 2 20.0% 5 50.0% supply
Rural water supply 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 3 100.0%
Industry and recreation 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 4 100.0% university 0 0.0% 1 33.3% 0 0.0% 2 66.7%
Source: Field Interview 2018
As it is observed in table 15, from the municipality water supply extractor category, most of the key informants (50%) were located in the Upper Awash River Basin. All of the rural water supply extractors and industries and recreational facilities (100% in both categories) are from the Upper Awash River
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Basin. Moreover, 33.3% and 66.7% of the universities were drawn from the Middle and Upper Awash River Basins, respectively.
Table 15: Summary description of water user association
Water user associations Basin Frequency Percent
Ephrata and Gidem Upper Awash 20 37.7 Basin
Gimbichu Fentalie Upper Awash 33 62.3 Basin
Total 53 100.0
Source: Field Interview 2018
As it is observed in table 15, from the two water user associations most of the respondents (62.3%) were found in Gimbichu Fentalie. The rest 37.7 % respondents were taken from Ephrata and Gidm water user association.
4.2.1 Water Consciousness In order to examine the water consciousness of key informants and respondents, the social team developed Likert scale like questionnaire which has 6 items. The questionnaire items were constructed in a way to reflect to issues related to water charge setting. Each item had five level of response (strongly agree=5, agree=4, neutral=3, disagree=2 and strongly disagree=1). The highest level of response indicates high water consciousness while the lowest level of response indicates low water consciousness. Before examining the water consciousness of key informants and respondents, the social team had asked the participants to rate the current availability of water. Their response is summarized and presented as follows.
i. Views of Water Extractors and Users on the Availability of Water Supply
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Key informants and survey respondents were asked to rate the current availability of water from their own perspective. The rating was from the scale of 1 to 5. The lowest score indicates very inadequate while the highest score indicates very adequate. The response is summarized and presented as follows.
Table 16: View of key informants on the current availability of water
Division of Awash Basin Current availability of water [from the perception of key informants]
very Inadequate Undecided Adequate very adequate inadequate
quen
Fre Percent Frequen Percent Frequen Percent Frequen cy Percent Frequen cy Percent Out of Awash 0 0.0% 1 100% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% Basin
Lower Awash 1 33.3% 1 33.3% 0 0.0% 1 33.3% 0 0.0% Basin
Middle Awash 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 50.0% 1 50.0%
Basin
ocation Upper Awash 1 7.7% 5 38.5% 0 0.0% 6 46.2% 1 7.7% Basin Basin L Basin Source: Field Interview 2018
As it is clearly shown in table 16, the views of key informants to current availability of water are different across basin location. Although the sample is small, the figure indicates that those key informants from water supply extractors and users located in the lower awash basin (66.6%) view that water is inadequate in the current situation. Contrary to this, most of the key informants from Middle (100%) and Upper Awash Basin (53.9%) view that water is currently adequate. This has an implication on water charge setting. In this regard, key informants from the
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lower basin may feel water insecurity and be willing to engage in water conservation activities including paying water charge. If an awareness raising mechanism is made, key informants from middle and upper basin will also be motivated to engage in water preservation activities.
Table 17: Respondents’ Own Rating of Current Availability of Water
Questions and Choice Site/Town Categories Ephrata and Gidem Gimbich Fentalie
freque Percent Perc frequenc Percent Percen ncy [column] ent y [column t [total] [total ] ]
Current Very 3 15.0% 5.7% 1 3.0% 1.9% availabili inadequa ty of te Water Inadequa 10 50.0% 18.9% 13 39.4% 24.5% te
Undecide 1 5.0% 1.9% 1 3.0% 1.9% d
Adequate 6 30.0% 11.3% 18 54.5% 34.0%
Very 0 0.0% 0.0% 0 0.0% 0.0% adequate
Source: Field Survey 2018
As it can be seen from table 17 above, 65% of respondents from Ephrata and Gidem water user association felt that the current water availability is inadequate. On the other hand, 43.4% of respondents from Gimbichu Fentalie water user association had the feeling that water is inadequate in the current situation. In both sites, as per the respondents, there was proper usage of water. Page | 54
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ii. Water Consciousness of Key Informants and Respondents
This section focuses on assessing the water consciousness level of key informants. Dominant attention has been given to the analysis and presentation of the data obtained from key informants who represent the different water extractors and users. Finally, a summary of description is given about the consciousness level of survey respondents.
iii. Water Consciousness Level of Key Informants
As it was mentioned earlier, the water consciousness level of key informants was assessed from the responses given to the 6 items. Hence, analysis is given based on the individual items and total score.
Table 18: Water Consciousness of Key Informants [Summary Statistics]
S.No. Items Mean Median Std. Variance Deviation
1 Water security is a concern in your 4.11 5 1.197 1.433 community
2 I support any kind of effort to conserve water 4.26 4 0.933 0.871
3 Currently, water is abstracted/used unwisely 2.84 2 1.167 1.363
4 Every water extractor/user must be charged 3.74 4 1.195 1.427
5 I can afford to pay if reasonable charge is 3.88 4 0.857 0.735 introduced
6 Setting water charge encourages me to 4 4 0.84 0.706 extract/use water in proper manner
Source: Field Interview 2018
From table 18 it is vividly indicated that the mean response of key informants’ five items was closer or more than 4. This implies that the water consciousness Page | 55
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level of key informants was high. Key informant’s response for each is analyzed as follows.
Table 19: Key informants’ response to individual items
S.N Items Level of Response o strongly disagree uncertain agree strongly agree disagree
cen
Freque ncy Percen t Freque ncy Per t Freque ncy Percen t Freque ncy Percen t Freque ncy Percen t 1 Water security 0 0.00 4 21.05 0 0.00 5 26.32 10 52.63 is a concern % % % % % in your community
2 I support any 0 0.00 2 10.53 0 0.00 8 42.11 9 47.37 kind of effort % % % % % to conserve water
3 Currently, 1 5.26 10 52.63 0 0.00 7 36.84 1 5.26% water is % % % % abstracted/us ed unwisely
4 Every water 1 5.26 3 15.79 1 5.26 9 47.37 5 26.32 extractor/user % % % % % must be charged
5 I can afford to 0 0.00 2 11.76 1 5.88 11 64.71 3 17.65 pay if % % % % % reasonable charge is
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introduced
6 Setting water 0 0.00 2 11.11 0 0.00 12 66.67 4 22.22 charge % % % % % encourages me to extract/use water in proper manner
Source: Field Interview 2018 in table 19, the water consciousness of key informants is analyzed in relation to water charge setting
iv. Water Security Key informants from water supply extractors and users were asked whether water security is a concern in their community. Most of the key informants (78.95%) agreed that water security is a concern in their community during the time of the interview. The presence of concern to water security in their respective community may ease the challenge which will face while setting water charge.
v. Initiation to Support Water Conservations Endeavors The key informants were also asked whether they are willing to support any kind of effort to conserve water. As it can be seen from table 19, nearly all key informants (89.48%) were in favor of any kind of activities which target to water conservation. The positive outlook to any kind of efforts by key informants implies less challenge if water charge is going to be set but as far as it is fair.
vi. Is Charging Water Extractors and Users A Must? In this regard, in order to assess key informants’ view on water charge, the social team formulated the question “every water extractor and user must be charged”. The key informants’ response to this item was so critical. As table 19 Page | 57
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shows, 73.69% of the key informants agreed that charging every water extractors and users should be a must. Water a charge should be the responsibility of every water extractor. Knowing this confirms the need to set charge by Awash Basin Authority.
vii. Implication of Setting Charge on Water Extraction/Usage Key informants were also asked if water charge is set it encourages them to extract/use water in proper manner. Most of the key informants (88.89%) replied to in agreement to the question “Setting water charge encourages me to extract/use water in proper manner”. Hence, if Awash Basin sets charge to those which extracts and use water, proper extraction and usage of water will be one of the anticipated consequences.
viii. Can Water Extractors and Users Afford If Water Charge Is Set? In order to examine whether water extractors and users will afford or not if charge is set to the water they extract and use, key informants were asked the question “I can afford to pay if reasonable charge is introduced”. Most key informants (82.36%) agreed that they can afford it but if the water charge becomes reasonable. This result has an implication on the importance of setting water charge to Awash Basin Authority with due care.
ix. Perception on Unwise Water Abstraction and Use Key informants were asked whether they perceive that water is abstracted and used unwisely in the current situation. Most of the key informants (57.89%) do not agree that water abstraction and use is not unwise. In other word, they agreed that it is wise. Contrary to this view, other key informants (42.10%) perceive that water extraction and use is unwise in the current situation. The latter figure has an implication that before setting water abstraction and use charge it is advisable to take awareness raising activities in order to reduce challenges that impeded charge setting.
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The scores of key informants to individual items were also summed up to produce a total score. This total score also reflects the water consciousness level of key informants from the water abstractor and user institutions or organizations. The lowest score indicates disagreement to the various questions raised in table 19, while the highest score indicates agreement. In this respect, scores of 20 and above shows the level of agreement confirmed by respondents. A score which is 18 and close is uncertain. By aggregating the score of each key informant for every question, the following output table is generated. The response of three key informants was not included as they did not provide answer.
Table 20: Descriptive Statistics of Key Informants’ Total Consciousness Score
Items Frequency Percent
18.00 1 5.0
20.00 2 10.0
21.00 2 10.0
23.00 4 20.0
24.00 3 15.0
25.00 2 10.0
26.00 2 10.0
27.00 1 5.0 Consciousness total score
Mean 23.1176
Median 23.0000
Std. Deviation 2.44649
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Summary Range 9.00
Minimum 18.00
Maximum 27.00
Source: Field Interview 2018
As table 20, shows, most of key informants (16, 80%) have a total score of 20 and above to the water consciousness Likert scale questions. As it is noted in table 20, the questions are about whether water security is a concern in their community, whether key informant’s organization support any effort to conserve water, whether water extractors must be charged, whether they can afford the charge if it is set, and whether setting charge encourages to extract and use properly. The higher the total score means confirmation to these items. The percentage (80%) of confirmation is high. This indicates (0.8) that key informants were found with highly water consciousness level. This result supports for the need of setting charge by the Awash Basin Authority.
X. Water Consciousness Level of Respondents
The water consciousness level of respondents was also assessed from the responses given to the 6 items. Besides, description is given by computing the total score.
Table 21: Water consciousness level of water user associations
Items Ephrata and Gidem Gimbichu Fentalie
Mean Median Std. Variance Mean Median Std. Variance Deviation Deviation
Water security is a 3.85 4.00 1.040 1.082 4.45 5.00 .617 .381 concern in your community
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I support any kind 4.25 4.00 .550 .303 4.09 4.00 .292 .085 of effort to conserve water
Currently, water is 1.80 2.00 .894 .800 2.24 2.00 1.437 2.064 abstracted/used unwisely
Every water 4.10 4.00 .852 .726 4.24 4.00 .936 .877 extractor/user must be charged
I can afford to pay 4.35 4.00 .489 .239 4.18 4.00 .846 .716 if reasonable charge is introduced
Setting water 4.40 4.00 .503 .253 4.12 4.00 .992 .985 charge encourages me to extract/use water in proper manner
Descriptive stat for 22.75 22.5 2.14905 4.618 23.3333 23 1.70783 2.917 the total score
The response of survey respondents to water consciousness question is similar to key informants’ view. As it is observed in table 21, the mean response for each item, except the third item, in both water user associations was greater than 4. Similarly, the mean total score in both cases (22.75 and 23.3) is closer to the ideal total water consciousness score (24). This is interpreted as the water consciousness level of respondents from the two water user associations is high. By implication, if any effort is to be made including water charge setting to
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conserve water and other water protection activities, it is unlikely to be rejected by members of water user associations.
4.2.2 Social Concerns In order to identify what social concerns will have, key informants and respondents were asked both close ended and open-ended questions. The finding from their response is analyzed and presented as follows.
i. Social Concern from the Perspective of Key Informants
There is no question on whether charge should be set for the water abstracted and used as per the key informants’ view. The affordability of the charge will not be a big question if it is reasonable. To this regard, key informants were asked whether there should be equal charge for all water abstractors if charge is a must as it is shown on the following table.
Table 22: Key Informants’ View on the Social Concern of Setting Water Charge
S.No Items Responses
Yes (%) No (%)
1 Key informants' view on whether there should be 84.2% 15.8% charge for the water extracted and used
2 Key informants' opinion to whether all water 77.8% 22.2% abstractors can afford water charge if it is set
3 Key informants' view on whether there should be 5.3% 94.7% equal charge for all water abstractors if charge is a must
Source: Field Interview 2018
Most of the key informants (94.7%) perceived that the water charge should not be equal. From the open-ended questions, it is found that setting water charge must consider the following Page | 62
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. Type Water Extractor and User Institutions or Organization: the charge for public service providers such as municipalities and universities should not be the same with those business-oriented institutions like industries, recreational institutions. From the key informants’ perspective, profit oriented institutions or organization should be more charged that service provider water extractors and user.
. The Amount of Water Abstracted and Used: according to key informants for water charge to be fair at least it should consider the amount of water abstracted and used by institutions or organizations parallel to their nature.
. Profit Earned: as some key informants mentioned if there are profits directly associated with the water abstracted and used, water abstraction and use charge must be higher other compared to other. This may imply for water bottling companies and brewery business industries
ii. Social Concern from the Perspective Of Respondents
In order to see whether respondents were socially concerned about setting water charge, they were asked the basic questions indicated in table 23 were asked.
Table 23: Respondent’s Social Concern in setting water charge
Items Site
Ephrata and GimbichFentalie Gidem
Yes % No % Yes % No %
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Respondents' perception on whether there should be 94.7% 5.3% 100.0% 0.0% charge for the water extracted and used
Respondents' position on whether their extractor 100.0% 0.0% 100.0% 0.0% institution can afford the water charge if it is set
Respondents' view on whether there should be equal 15.0% 85.0% 30.% 69.7% charge for all water abstractors if charge is a must
Source: Field Survey 2018
From table 23, it is clear that water charge should be introduced to those who extract and use water. However, their concern is that the charge should not be uniform for the different types of water extractor and users. From the open ended questions, respondents suggested that the amount of water extracted and used, the impact of water extraction on the community, the nature of water extractors (whether it is profit motive), and other related issues should be considered.
4.2.3 Impacts of Introduction of Water Charge This section presents the likely impacts and mitigation mechanism of introduction of water charge setting for abstractors and user from the perspectives of key informants and respondents who were selected from water supply abstractor facilities and water user associations respectively. The finding is analyzed and presented in the following sub sections. i. Likely Social Impacts
There are a number of likely impacts of setting water use charge. The responses obtained from various water user categories are discussed thoroughly under the subsequent sub-sections. a. Social Impact of Setting Water Charge from the View Point of Key Informants
Key informants were asked various questions with respect to whether setting charge for the abstracted and used water will have social impact that or not. Page | 64
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Table 24 : Social Impact of Setting Water Charge from the View of Key Informants
Items and level of responses Frequency Percent
If water charge is set, its effect is Negative 3 18.8%
Positive 13 81.3%
Key Informants' perception on setting water 3 17.6% whether the advantage of charge is setting charge for the extracted disadvantageous water outweighs the setting water 14 82.4% disadvantages charge is advantageous
Source: Field Interview 2018 As it is observed vividly in table 24, for most key informants (more than 80%), the impact of setting water charge for abstractors and user is positive and advantageous. Setting water charge will encourage them to abstract and use water properly. It will enable them to access water regular since it will be wisely abstracted and used. It will create a chance to those who does have access before. Those key informants who perceive that the impact is going to be negative mentioned that setting charge will results in additional costs to water extractors. Besides, the charge to be set may affect the end water user since water extractor institutions may transfer to them.
b. Social Impact of Setting Water Charge from the View of Survey Respondents
Respondents were asked whether setting water charge affects them positively, and whether the advantage of setting water charge outweighs the disadvantage. The response is analyzed and presented as follow.
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Table 25: Respondents’ View on the Social Impacts of Setting Water Charge
Items and level of responses Ephrata and Gimbichu Gidem Fentalie
If water charge is set, its Negative 0.0% 36.4% effect is Positive 100.0% 63.6%
Respondents’ perception on setting water charge 15.0% 12.1% whether the advantage of is disadvantageous setting charge for the setting water charge 85.0% 87.9% extracted water outweighs is advantageous the disadvantages
Source: Field Survey 2018
As it is shown in table 25 above, all respondents (100%) from Ephrata and Gidm and 63.6% respondents from Gimbichu Fentalie water user associations perceived that setting water charge will have positive impact on them. Regarding the comparative advantage, 85.0% and 87.9% of respondents from Ephrata end Gidm and GmibichuFentalierespectively agreed that introducing water charge for abstractors and user is advantageous. The advantage of setting water charge outweighs the disadvantage.
4.2.4 Mitigation of Negative Impacts Based on the responses provided by key informants and respondents from the different water abstractors and users and water user associations, the following are suggested mitigation mechanisms for the anticipated social impacts. i. Under Taking Awareness Raising Activities And Research Uptakes: Before the implementation of the charge for water abstraction and use, as the key informants said, it is important to make awareness raising by inviting water abstractors, user and other appropriate stakeholders. It is also suggested that Page | 66
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different stakeholders such as environmental protection workers, land administrators, water offices, the community, universities, end users, and water extractors should participate in setting water charge before it is implemented in order to reduce negative impacts. This will reduce the probability of future unanticipated impacts and challenges that impede the implementation of water charge. ii. Establishment of Affordable Water Charge for Abstractors and Users: Although most of the key informants said they can afford the charge to be introduced, they were not sure that the amount of the charge. Even from some key informants from municipality water supply intuitions were questioning the importance of setting charge on water providers to the public. Hence, one mechanism will be to set affordable charge for such type of water extractors and suppliers. Unless the introduced charge will be transfer to the end users. Besides, unaffordable water charge will result in increment on price of goods and services produced by business-oriented water extractors and users. iii. Setting Fair and Equitable Water Charge: As it was indicated earlier, one of the social aspects to be considered while setting charge for abstracted water is fairness. In order to address the issue of equity is to employ mitigation mechanisms based on whether the water extractor institution is profit motive or basic service provider. As per the key informants and respondents the charge for profit makers and water provider to the public should not be equal. Besides, the amount of water extracted and used should be considered in reducing the social impact. Furthermore, direct profits which are associated with extracted water should be considered. iv. Establishing an Institution that Can monitor and Evaluate the Implementation of the Charge: In order to address appeals and dissents raised in relation to
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water charge, it is important to establish an institution. This institution may address inequitable charges and other related issues.
4.2.5 Environmental Concerns of Domestic and Non-Domestic Water Supply In this section attention has been given to the anticipated environmental impact of setting charge to water abstractors and user. To this end, key informants and respondents were asked various question which were close ended and open ended by nature. The major finding is presented as follows. a. Key Informants’ Environmental Concern While Setting Water Charge for Water Abstractors and Users In order to examine whether setting water charge for abstractors and user will have environmental impact, key informants were asked different questions (see table 26).
Table 26: Key Informants’ Environmental Concern While Setting Water Charge for Water Abstractors and Users
S.No Items Responses Percent
1 Key informants' view on whether will not ensure sustainability 16.7% setting charge for the extracted will ensure sustainability 83.3% water will ensure water sustainability
2 Key Informants' response on does not consider future 22.2% whether the way their institution impact extract water is considering considers future impact 77.8% future impact or not
3 Key informants' opinion to will not promote fair 5.6% whether setting charge for the distribution of water extracted water will promote fair promote fair distribution of 94.4% distribution of water water
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Source: Field Interview 2018
Corresponding to questions to whether setting water charge has environmental impact is whether the way institutions or organizations have been extracting and using water was considerate to future impact. To this regard, key informants were asked whether the way their institution extract water is considering future impact or not. A great deal key informant (77.8%) replied that the manner of water extraction and use by their institutions is considerate to the future impact. Despite this figure, as one key informant said, there are institutions which are extracting and use a large amount of water by affecting the water reserve of the community and spoiling the environment.
The key informants’ response on the likelihood effect of setting water abstraction and use charge was encouraging. As it can be seen from table 26, key informants’ response to whether setting charge for the extracted water will ensure water sustainability was positive. Majority of the key informants believed (83.3%) that setting charge for the abstracted and used water will ensure water sustainability in the future. It will do this since the collected charge will be used for water conservation activities. Besides, setting water charge for abstraction and use will promote fair distribution of water. This will be possible by guaranteeing water sustainability in the future.
As one key informant from the public institutions pointed, the commitment to social responsibility should be indicated in a continuous manner. The future availability of water in the community, its effect on the land and its allied resources should be considered. Some key informants even suggested that 15%- 20% of the water charge should cover the social cost while others estimated it up to 70% as far as the main target of the project is to ensure water sustainability.
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b. Respondents’ Environmental Concern While Setting Water Charge for Water Abstractors and Users Respondents from the two water user associations were asked whether setting water charge for abstractors and user will have environmental impact or not. The result is presented on the following table.
Table 27: Respondents’ Environmental Concern While Setting Water Charge for Water Abstractors and Users
Items and level of responses Ephrata Gimbichu and Fentalie Gidem
Respondents' perception on whether will not ensure 5.3% 42.4% setting charge for the extracted water sustainability will ensure water sustainability will ensure 94.7% 57.6% sustainability
Respondents' opinion to whether will not promote fair 15.8% 90.9% setting charge for the extracted water distribution of water will promote fair distribution of water promote fair 84.2% 9.1% distribution of water
Respondents' response on whether the does not consider 22.2% 39.4% way their association extract water is future impact considering future impact or not considers future 77.8% 60.6% impact
Source: field survey 2018
Before assessing respondents’ view on whether setting charge for abstracted and used water, they were asked whether their association manner of water extraction and use is considerate to future impact. As it is presented in table 27,
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77.8% and 60.6% from Ephrata and Gidm and GimbichuFentalie water user associations respectively, said that their association is extracting and using water by giving a due care to water in the future. As it can also be seen from table 27, large number of respondents (94.7%) from Ephrata and Gidm believe that setting charge to water abstractors and user will ensure the sustainability of water in the future. More than half of the respondents (57.6%) from Gimbichu Fentalie Water user association also had similar belief. However, respondents' opinion to whether setting charge for the extracted water will promote fair distribution of water is different for the two water user associations. Table 27, clearly shows that 84.2% of respondents from Ephrata and Gidm water user association perceive that setting charge for the abstracted and used water will promote fair distribution of water. In the case of Gimbichu Fentalie water user association, it was only 9.1% of the respondents who had such a similar view.
4.2.6 Conclusions and Recommendations Based on the collected data from key informants from the different water extractor and user institutions and analysis, the following major conclusions and recommendations are drawn. i. Conclusions
Regarding Water Conscious: As it is understood from the key informants interviewed, most of the interviewees were conscious about the current water availability and its future. They noted that water security is a concerning issue. In other words, water extractor and suppliers such as municipalities and rural water suppliers, public institutions like universities and industries are conscious about the current availability of water. From this it can be concluded that any effort of water conservation activity including charge for the extracted and used water may potentially be supported. The findings also indicated that most of the key informants were willing to be charged. They considered water charge as one of the efforts to be taken in ensuring water availability in the future. Water charge, for those willing to pay, is one of the strategies which encourage extracting and using water in a proper manner. Page | 71
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Regarding Social Concern: For most key informants, the advantage of setting water charge gives more benefit than the disadvantages. Hence, they hold positive view regarding the impact of water charge. However, while setting charge to the different water abstractors and user categories, key informants have raised issued related to affordability, fairness and equity. This has an implication for the need to consider the type water extractor and user institutions or organization (whether the water extractor is public service provide or profit seeker), the amount of water extracted and used, the profit generated.
Impacts of Water Charge and its Mitigations: key informants reflected that they possessed a positive view on the water use charge to be set. Fair and proper utilization of water is one of its benefits. Creating water accessibility to those who haven’t had access before is the other advantage. However, these key informants and those who hold negative view mentioned the anticipated negative impacts. In this regard water extractors may incur additional costs. This in turn may result in water charge transfer to end users. But these likely negative impacts can be reduced through awareness raising activities and research uptakes, establishment of affordable water charge for abstractors and users, setting fair and equitable water charge, and creating institution that can monitor and evaluate the implementation of the charge.
Regarding the Environmental Concern: With respect to environmental concern, most of the key informants were optimistic about the environmental effect of the water charge to be set for abstractors. As they mentioned, by setting charge for the abstracted water, water security and sustainability will be resulted from. Key informants also remarked strongly that if water charge is to be set, it should be socially responsible. The charge should give attention to the society and its environment and environmental resources. From this it can be concluded that the collected charge from water abstractors and user should
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consider to what extent the social cost of the environment is going to be covered by the charge.
ii. Recommendations
By taking the findings and conclusions made into account, the social team has recommended the following with regard to setting charge for the abstractors and users.
It is recommended that before rushing into implementing the water charge to abstractors into practice, prefatory activities should be taken. This can be done through awareness raising tasks and research finding dissemination actions by inviting water abstractors, and other related stakeholders.
The social team underscores the equal importance of strongly addressing fairness and equity issues parallel to water charge figures (statistical numbers) to be set. Hence, it is advisable that if the nature of water extractor institution, the amount of water extracted, the impact water extractors impose are taken in into consideration, these social variables can be addressed.
It is also suggested that in addition to the establishment of affordable, fair and equitable water charge, a viable institution should be created which can monitor and evaluate the implementation of the charge and address appeals from water extractors.
4.3 Treated Waste Water Discharge and its Charge Setting The treated waste water charge setting involves the analysis of four interrelated core dimensions. These dimensions encompass water consciousness, social concerns, environmental concerns and the governance of the likely impacts of setting water charges. Under each of these major social dimensions, there are several elements that deserve worthy of discussions. The details on each of these
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dimensions and the specific constituencies under the each of the respective dimensions are portrayed over the sub-sequent parts.
4.3.1 Water Consciousness As an introduction, the consulted industries were different in terms of the amount of water that they consumed and discharged. Similarly, the industries differ on the level of the effluences released to the nearby environments and the level of damages they caused. This was due to the fact that the release of treated wastes also differs significantly among the factories/industries. Some of them claimed that there are industries releasing forbidden elements to the environment or treating waste water below the standards set by the Environmental Protection Authority.
a. Water Conservation Practices and Disposal Mechanisms in the Respective Industries
The water conservation practices of the industries were considered a major indicator to reflect the perspectives of managers regarding their approaches and exposures to water consciousness. From this perspective, it appeared that the industrial managers were not in position to fully apprehend the importance of water conservation activities in the respective environs of their production areas.
The problem was not only absence of institutionalized conservation practices but also the mangers of the industries and factories lacked the willingness to pay for the treated waste discharge and their effluences. The interviewed industry managers and representatives reflected the opinion that the investments particularly the establishment of treatment plans had compelled them to invest a lot. Such enforcements were said to be part of the Environmental Policy of the Country which was issued in 1997. Such investments were out of the expectations of the owners and managers of the industries. The investments, as obtained from the interviewed industries, could range between 4 to 8 millions. In Page | 74
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the context of the third world countries including Ethiopia, these amounts of investments on the construction of treatment plants and exercising the conservations practices hand in hand had been a very unlikely tradition.
As a result, the industrial managers often opted refraining from expressing the exact amount that their industries could pay for the treated waste discharge. Under extremes circumstances, there were few managers who openly stated their worries that it is not the right time to raise and frame about charging frameworks for treated waste discharge. Rather the managers and consulted experts noted that industries/factories need to be protected and encouraged. However, there was an overall consensus to pay and to play a vital role in managing the management of water as well as treated waste management. The experiences of the industries demonstrated that they do not pay for treated waste releases to their eco-systems so far. But under some circumstances they pay for renewing the licenses for extraction costs alone, which is 67 birr.
The study factories were asked about their application of water conservation practice, where putting the available water for beneficial use with all available technology or reducing the usage of water and recycling of the waste water for different purposes such as cleaning, manufacturing, agricultural practices or any other. The majority (75%) of interviewed industries practice water conservation such as planting indigenous trees, inspecting and mending water valves continuously, cooling water that returned, condensing recycled water, building water reservoir tanks and sites, planting waste water treatment plant and tunnel pasteurizer cooling tower, re-using the water for cooling furnaces and raw material processing. The rest of industries replied that they did not apply or introduced water conservation practices either because of lack of awareness on water conservation practices. In addition, it was believed that the amount of waste water release by the industries was considered as very small as compared
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to others. There few managers of industries who stated that they are in process to establish water conservation activities.
Regarding the place of disposing treated waste water, those who treated wastewater had been disposing either into a water body like river and on to open land. Under some circumstances, the treated waste water could also be utilized for several purposes such as (a) industrial reuse or reclaimed sewage effluent cooling system, boiler feed, process water, septic tanks etc., (b) reuse in agriculture and horticulture practices such as gardening flowers and irrigation systems. Nonetheless, the applications of technologies among industries for conservation strategies were less significant.
b. Industries’ Mechanism to Re-use Released Treated Waste Water
Treated industrial wastewater can be a reliable source of water which can be utilized in many aspects of human life such as industries itself (e.g. cooling water), agricultural and landscape irrigation, residential and commercial non- potable uses and the likes. There is even now technology (although costly) to treat sewage to generate potable water. The reuse of treated industrial wastewater for potable purposes and even non-potable uses (e.g. dual water supply for car wash, flush toilets, etc) has often been disregarded as inappropriate from a social perspective. Yet, the introductions of technology as already mentioned above gives a better clue as how to use it.
The capital and operating costs of treating wastewater to a standard suitable for its intended use will depend upon factors such as the quality of the effluent, the quality of the recycled water required, the technology adopted or required for the appropriate level of treatment. As a whole, the higher the level of the treatment, the higher would the cost it takes. And, hence the interviews conducted with the managers corroborated that most of them lack systems of implementing operational higher cost technologies.
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In light of these concerns, the factories were asked if they have mechanisms to reuse release treated waste water. The table below presents the views of the managers of the industries.
Table 28: Presence of Mechanisms to Reuse Treated Waste Water
Responses Frequency Valid Percent
Yes 2 12.5
No 14 87.5
Total 16 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2018
The majority (87.5%) did not reuse the released treated waste water. The possible reasons raised by respondents includes the treatment methods applied are secondary (biological), the mechanisms applied for treated waste water is only used for releasing to the environment, the technological capability of the industry is very infant or they are proposing better waste water treatment plant for re-using it, the farmers need the treated waste water for irrigation purposes, and others believed their industry has no/ small amount of wastewater to reuse it. Some of them had also expressed about the huge financial requirements of the technologies for recycling water.
Therefore, the actions of reusing treated water for other purposes were found to be so minimal. In fact, few industries mentioned about the reuse of treated waste water for some minor activities in the respective factories such as small scale irrigation, flowering, and toilets. Some of them mentioned about reusing of the wastes for biomass productions. There were also cases in which industrial mangers shared that the technologies and budgets mobilized for treating and recycling water for use is so expensive and could not be afford by the industries. Page | 77
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Views of Industrial Managers on the Environmental Costs of Treated Waste Water
The water resource professionals believe that reclaiming water after it is treated in a modern waste water treatment is an important and underutilized element of sustainable water resource management (Hartley, 2006). Respondents’ understanding on environmental risks associated with treated waste water is essential for the public to successful water reuse programs. The table below presents the views of the industrial managers on the costs of treated waste on the surrounding environs.
Table 29: Releasing treated waste water causes environmental costs
Responses Frequency Valid Percent
Yes 4 25.0
No 12 75.0
Total 16 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2018
Accordingly, 75% of the managers consulted replied that treated waste water has no environmental impacts, whereas the rest (25%) perceived treated waste water have admitted the presence of environmental impact. The possible perceived impact posed on environments is the standards set by EPA were not satisfactory, absence of continuous monitoring and evaluation. But within the available systems and standards, the industrial managers assume that the water treated and released does not cause any cost to the environment. But such views have been not entertained among various researchers on the theme. Although treated water does not as such cause harms, it is not clean as that of water abstracted for industrial uses.
c. Views of the Factories/Industries on the Impacts and Roles of Treated Waste Water Page | 78
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Although impact analysis seeks a very deep and all rounded investigation, key informants were asked to forward their know-how about the impact of treated waste water on the environment; the roles that must be played by the stakeholders; and their willingness to pay for treated waste water for environmental rehabilitation. Table 29 shows the overall mean perception and believes of factory key informants on treated waste water impacts and particular responsibilities.
The key informants were not certain about environmental impacts of releasing treated waste water. This is due to the impacts are either positive or negative, which depends on the type and amount of treated waste water discharge to a particular environment. In fact, there were industrial manages who appeared well aware of the impacts of the treated waste water contrary to those who were not at all.
There were industrial managers who were also uncertain about payments for treated waste water. Above all, the majority of respondents disagree on the capability of government to cover the cost incurred by released treated waste water. They believed that the impact of treated waste water should be shared among all stakeholders. The respondents agreed about the necessity of applying water conservation practices in their industry. At the same time, they were also asked if factories are willing to pay for the treated waste water they release.
d. Measuring the Water Consciousness of Industrial Managers
Key informants were asked about the overall water conservation practices of their company, their perception on possible impact of treated waste water on environment, their willingness to pay for treated waste water and respective role they possibly play in implementing treated waste water related actions.
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Table 30: Factories/Industries Water Consciousness
The computations in the table below are based on five point scale measurement where 1 stand for strongly disagree, 2 for disagree, 3 for uncertain, 4 for agree, 5 for strongly agree.
Items Mean value Frequency
Releasing treated waste water to the environment has no 3.06 16 effect on the environment
Industries should pay for treated wastewater they release 3.25 16 to the environment
The government is capable enough to cover the impact 2.38 16 of released treated waste water
I don’t think that government should incur the cost for 3.25 16 treated waste water released by industries
Industries should be forced to employ water conservation 4.00 16 mechanisms
If factories are made to pay for the treated waste water 4.00 16 they release it will encourage them to reuse it in proper manner
Industries should support any kind of effort including 4.06 16 contributing money to the treated waste water they release
Our industry has the knowledge of re-using the treated 3.75 16 waste water
Our industry is willing to pay any kind of compensation for 3.31 16 the damage created by the treated waste water it releases
Source: Field survey, 2018
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As noted above, the measurements regarding the treated waste water demonstrated that industries showed their agreements on three points:
i. The need to enforce and have enforcing mechanism to employ for water conservation mechanisms. The interpretation obtained from the above table supported that the mean of the consulted managers (4.00) ascertained their agreement on the presence of mechanisms for enforcements on the water conservation activities
ii. Similarly, there is a proposition that the introduction of the payments for treated waste water encourages factories or industries reuse and recycle water resources in their environs. The mean calculation of managers (4:00) who were asked about this questions, demonstrated their agreements to this question.
iii. Finally, industries had also accepted the idea of supporting any kind of effort including contributing money to the treated waste water they released to their surrounding environments (mean computation of 4.06).
On the other hand, there was a serious disagreement on the idea that the government is capable enough to cover the impacts of released treated waste water. Managers and industrial experts reiterated that the government alone cannot do anything unless created significant cooperation with different stakeholders. The computed mean is about 2. 38, and which was so closer to disagreement on the scale. In connection, the mean computation regarding the knowledge of the re-using treated waste water varies across different industries (with a mean computation of 3.37), this figure is so closer to affirming the presence of the practice across industries although it was not well institutionalized.
The responses of the managers on the rest of the questions were almost uncertain and indecisive, which indicates the presence of certain confusions in
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the side of the industrial management on the issues of payments for treated waste water and realizing it to the environment. Industrial managers reported their reservations and higher levels of uncertainties on the subsequent points:
i. Releasing treated waste water to the environment has no effect on the environment with a mean computation of 3.06
ii. Industries should pay for treated wastewater they release to the environment (with a mean computation of 3.25), and
iii. Our industry is willing to pay any kind of compensation for the damage created by the treated waste water it releases (with a mean computation of 3.3).
Overall, the aggregate measurement for water consciousness, impacts of introducing treated waste discharge payments and water reuses were all has become a mean value of 3.45, which is above uncertainty but not reached to the level of agreement. The managers of the industries had surly suspected the introduction of the payments for the discharge of treated waste water. Yet still, some groups of industrial managers had also accepted the proposal to introduce the payments for discharging industrial waste to the environment. This implied that much need to be done from a legal, and institutional perspectives to re-orient their mindsets.
e. Willingness to Pay for Released Waste Water
Industries presented a mixed view regarding their willingness to pay for treated waste water; they reasoned out that it will encourage them to reuse it in proper manner. Key informants were also asked if they are willing to support by any kind of effort to treat waste water they release. They agreed even to contribute in cash for treating waste water they released. Further they did not fully agree on their willingness to pay for any kind damage caused by treated waste water.
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One of the key wastewater management issues in developing world is related to the costs of construction and operation and maintenance of public sewage systems (UNEP, 2004). Having in mind that such projects are typically financed by state and local authorities, the focus is usually directed at the sources of financing and allocation of limited national resources. The wastewater service consumers have the responsibility to pay for the services rendered, which is the major source of financing of operation and maintenance and other service related costs. Taking into account that the consumers have to allocate a limited household income to different purposes, affordability and willingness to pay for wastewater services have become major issues in many countries throughout the world, including the developed ones (OECD, 2003). In an attempt to establish how ready industries are willing to pay for released waste water, key respondents were quested.
Table 31: Industries’ Willingness to Pay the Would Be Introduced Treated Water Charge
Responses Frequency Valid Percent
Yes 7 43.8
No 9 56.3
Total 16 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2018
Hence, 56.3 percent replied that their industries are not prepared to pay for released waste water. The reasons raised were, they are already treating the waste water as per EPA standard, and the treatment itself is so expensive. Conversely, 43.7 percent are willing to pay for released waste water because of the impact on the environment. Regarding the amount of charge for waste
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water, the respondents suggested volumetric tariff since it is attached to consumption.
There is a real difficulty to give a range of prices for reclaimed water as they change very much form one country to another one. Condom et al., 2012, believe that the price of treated wastewater is very different from one project to another. It ranges from “zero” to the price of conventional water. Setting a zero price on wastewater for users encourages acceptability of this innovation, hence reducing wastewater discharges into the environment. Yemen and Syria do not charge farmers anything for recycled water (Baquhaizel and Mlkat, 2006). Wastewater reuse is provided free of charge in Australia to reduce wastewater discharges into sensitive water environments (Condom et al., 2012). A study conducted in California in 2005 on 11 wastewater reuse projects shows prices for TWW range from 45 to 100 percent of the price of drinking water (77% in average) (American Public Works Association, 2005).
Table 32: Water tariff for conventional and recycled water in some countries
Country Conventional Water Recycled Water Tariff
Tariff
ISRAEL €0.346 to €0.504/m3 €0.151 to €0.205/m3
KUWAIT - US$0.07/m3
TUNISIA €0.072/ m3 €0.072/m3
CYPRUS €0.1/ m3 €0.1/ m3
JAPAN $3.73/ m3 $3.73/ m3
Source: Abu-Sultan, 2015
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Further the result of the interview indicates the importance of introducing the regulatory process for establishing service levels and tariff as well as planning information for industries to be charged with finding cost effective ways. Designing a proper tariff system for treated wastewater services is an important component of the successful and sustainable implementation of the wastewater reuse in order to achieve effective treated wastewater service delivery to the users and to pay for operations, maintenance and the system management.
The key informants were also asked that the factories should pay equally for waste water they release. The majority (68.8%) replied that they were not willing to pay equally. They reason is that, the amount of waste water they release, type of waste released, level of technology, nature and size of business, and possible environmental impacts should be considered.
4.3.2 Social Concerns
a. Social Equity
The equity criterion deals with measuring the benefits that each customer gets from the water supply and works as a function of the costs induced in the water distribution system. A much related concept with equity is the issue of making subsidy. According to Angel-Urdinola and Wodon (2007), if access rates are improved for the poor in the areas where they live, and if the uptake of service in the areas where service is available also increases for the poor as compared to the population as a whole, this can have a significant impact on the targeting performance of consumption subsidies.
Although the paying capacity of industries was not fully estimated, the qualitative assessment from the survey shows that almost all firms can pay the intended charge regardless of their willingness to pay. As already noted, the
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payment was proposed to consider the type of industry and the amount of treated waste discharged. Thus, setting volumetric based charge would optimize resource sustainability and firm’s affordability through enhancing market competitiveness. This would mean that industries are all capable to pay but it should be based on the amount of treated waste water discharged to the environment and the type of factories itself. In this regard, leather industries were mentioned as among the top factors that need to host relatively much amount of the proposed payments. Brewery factories Cement factors and others need to be carefully classified and then payments should be based on the type of the factors and the amount of treated waste water released to the eco-systems. Therefore, equity could be attained by considering the type of the factory, their production systems, application technologies, year of establishments and their profit margins.
b. Social Affordability
Affordability, as one element of social concern dimension, is related to the ability-to-pay principle, and thus justifies a special favorable treatment for low- income households for the coverage of their basic water needs, which is a key issue in developing countries with wide income disparities and severe poverty problems. Those who are not able to afford may require subsidy, Pinto and Marques (2016). While making support to the poor who cannot afford the price, incorporating local knowledge is very important. As Whittington, Jeuland, and Barker (2012) argued, incorporating local knowledge of health and environmental conditions and of household preferences and behavior into decisions on the targeting of subsidies among competing interventions requires greater involvement by governments and local decision makers in developing countries.
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follows the water policy of Ethiopia which advocates the basic principles of equity, efficiency, affordability and economic value of water. Affordability implies that those who do not have the ability to pay for water should not be denied access to it. A sustainable treated waste water management issue involves a water bill to be quite affordable (but raising the price with demand). An affordable water tariff does not necessarily undermine the efficiency goal of water pricing.
c. Factories’ Affordability to Pay for Released Waste Water and Responsibility of The Government
The main problem when dealing with water reuse is the acceptation of the resource by the end users. Apart from the concept of risk, developed so far, it is necessary a willingness of the end user or/and customer that will buy the production. The managers were also asked their perception about every factory pay for treated waste water. The data in the table below presents the responses of the managers.
Table 33: Factories’ Capacity to Pay Waste Water Charge
Responses Frequency Valid Percent
Yes 9 56.3
No 7 43.8
Total 16 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2018
Hence, the majority (56.3%) replied that existing factories have the capacity to pay for treated waste water. And the rest (43.7%) reflected the factories are incapable to pay for treated waste water. These results need to be looked cautiously. It was a matter of time and understanding or awareness creation
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programs to bring all of the industries into a single system, where all of them could smoothly accept the proposal for introducing charges for treated waste water.
Moreover, the consulted managers pointed out that the government, among other things, should provide awareness creation and progressively enforce them to pay, certain tax related incentives/subsidization for the payment, financial support to help industries to install waste water treatment system and grace period to industries. When willingness to pay is weak and charges on direct users are unlikely to recover costs, service providers and government authorities face limited choices. Transparent government funding of the gap as a community service was stated. Hence, almost all visited industries argued that government should not be part of the constructions of treatment plants. Instead, the government should work hard on the enforcement of regulatory elements and ensure standards.
Table 34: Setting Treated Waste Water Charge and Survival of Natural Species
Responses Frequency Valid Percent
Yes 13 81.3
No 3 18.8
Total 16 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2018
The majority (81.3%) replied that it has a positive impact in reducing quality and quantity of waste released by factories. This is only possible when the waste water payment considers the amount and type of waste. By and large, there was a consensus on the idea that the introduction of charge for treated waste treatment would reverse the actions of the industries. In fact, some industries
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argued that charge setting alone cannot be a solution to the problem of sustainable using water resources in the basin.
On the contrary, the negative impact of treated waste water charging is that it increases the cost of production, reduce profit making ability of industries and discourage investments. In addition, the key informants were also asked about the possible role to be played by factories to reduce the negative consequences of implementing treated waste water charge. They replied that their industry/company will use its all potentials to handle the negative consequences that may happen.
4.3.3 Impacts of Introducing Water Charge This dimension has to do with the avoidance of depletion of critical natural capital, by promoting an efficient use such as encourage water saving, and discourage wasteful water use. Since water charge has its own effect on the future sustainability of water, issues related with water security should be considered in the establishment of water and treated waste water discharge system.
The managers of the factories and industries visited had reflected a strong argument that they are not polluting the environment. They assumed having treatment plant does not cause any harm to the environment at all and they are operating per their standards set by EPA and other regulatory bodies. Hence, the wastes were not considered as wastes causing a damaged to the community and other stakeholders.
4.3.4 Mitigation of Negative Impacts There are steps to be taken in mitigating both the impacts of the treated waste water to the environmental also managing the likely crisis resulting from the introduction of treated waste water charges. The analysis from the industrial
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managers demonstrated that the probable tensions related to treated waste water charges could be handled through: c. President awareness creation programs must be staged to provide orientations for the industries in the basin; d. Establishment of platforms across industries/factories and stakeholders including representatives of the community in Awash Basin; the forums will thoroughly discuss and exchange ideas on the way forward regarding the introduced treated waste water; e. Establishment of implementation committees and groups elected from various factories and industries; f. Strict observance and enforcements of the implementation of the Environmental policy of the country and regulatory frameworks across industries and factories. This encompass the g. Organizing experience sharing practices and lessons both from within and outside of the country regarding the approaches that have been commonly followed in various contexts, and h. Instigating the establishment of standardized laboratories for carrying out period tests, where EPA could handle the inspection processes so smoothly,
4.3.5 Environmental Concerns There is major potential health, environmental and economic impacts as a result of poor sanitation, improper disposal of treated and untreated wastewater, and use of raw or partially treated wastewater to environment. Ozerol and Gunther (2005) stated that, although several potential benefits are expected from the wastewater reuse in agricultural irrigation there is a risk of using the wastewater which may cause serious health problems for the people exposed to wastewater and ecological problems due to contamination of both soil and water, hence also high economic costs. The reality is that unplanned water
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reuse is happening all over the world in river basins with very few people being aware and concerned about it. People say that treated wastewater discharged to the natural system may be the most effective way to deal with some of the most problematic water health issues (BixioD,et al., 2008).
The contaminant from the discharge is directly related to the nature of the industry. For example, in textile industry, the discharge is usually high chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and color point; tannery industry is on the other hand, produces discharges which have high concentration of metal such as cadmium, and etc. Key informants were asked if they think that charging industries for the treated waste water has impacts. The majority (87.5%) stated that charging industries for the treated waste water presents hazards and risks. Both are related to the presence of microbes and chemicals capable to cause illnesses and toxicity for human and animals and negative impacts on the environment.
The industrial discharge carries various types of contaminants to the land, river, lake and groundwater. The presence of contaminants from industrial contaminant within the water may reduce the yield of crops and the growth of plant and it will harmful to the aquatic living organism too. Generally, the land is contaminated due to the uncontrolled and unplanned disposal of industrial waste onto the soil surface. The contaminant will infiltrate to the groundwater. The contamination on the soil surface may interrupt human daily activity and bring adverse effect to the growth of plant as well as human health. The impact to human health is the utmost important criteria to look into apart from the effect to surface water and groundwater on the living organism and sediments.
The qualitative interview with industry managers’ signals that the industries in the upper streams are the major pollutants of the environment, the most affected one is the community dwelling in the downstream of the basin. From this argument, it follows that the industries and various development actors residing Page | 91
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especially on the upper streams need to pay relatively more to internalize activity-induced environmental burden among society. Hence, the social equity and fairness, economic feasibility, and ecological viability would increase public awareness and green engagement to maximize intergenerational benefit.
4.3.6 Conclusions and Recommendations Based on the fieldwork and the data presented in the foregone parts, conclusions were made and recommendations were also drawn. i. Conclusions
The conclusions were made on three major interrelated aspects related to waste water charge: water consciousness, social concern and environmental concerns.
Regarding Water Conscious: This report had related on three dimensions in order to measures the overall treated water consciousness of industrial managers. These are willingness to pay, knowledge and manners of utilization, and willingness to conserve. Industries had demonstrated the prevalence of consciousness on the treated waste water which had been released to the eco- systems for years. There was no practice of paying for treated waste water so far in the country. As a result, industries were not willing to fully accept the proposals to introduce treated waste charges for a number of reasons including the text, technological applications and other factors. In fact, the knowledge to reuse treated waste water was also found to be so low and the manner of utilizations of treated waste water was far from the importance of water in the industrial demands. Relatively the willingness to conserve water sources and areas affected by treated water was by far meaningful than other activities outlined under water consciousness. Overall, the industrial managers and owners had proved the presence of consciousness for treated waste water although the willingness to pay for a proposed charge would be a bit challenging.
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Regarding Social Concern: Within the frameworks of the social concern, affordability and social equity were found to be the major elements. The findings of the study confirmed the presence of capacity among industries although few of them were unhappy to uncover their capacity to afford the imposed charges. The overall analysis confirms that industries were able to afford the introduced charges. In connection, it appeared also inevitable to categorize the industries on the basis of various factors (year of establishment, type of their engagements, extent of pollution to the environment, and harmony interactions with the neighboring community) ensures their social equity. Thus, it is unlikely to impose equal payments for treated waste discharges across all industries in the basin and in different streams.
Regarding Impacts and its mitigations: The introduction of charge for treated waste water among the industries could likely cause crisis and challenges. As it was already articulated here in above, industries are less willing to pay the probable charges. Under any circumstances, the impositions of the charges could create both positive and negative impacts. In positive side, industries may start to be more alert about their discharge of treated waste waters including its minimization under all possible options. This would also significantly halt affecting the community and the specious in the ecosystems. Similarly, under the negative ways, the impositions of the charge could create rough relations among industries and the government as well as Awash basin authority. Persistent awareness creations among industrial stakeholders and enforcement of prevailing regulatory frameworks are strategies proposed to mitigate the negative consequences of the introducing charge for treated waste water from factors and industries in Awash basin.
Regarding Environmental Concern: In the current state, the effluents from the industries have been damaging the ecosystems in the niches of industries. It has also caused tremendous social impacts. One of the main factors for environmental degradations was the wastes including treated waste water being released from the factories in the Awash basin authority. The gradual Page | 93
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degradation of the environments affects the stability of water sources for industries, creates higher competitions for utility, access and availability. Therefore, the problems associated with treated waste water and its environmental damages will become cyclic.
iii. Recommendations
The findings of the treated waste water charge study implication for the recommendation points outlined below:
Introduce a minimum charge system for all industries in Awash basin through a trail piloting systems, and take further actions for full implementations after a year. The charge should be based on the type of industry and the extent to which the ecosystem has been damaged,
Introduction of technologies that could minimize treated waste water. The technology could also help to reuse waste water for primary productions as a clean water,
Persistent inspections on the industries and factories regarding the full scale operations of their treatments plants. This would also help to verify with standard counter checks,
Full scale implementations of the regulatory frameworks stated in the environmental policy of the country,
Improvement of conservation works by the industries and factories. An improved ecosystem will help to easily absorb and neutralize the wastes being released to the environment,
Increase the role of the industries in community development through social engagements and social accountability programs.
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4.4 Hydropower, Recreation and Aquaculture
This section deals with the findings of water abstraction for hydropower generation, recreational and fishing activities on water bodies including lakes and rivers in Awash Basin. The findings are based on the field data collected from Koka dam and lakes such as Hyqe and Ardibo in South Wollo zone and interviewed government offices at regional, zonal and woreda levels.
4.4.1 Hydropower
4.4.1.1 Water Consciousness The team had conducted key-informants interviews with the Operation and Maintenance Electrical Engineer, at Hydropower plant-I and Head of the power plant-II and-III at Koka. The results of the interviews corroborated that the dam has sufficient water during rainy seasons or months. There is no mechanism employed by the power plant to utilize water efficiently because of sedimentation and limited availability of technology to do so. Discharging water from the dam is carried out in coordination with Awash Basin Authority. The Awash Basin Authority provides instruction on how much water should be discharged together with the manners of discharge.
Awash Power plant-II has two turbines. At present, the plant gets sufficient water since only one turbine is functional. At the time of the interview, the second turbine was not working due to lack of spare parts, which caused under utilization of water resources. The Head of the power plant believes that water is scarce when the plant operates in full capacity. The power plant has a mechanism to utilize water efficiently based on water level measurement.
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for the water utilized. They noted that power plant can afford to pay the water charge if introduced. Regarding the willingness to pay, the key informants refrained from answers questions related to willingness to pay as it is a matter that seeks decision and negotiation at higher management levels.
Further, Head of Misrak Shoa Water, Energy and Mines Office strongly believe that power plants should be charged for the water they utilize since they generate huge revenue out of it. He suggested that power plants should be charged according a framework worked out by Awash Basin Authority. The payment of the water charge system, as argued, contributes to efficient utilization of water. He believes that the introduction of water charge will not have negative impacts.
The team had also hold discussions with members of the top management of Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation in Addis Ababa. They have confirmed that EEPCo is not paying for the water it utilizes to generate power. With regard to willingness to pay, they argued that EEPCo is not consuming water since it releases water after power generation. Further, it should be noted that the Dams are providing various benefits. Further, the key informants noted that the water abstraction for power generation has positive impacts in terms of irrigation water, water supply for Adama town and fishing. Consequently, they are less willing to pay the intended water charge.
4.4.1.3Environmental concern At present, water security is key issue for the power plants. The key informants strongly felt that power plants should engage in water conservation activities. Further, they expressed that the existing power plants use water efficiently and wisely. Heads of the power plants expect that Awash Basin Authority to work on the buffer zone by engaging in conservation and protection activities.
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The Head of Misrak Shoa Water, Energy and Mines Office noted that the Koka power plant does not get sufficient water to generate power because of siltation. Water shed management is not carried out to protect the dam. About 35 hectares of land which used to be covered by water (Bahir Sheshe) is cultivated. The power plant may have environment cost when flooding occurs. His office carries out conservation activities at scheme level which is not strong enough limited labor availability. He suggested that there should be water shed management policy, particularly for hydro plants.
4.4.2 Recreation
4.4.2.1 Water Consciousness Sodere, Bisheftu, Adulala and Haile resorts are some of the recreational facilities connected with water bodies in Misrak Shoa Zone. There is no experience of paying water charge for using the water bodies for recreational purposes.
The Awash Fall Park Lodge is located in Eastern Shoa, Fentale Woreda, Egatere kebele. It is in middle stream of Awash Basin. The Awash Park was established in 1969. The team had key-informant interview with the manager of the lodge and park guide. The Lodge has 27 rooms, with 25 workers. Foreign visitors constitute 98 percent. The lodge pumps about 20,000 of liters of water from Awash River for cleaning purposes. The pumped water is not used for drinking and cooking. It transports clean water for human consumption from Methara town. The lodge does not pay for the water pumped from Awash River.
4.4.2.2 Social Concerns Key informants underlined that organizations engaged in recreational activities by using water should pay. The introduction of water charge on the recreational industry will not have negative impact since the customers can afford. Head of South Wollo Zone Water, Energy and Mines, has strongly suggested that the recreational use of water bodies are areas where human beings interact with Page | 97
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nature and require conservations that must be compensated through the payment of users. He noted income of people and amount of resources under use should be taken as parameters in setting charges for recreational uses water bodies in Awash Basin.
It appears from the discussion that the lodge is not willing to pay for the abstracted water. The manager said that the “lodge is serving the public under harsh environment. Such investors should be encouraged rather than charging water. Before the introduction of water charge, the challenges of a recreation industry must be identified”.
The team had also made a key informant interview with the manager of Lake Hayq Rikum Lodge. It is located in South Wollo zone, Tewledere Woreda, Kebele 05. It was established in 2001. The lodge with three rooms has license. It does not pay water charge. The youth are organized to give boating recreation. The lodge is willing to pay water charge since it would contribute to sustain the fish. However, he noted that it may be difficult to pay the water charge since the lodge pays tax to the government. The manger indicated that if water charge is introduced, the lodge will shift it to customers to pay. He underlined that when water charge is introduced the availability of fish should be studied.
One of the key informants, Head of Debub Wollo Zone Water, Energy and Irrigation Department, believes that water charge should be introduced for those utilizing lakes. He recognizes that the availability of water charge will contribute to protection of water bodies. He noted that recreational centers could shift water charge to customers to minimize their cost. This may bring about negative impact on the part of the customers since the services cost could increase. In the introduction of water charge, services of the recreational centre, profitability, number of customers, and awareness of the customers
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should be considered. He noted that awareness creation could avoid conflict over the introduction of water charge.
4.4.2.3 Environmental Concern Key informants underlined that organizations engaged in recreational activities should conserve the water resources. Further, they are of the opinion that they should contribute to the sustainability of the water resources. Head of Water, Energy and Mines, has strongly suggested that the recreational use of water bodies are areas where human beings interact with nature and require conservations that must be compensated through the payment of users. The team had also key-informant interview with the Director of Culture and Art at Wollo University. She noted that the Awash Basin Authority should engage in the protection of water bodies before the introduction of water charge, which encourages water users to pay.
4.4.3 Aquaculture
4.4.3.1 Water Consciousness Fishing is carried out in the south of Methara, on a small lake created by Beseka River. It is located in Fentale Woreda ,Arwadi kebele, which is in the middle Awash Basin.. There are 30 fishermen with fishing experience between 5 and 20 years. They are organized in association and pay 300 birr tax for the local government. They don’t pay water charge for fishing.
The Hayq Woreda office gives License to fishermen. It has issued license for Lego-Ardibo Fishing Association in 2009. The Woreda office facilitates the provision of fishing boat and fishing net for the fishermen. There are 530 fishermen who are fishing without license in Lake Hayq. Teleapi, Koroso and others are commonly fished in Lake Hayq. About 7.5 tons fished is harvested in one month. They sell fish in Dessie and Kombolcha.
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Focus Group Discussion was held with management committee of Logo-Ardibo Hayq fishermen association. The association was established in 2004 with 156 members. At present the association has 84 members fishing only in Ardibo Hayq. Recently, Ambo Fishermen association is established in Ardibo Hayq. The fishermen do not pay for the water used. However, they pay 500 Birr when a new boat starts operation. The respondents indicated that illegal fishing is carried out in the lake.
Sabure Fishing Association is located in Afar Region, Gebiriso zone, Awash 7 woreda, Sabure kebele. The association was established in 2016 with 40 members. The team had key-informant interview with the chairman of the association. The fishing activity started without any support including fishing boat and training. The Sabure fishermen were trained by fishermen who came from Zeway for fishing. They use fishhook instead of net. The fishing is carried out for one and half months during the fasting time. They fish about 100 to 150 kgs in a day. The fish dealers come from Zeway to purchase. The fishermen do not catch fish for eight and half months since there is no demand for fish. The association does not pay money for fishing. The chairman expressed that the fishermen are willing to pay if the government provides all round support including training, market and fishing equipments.
4.4.3.2 Social Concern The fishermen noted that they are willing to pay water charge if illegal fishing halted. The intended water charge should consider the income of fishermen. They reported that opposition can take place if water charge is introduced. However, this can be mitigated through meeting with the concerned people. Finally, the participants of the focus group discussion indicated the importance of technical and other support for the association.
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Fishing means hand-to-mouth existence for many fishermen. Thus, the income of fishing communities should be considered before the setting water charge. The introduction of new water charge will not encounter opposition from fishermen. The fishermen believe that the new water charge will sustain fishing activities and will also improve the security of living things in the water bodies.
4.4.3.3 Environmental concern The team had key-informant interview with the Head of Animal and Fishery Development Office, Tewldere Woreda. He recognizes the need to introduce water charge since the lake is being polluted. Conservation and protection activities should be carried.
All the 82 members of Lego-Ardibo Fishing Association work in Lake Ardibo. They use 12 fishing boats. Fishing is carried out according the program set by the association. They pay tax. The fishermen in Lake Hayq, are not willing to form association since they will be obliged to work according the standard fishing net required by the Woreda Office. However, they do not use such a net since they cannot catch small fish. Thus, they prefer to use reduced size of net to catch small fish. Whereas, in Ardibo lake, the organized fishermen fish using the standard net. It is possible to introduce water charge in Lake Ardibo. The water charge could contribute to the protection of the lake. The legally organized fishermen have noted that the water charge parameters should include income of the fishermen, protection of the water body, and creation of buffer zone and provision of awareness creation for local people how to utilize the water properly.
The small survey of opinion of fishermen indicates that 80 percent are not worried about water security for fishing. Large majority (86.6%) of the fishermen are fishing without licence and are not paying for the water bodies used. This group of fishermen are also willing to pay for fishing. Further, over 90 percent of
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them are willing to accept the introduction of new water charge for using water for fishing. Among the respondents (46.6%) noted that the introduction of new water charge will face opposition from fishermen. Over 90 percent of the fishermen believe that the introduction of water charge will sustain fishing.
Table 35: Respondents’ Opinion on Water Consciousness, Water Charge and Environment
Water Consciousness YES NO Percentage
Frequency Percentage Frequency
Are you in worry of water security for 12 80 3 20 your fishing?
Do you have license for fishing on 2 13.3 13 86.6 water bodies? Are you paying water charge for 2 13.3 13 86.6 fishing on the water bodies (lake, river)?
Are you willing to pay for using water 13 86.6 2 13.3 bodies for fishing?
Socioeconomic Fairness and Impacts
Do you accept the introduction of 14 93.3 1 6.6 new water charge for using water for fishing?
Are you willing to pay for the water 14 93.3 1 6.6 used for aquaculture/fishing activity?
Do you think introduction of new 2 13.3 7 46.6 water charge face opposition by fishermen?
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Do you believe that the introduction 14 93.3 1 6.6 of water charge for fishing sustain fishing?
Do you think setting water charge 12 80 3 20 ensure survival of other spices?
Does setting water charge will 13 86.6 2 13.3 improve the security of living things in water body?
Source: Survey, 2018
However, they demand that the government should create conducive working conditions for fishing. The introduction of new water charge will not encounter opposition from fishermen. The fishermen believe that the new water charge will sustain fishing activities and will also improve the security of living things in the water body.
Focus Group Discussion was held with management committee of Logo-Ardibo Hayq fishermen association. The respondents indicated that illegal fishing is carried out in the lake. At present, water is pumped from the lake for irrigated agriculture. Local people are cultivating land very close to the lake which contributes to siltation of the lake.
The team had also key-informant interview with the Head of Animal and Fishery Development Office, Tewldere Woreda. He recognizes the need to introduce water charge since the lake is being polluted. Conservation and protection activities could be carried.
The fishermen in Lake Hayq, are not willing to form association since they will be obliged to work according the standard fishing net required by the Woreda Office. However, they do not use such a net since they cannot catch small fish.
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Thus, they prefer to use reduced size of net to catch small fish. At present, water is pumped from Ardibo Hayq for irrigated agriculture. Local people are cultivating land very close to the lake which contributes to siltation of the lake. Further, Lodges managers indicated that water shade management activities should be carried out in the lake sides.
The survey conducted with the fishermen in Hayq in Debubu Wollo and BesekaHayq, South of Methara indicated that 80 percent of the fishermen are not worried about water security for fishing.
4.4.4 Mitigation of Negative Impacts Key informants and survey respondents have indicated the measures to be taken to minimize the negative impacts of introducing water charges as follows.
• In the case of hydro power plants, the negative consequences of water charging could be minimized by considering the age of the power plant, consumed water and power generated should be considered.
• The government should create conducive working conditions and legal frameworks for fishing communities. Opposition can take place if water charge is introduced. However, this can be mitigated through consultation of people, designing alternatives and participation of people.
4.4.5 Concluding Remarks and Recommendations This part of the report has focused on the study of water use for hydropower plants, recreational centers and fishing communities. The hydropower plants, the recreational centers using water bodies and the fishing communities do not pay for the water they use so far. There were hardly limited practices of paying for water extracted for productive purposes. In fact, the consulted water users have shown the interest to pay water charges if introduced. However, many of them have set conditions to be fulfilled by the Awash Basin Authority such as
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protecting the water bodies by creating buffer zones. They have suggested that water charge setting should consider including income and power generated. The introduction of water charge will not have significant negative impacts on paying organizations and environment. Finally, cognizant of the opinion of various respondents, the social sub-team recommends the introduction of water charge with respect to hydropower plants, recreational centers and fishing communities at a very fair and acceptable level.
5. Key Strategy to Create Awareness among Water Abstractors on the Implementation of Water Charge in Awash Basin
Achieving a socially sustainable of water use development demands the proper discussions, consultations and enhancement of the attitudes of people and stakeholders involved in the implementation of the proposed charge. Such a focus on the enhancement of human resources, institutions and structures in water charge implementation calls for increased knowledge and information sharing about water abstraction and the need of environmental protections around the water points. Figure 4: Awareness Creation Model for the Implementation of Water charge in Awash Basin
Advocacy Raising Awareness Increase commitment and action Increasing awareness and among decision makers and key knowledge on the importance influencers for water charge and use of water charge for implementation – Awash Basin, sustainable water use and MoWIE, Regions, and other development stakeholders
Social Change/Attitude on Water Abstraction
Empowerment and consciousness of water Page | 105 abstractors, users, and stakeholders
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Hence, there is a need to implant a working communication methodologies, channels and tools in place. The newly proposed water charge intervention under consideration will apply a three-phase communication and awareness creation strategy, not sequential and with a degree of overlap in activities carried out during implementation of the intervention.
Phase 1: Communication and serious of consultations for Awareness raising
The first phase of the strategy focuses on raising awareness and knowledge of stakeholders on the significant of water charge interventions in Awash Basin. The key message of this campaign will be although water is a social and economic good; payment for the abstracted water enhances its sustainable use and helps saves the next generations’ water scarcity in the basin.
Major activities
Phase-1: Awareness Creation through Modern Communications Technologies
1. Use of Television and Radio Public Service Announcements: mass media is an important medium to communicate effectively with a large number of people by leaving them with a powerful image. It can overcome barriers of literacy and language and it is ideal for delivering a simple, clear and focused message for a number of firms, industries, municipalities and irrigators. As there has been a rapid progress towards increased TV and radio coverage in the country and the basin, penetration in to the targeted abstractors would not be change. Thus, application of local mass media supports stakeholder’s mobilization and makes easier the communication efforts.
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2. Social Media and web-sites: currently there is fact use of face-book pages and social Medias in the country and the basin. Organizations also use YouTube, SMS campaigns and other social networking tools to easily promote newly proposed development agendas and changes. This mechanism will also ensure convincing the abstractors and helps to absorb the likely negative reactions to be created among water charge payers. Messages can be easily disseminated through the social medias and website addresses of concerned stakeholders including industries, irrigators, municipalities, water users, regional offices, recreational institutions and fishery communities.
3. Use of Mobile Phones: As the penetration of mobile telephony is extensive in most parts of our country, it can be used for creating awareness. Activities can include recording a mobile voice message or developing SMS, which can be sent out to concerned stakeholders via partnership with different stakeholders.
Phase 2: Advocacy Communication for Creating an Enabling Environment for Water Charge Implementation
The advocacy component aims to create a supportive environment for water charge intervention among water abstractors/users. This phase will help to identify and potential actors and motivate them to take action for positive change on the issue of water charge. The focus will be to garner support, commitment and action from relevant stakeholders in the implementation of water charge through public discourses and stakeholder’s engagement.
The major activities under this phase, among others, includes
1. Sensitizing regional, zonal and Woreda authorities and municipalities through conferences, workshops and through discussions.
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2. Information dissemination through the teams established by Awash basin. This requires periodic meetings and field visits to areas where there would be implementation challenges and barriers.
3. Establishments of forums by Awash Basin to disseminate ideas across different categories of water abstractors
4. Development of networks of abstractors through inter and intra- organizations to share lessons and overcome challenges.
5. Use of traditional elders. institutions and indigenous knowledge for example, mobilizations through Water Board, or representatives of Water users associations, MSEs etc
Phase 3: Communication for Attitudinal Change among Water Abstractors
This phase of the strategy will be focus on a high level and critical awareness and understanding among water abstractors as there will be resistance during the initial days and months of introducing water charge. The communication interventions will focus on the changing attitudes of key stakeholders including interpersonal communication. This phase may demand critical explanations and knowledge and skill transfer with the irrigators, municipalities, industries and other abstractors.
The objective of this phase will be to take decisions based on correct knowledge and understanding to change existing attitudes among abstractors who resisted paying for water abstraction. There might be orientation and reorientation activities here as well.
The last phase will be enforcement through laws, regulations and banding procedures. It was important to discuss and clearly articulate the applications Page | 108
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of penalties, sanctions and denial of water related services. The table below summarizes the matrices of each method of awareness creation, its vantage points and its limitations. The matrix also clearly indicates the responsible organs, proposed time frame and indictors for monitoring weather the strategy could create the expected impact among the water abstractors or not.
Type of Advantage Limitation Responsible Time Indicators for Awareness organ Frame monitoring creation strategy expected impacts
Folk media(e.g. • Can be easily • Requires skilled Awash During Number of puppetry, understood by all crafting of Basin, the initial sessions Community members of the development Woredas, years of organized, theatre, community messages into the and lower introduci number of fabric of the folk level ng the people, storytelling • Intrinsically adapted media structures, charge organizations about the uses to local cultural scene and and of water • May lack organized companies charge ) • Can use familiar prestige vis-à-vis groups at impacted dialects for the most more modern grass root intimate and local media in some levels communication at the societies village of irrigators levels • May be difficult to organize and • Appeals at the calls for close personal and working institutional level relationship between •Does not depend on development technology that workers and folk isolable to break down media artists • Comparatively cheap to produce since most of the resources needed are found in the local areas
Radio •Wide coverage and • Weak as a Awash During Time on air availability/accessibilit medium for basin, the initial and number of y even in rural areas training and MoWIE,& years organizations, education since it Regions and then abstractors • Low production cost is audio only reminders who are when the Page | 109
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• Delivery of • Constant time of impacted information can be competition with paying localized other programmes the in other stations charge • Well-segmented approac audience • Fleeting message hes • With nothing to watch, listeners more subject to distractions, limiting their
attention-span
• Some concepts can be portrayed more clearly in visual than in auditory terms
• Requires skills in broadcasting and programme planning, designing, production, and management
Television • Wide coverage • Tends to be • Awash • Every • Air monopolized Basin Year coverage • Combines sight, by powerful and for and sound, and motion, interests MoWIE few number of thus, more attention because of its week abstractors grabbing among prestige s impacted various water • High production abstractors cost
• High prestige • Difficult to localize information for abstractors like irrigators
Video • Combines sight, •Multiplicity of Awash Every Number videos production sound, and motion, standards/formats Basin, year produced and and thus, more attention Regions disseminated dissemination grabbing • Requires talent, and lower across water on the uses of skill, and level abstractors water charge, • Highly persuasive experience to structures role plays, produce good smaller plays •Constantly improving programmes for technology is making Page | 110
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etc production ever development cheaper and •Requires rather more reliable sophisticated repair and • Can be played back maintenance facilities •Allows more than one language to be •Dependent on recorded as the use to which it
commentary on a is to be put, may single call for quite large capital investment tape
•Color/visual quality mediocre in some standards
Printed • Relatively cheap, • Limited to literate Awash Every number of simple, and easy to audience Basin Year materials and materials leaflets produce • Some formats produced and (e.g. leaflet, tend to be boring dispatched •Can be taken home, most especially if among brochure, consulted, and there are no visual abstractors images magazine, kept as a permanent reminder newspaper)
Social Media •Cheap and simple to •Care required to Awash Every Number and various produce and use make drawings Basin year abstractors web site covered applications •Use of images helps • Suitable only for through the people recall and social media users social media create willingness to and websites pay Frequency of • Easy to use messages conveyed
level of consciousness created
Mobile • Facilitates the •May not be Awash Every Number of exchange of accessible/ Basin year abstractors
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phones information among available to reached stakeholders regardless intended of geographical stakeholders boundaries • Special skills are • Links all stakeholders needed to operate the • Encourages technology and to interactivity access the information • More flexible in delivering information •Computer technology is expensive
• Language barrier
Workshops, • Creates Requires huge Awash Every number of dialogues, and opportunities investments, basin, and quarter workshops meetings for live dates and governmen organized and discussions for arrangements t offices number of consensus and to organize consultative agreements meetings conducted
Use of • Easier to create May not be Awash Every Number of traditional common equally applicable basin, quarter abstractors cultures, understanding across the Awash government convinced to associations among Basin as there are offices and change their Elders in the and indigenes abstractors cultural and attitudes on respective institutions or institutional communities water charge variations knowledge
Establishment • Facilitates May be Awash Once in Organizations of forums, communicatio procedural and basin, a quarter in a network partnerships ns and takes time regions and partners and networks discussions to working on across enhance water Risk of effectuation of organizations use fragmentation water charge sustainability and its management
Briefings on Cerates formal may open abusive Awash Througho Preparations of water charge procedures to handle and exploitative Basin, ut the the laws and laws and sever cases of failing to practices per MoWIE year articles, regulations abide by the existing following the regulations on water weaknesses of the number of charge enforcement regulations abstractors who took part in the briefings
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and then number of individuals penalized for failing to abide per the water charge regulations
References Abu-Zied, M. (2003). Water Pricing in Irrigated Agriculture. Ministry of Water Resource and Irrigation: CornishEl_Nil, Imbaba Giza Sygypt.
Angel-Urdinola DF, Wodon, Q.,2007. Does increasing access to infrastructure services improve the targeting performance of water subsidies? J Int Dev 24(1):88–101
Blanc,D., 2007. A Framework for Analyzing Tariffs and Subsidies in Water Provision to Urban Households in Developing Countries: Division for Sustainable Development, United Nations.
Bouman, B.A.N., 2007. A conceptual framework for the improvement of crop water productivity at different spatial scales. Agricultural Systems 93: 43–60
Cook, Christina, Bakker, Karen, 2012. Water security: debating an emerging paradigm. Glob. Environ. Change 22 (1), 94 -102. Page | 113
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Coy, D., Fisher, M., Gordon, T., 2001. Public accountability: a new paradigm for college and university annual reports. Crit. Perspect. Account. 12, 1–31.
Cummins, T., et al., 2008. Pricing Signals Study for the Food Bowl Modernization Project: A Report for the Department of Sustainability and Environment. Frontier Economics Pty Ltd., Melbourne.
Gonzales, P., and Ajami, n.k., 2017. An integrative regional resilience framework for the changing urban water paradigm. Sustainable Cities and Society 30. 128–138.
Kim, J.-S., Jain, Shaleen, 2010. High-resolution streamflow trend analysis applicable to annual decision calendars: a western United States case study. Climate Change 102 (3 -4), 699 - 707.
Komives, K., V. Foster, J. Halpern, Q. Wodon, and R Abdullah, 2005. Water, Electricity, and the Poor – Who Benefits from Utility Subsidies? the World Bank.
Laredo,D., 1991. Principles of Tariff Design for Water and Wastewater Services. WASH Field Report No. 348.
Liu. A., Giurco D., Mukheibir,P., and White, S., 2016. Detailed water-use feedback: A review and proposed framework for program implementation. Utilities Policy 43. 140-150
Loring, P.A., Gerlach, S.C., Huntington, H.P., 2013. The new environmental security: linking food, water, and energy for integrative and diagnostic social-ecological research. J. Agric. Food Syst. Community Dev. 3 (4), 55 – 61
Martins,R., Quintal,C., Cruz,L. and Barata E., 2016. Water affordability issues in developed countries e The relevance of micro approaches. Utilities Policy 43:117- 123
Moore,A.D., Robertson,M.J. and Routley.R., 2011. Evaluation of the water use efficiency of alternative farm practices at a range of spatial and temporal scales: A conceptual framework and a modelling approach. Agricultural Systems 104:162– 174 Page | 114
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OECD, 2009. Managing Water for All an OECD Perspective On Pricing and Financing
Penn, J.F., Loring, A., and Schnabel, E., 2017. Diagnosing water security in the rural North with an environmental security framework. Journal of Environmental Management 199, 91 – 98
Pinto,F.S., and Marques,R.C.,2015. Tariff recommendations: A Panacea for the Portuguese water sector? Utilities Policy 34: 36-44
Pinto,F.S., and Marques,R.C.,2016. Tariff Suitability Framework for Water Supply Services. Establishing Regulatory Tool Linking multiple stakeholders’ Objectives. Water Resource Management. 30:2037–2053
Porcher, S., 2012. Efficiency and Equity in Two-Part Tariffs: The Case of Residential Water Rates. EPPP DP No. 08
Schreider, J.S., 2009. Modelling of pricing and market impacts for water options. Journal of Hydrology 371: 31–41
UNEP ,2011. Valuing Ecosystem Services: Benefits, Values, Space and Time. Division of Environmental Policy Implementation:3
United Nation, 2007. Providing water to the urban poor in developing countries: the role of tariffs and subsidies. Sustainable Development Innovation Briefs. Issue 4
UNWWD, 2016. The United Nations World Water Development Report: WATER AND JOBS
Walker,I. and Max Velasquez, 1999. Regional Analysis of Decentralization of water and sanitation services in Central America and The Dominican Republic. Environmental Health Project, USAID, Washington D.C. In Press
Whittington, D., Jeuland, M., Barker, K. and Yuen,Y., 2012. Setting Priorities, Targeting Subsidies among Water, Sanitation, and Preventive Health Interventions in Developing Countries. World Development Vol. 40, No. 8: 1546–1568
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Whittington, D., 1992. Possible Adverse Effects of Increasing Block Water Tariffs in Developing Countries. Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 41, No. 1: 75-87
Annex A. Data Collection Instruments
I Irrigation
Background/General Contact Information
Code______
Instructions
The Awash Basin Authority in coordination with Addis Ababa Institute of Technology in Addis Ababa University is conducting the study of water use and treated wastewater charge. The project aimed at sustainable development of water resources within the Page | 116
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principles of integrated water resources management for the successful implementation of the existing water legislation available at national, basin and regional levels. The purpose of this survey questionnaire is to collect information on arrangements applicable in the basin useful for setting and implementing water charge systems. Please answer all questions by writing in the spaces provided. Use the back side of the questionnaire for any comments or questions that you may wish to have for the project team. If you have any questions about this questionnaire, please contact anyone of the members of the team indicated below. Thank you for participating in the water use charge Survey Questionnaire and we are really counting on you to help us gather this information. Basic Information
Data Collector Information
Interview Date (E.C):
1.1. Enumerator's name:
1.2. Mobile/Phone number: 1.3. Email:
Respondents address and general information
1.4. Name (Opt): 1.5. S Female=0 ex: Male=1
1.6. Marital status: Married=1 Single=2 1.7. A Divorced=3 Widow/widower=4 ge:
1.8. Contact Region=1 Zone=2: Wereda=4 address (Opt): :
Kebele/Village Phone No=6: =5
1.9. Religion (Opt): Orthodox=1, Muslim=2, Protestant=3, Catholic=4
Other (Specify) ______
1.10. Educational Do not read and write=0 , Read and Write=1, Primary=2, Page | 117
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background: Secondary=3, Diploma/Degree=4, Other (specify) ______
1.11. Position (role Farmer=1, Manager=2, Accountant=3, of respondent): Sales manager=4, Public relation=5, Other (specify): ______Household(HH) Information
1.12. House 3.1.1 Sex: Male=1 Female= Total=2: hold 0: Size (n):
3.1.2. Age (yrs) < 15 15 - 65 > 65 years:
1.13. Household Activities Farming=1 Animal husbandry=2 More than one answer is possible Mixed (farming + animal husbandry)=3 Other (Specify) ______
1.14. Animal Cows, Oxen=1 Donkeys, Possession Horses=3 Camels=4 (indicate the number of each Sheep and Other (specify) domestic animal) Goats=2
Study Area/Catchment Location
1.15. Name of 1.16. Catchment/Sub River/Lake Basin: basin name 1.17. Water system Upstream =1 1.18. Geographical /catchment location Middle-stream location (NE): in the basin within =2 the Basin: Downstream =3
1.19. Administra Region=1 Zone=2: tion (Region) :
Wereda= Kebele/Village= 3 4
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1.20. Water Irrigator Institutions extractors=1 Institution user=3 extractor/user category: Individual extractor=2 Individual user=4
1.21. Water and Amount of water used for irrigation per day/lit=1 land use/cover
Size of irrigated land in hectare =2
Irrigation Social Part I: Survey Questionnaire
Code______
Water Consciousness, willingness to pay
Yes=1 No=0
1.22. Do you think that irrigation water is scarce resource for production in your area? (If no go to question number 15.3)
1.23. If yes to question number 1, are you willing to participate in water conservation activities?
1.24. Do you think that water consumption of others (upstream, other firms) affect yours?
1.25. How do you rate the current status of irrigation water availability? Very adequate=5, Adequate=4, I don't know=3 Inadequate=2, Very inadequate=1,
Yes=1 No=0
1.26. Is your access to irrigation water interrupted? 1.27. Do you believe that irrigation water conservation
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alleviates water scarcity?
1.28. Do you think that you have to pay for the water you have been using for irrigation?
1.29. If yes to question number 15.7, how much you believe appropriate to pay per hectare you irrigated?
1.30. If no to question number 15.7, what are your reasons for unwilling to pay for water you are using for irrigation? Water is God’s gift=1 I can’t afford =3 I pay normally for other inputs Small size of irrigable land=4 =2 Others______1.31. Measuring water consciousness of irrigation users
Strongly Strongly Agree= Neutral= Disagree= Disagree Agree=5 4 3 2 =1
1.32. Irrigation water resource has been abstracted for irrigation with poor management in our community
1.33. Conserving water is my duty and responsibility in this area
1.34. Introduction of water charge for irrigation water will encourage water users to use it in a proper manner.
1.35. Everybody should pay for the water they use for irrigation
1.36. Current irrigation water charge is low
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Social Equity and Fairness
1.37. Are there any irrigation water users in your area who are unable to pay if irrigation water charge is Yes=1 No=0 introduced in your area?
1.38. If yes to question number 16.1, please indicate the group you think unable to pay for irrigation water charge? Female headed households=1 People with disability =3 Poor small holder farmers=2 Minorities in the area=4 Others______
1.39. Should the government subsidize the water charge Yes=1 No=0 for irrigation?
1.40. Should the government subsidize the water charge Yes=1 No=0 for irrigation?
1.41. Do you think the current irrigation water Yes=1 No=0 management in your area creates fair access to irrigation water for all users? Social Impact Assessment
1.42. What do you think is the impact of introducing irrigation water charge in your area? (Multiple responses are possible) Increase in production =1 Over extraction of water=5 Decrease in production=2 Conflict among users=6 Ensure sustainable access to Tension between government water=3 and users=7 Maintenance of ecosystem=4 Others ______
1.43. What action do you most likely take if irrigation water charges are introduced? (Multiple responses are possible) stop irrigation=1 shift to low water consuming reduce water use/ ha=2 crops=4 reduce crop area=3 use water conserving technologies, =5 other, specify______Page | 121
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1.44. I believe that the advantage of setting irrigation water charge outweighs its disadvantages Strongly agree=5 Agree=4 Neutral=3 Disagree=2 Strongly disagree=1 1.45. Who do you think will be the most beneficiaries of the introduction of irrigation water use charge? Government=1, Basin Authority=2, Smallholders=3 Commercial farms=4 , Others (specify)______
1.46. Which actor will be the least beneficiary of the introduction of irrigation water charge? (Please rank from most beneficiary to list beneficiary) Commercial farmers=1 Poor farmers=4 Smallholder farmers=2 Others ______ Female headed households =3
Conflict over Irrigation Water Use
1.47. Do you think the introduction of irrigation water Yes=1 No=0 charge causes conflict?
1.48. If yes to question number 18, what do you think are causes of conflict over water abstraction in your context? Amount of Accessibility =4 Purposes of water payment=1 Inability to create abstraction=6 Volume/amount to be ownership rights Types of crops and apportioned =2 over the land=5 items for produces=7 Total hours/days in week =3 Environmental Concern
1.49. Whom do you think is responsible for the future availability of water? Government=1, Community=1, Other______
1.50. Do you think that water charge will encourage Yes=1 No=0 irrigation water saving?
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1.51. Do you think water abstraction without payment Yes=1 No=0 causes environmental degradation?
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A.II Treated Waste Water Discharge
THE STUDY OF WATER USE AND TREATED WASTEWATER DISCHARGE DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR INDUSTRIAL WASTE WATER (TREATED) DISCHARGERS
Code______
My name is ………………………………………. The Awash Basin Authority is planning to introduce water and treated wastewater charge in the Awash Basin. This survey seeks to explore the socio-economic impacts of the water charge and the opinions of people with an aim to identify potential social impacts. Your contribution will help us assess the potential social impacts and develop mitigation measures.
Interview date: date______month______year______
Interview time: started: ______Ended: ------
General Information
1. Name of the respondent: ______2. Name of the institution: ______3. Household No: ______4. Waste water [treated] discharger category: Institutional=1 Individual =2 5. Study location • Region ______• Zone______• Woreda______• Kebele______• Village/site______• Upper/middle/lower? ______Page | 124
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• GPS Coordinate: ______Background Information Background Information about the Respondent
1. Sex of the respondent Male=1 Female=0 2. Age of the respondent: ______[in years]. 3. Educational background of the respondent Do not read and write=0 Read and Write=1 Elementary Complete=2 High school complete=3 Preparatory complete=4 Diploma=5 Degree=6 Other, Specify: ______
4. Role/position in the institutions/Industry______Background Information about the Industries
1. When was the factory established? ______2. Number of employee ______Male, ______Female 3. Total Land holding size (Irrigated)[in hectare]: ______4. Main productions of the company______5. What cost do your industry incur for workers expenditure? ______6. What is your industry’s average total cost? current year? ______7. What is the current profit? On the average how much is the yearly profit?
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Code______Water Consciousness
1. Is your factory employing water conservation activities? Yes=1 No=0
2. If yes for Question 1, what are? ______3. If no for Question1, why? ______4. To where your factory releases treated wastewater? ______5. Does your factory have a mechanism to reuse the released treated wastewater? Yes=1 No=0
6. If no for q5, why? ______7. Do you think that your industries’ way of releasing treated waste water is imposing costs on the environment? Yes=1 No=0 8. If yes for q7, how? ______9. Will your factory be willing to pay for the released waste water? Yes=1 Page | 126
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No=0 10. If yes for q9, how much? In what way? ______11. If no for Q9, Why? ______
Water consciousness
Strongly agree=5, Agree=4, uncertain=3, Disagree=2, strongly disagree=1
S.No. Questions/Items Answer
1 Releasing treated waste water to the environment has no effect on the environment
2 Industries should pay for the treated waste water they release to the environment
3 The government is capable enough to cover the impact of the released treated waste water.
4 I don’t think that government should incur the cost (financial) for the treated waste water released by industries
5 Industries should be forced to employ water conservation mechanisms
6 If factories are made to pay for the treated waste water they release it will encourage them to re-use it in proper manner
7 Industries should support any kind of effort including contributing money to the treated waste water they release
8 Our industry has the knowledge of re-using the treated waste water
9 Our industry is willing to pay any kind of compensation for the damage created by the treated waste water it releases.
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Social Concern
1. If your factory is asked to pay for the released waste water, can it pay? Yes=1 No=0 2. If your answer to question #1 is No, why? ______3. Do you think that all factories should pay equally if charge is a must for the released treated waste water? Yes=1 No=0 4. If no for Q3, why? What issues should be considered? ______5. Do you think that all factories can pay (afford) for the treated waste water they release? Yes=1 No=0 6. If no for Q5, what should the government do to those who can’t pay? ______7. Do you think that charge should consider the amount of treated waste water released by the industries? Yes=1 No=0
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8. Do you think that charging industries for the treated waste water has impacts? Yes=1 No=0 9. If yes for q8, what would be the impacts? ______10. What role will your factory play in case negative consequence happen while implementing the charge for the released treated waste water ______Environmental Concern
1. Do you think that the released treated waste water has an impact in the nearby surrounding [in the place where your factory is located]? Yes=1 No=0 2. If yes for Q1, what environmental impacts is caused by the treated waste water released by industries? ______3. If charge is set for the released industrial wastewater, will it have an environmental impact? Yes=1 No=0
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4. If yes for q3, what environmental impacts will it have if charge is set for the released industrial wastewater? ______5. If charge is set for the released industrial wastewater, do you think it will help natural species survive in a secured way? Yes=1 No=0 6. If yes for q5, in what way? ______
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III. Domestic and non-domestic water supply extractors/users
The Study of Water Use and Treated Wastewater Discharge Data Collection Instrument
Questionnaire for Domestic and non-domestic water supply extractors/users
Code______
My name [name of the enumerator] is …………………………………..Signature…………….
The Awash Basin Authority is planning to introduce water charge in the Awash Basin. This survey seeks to explore the socio-economic impacts of the water charge and the opinions of people with an aim to identify potential social impacts. Your contribution will help us assess the potential social impacts and develop mitigation measures. So, will you participate on this survey?
Interview date: date______month______year______
Interview time: started: ______Ended: ______
Prefatory Information
1. Name of the respondent: ______2. Name of the institution: ______3. Household No: ______4. Water Supply extractor/user category: Institutions extractors=1 Institution user=2
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Individual extractor=3 Individual user=4 5. Study location • Region ______• Zone______• Woreda______• Kebele______• Village/site______• Upper/middle/lower? ______• GPS Coordinate: ______
Part I: Background Information
Background Information about the respondent
1. Sex of the respondent Male=1 Female=0 2. Age of the respondent: ______[in years]. 3. Educational background of the respondent Do not read and write=0 Read and Write=1 Elementary Complete=2 Highschool complete=3 Preparatory complete=4 Diploma=5 Degree=6 Other, Specify: ______
Background Information about the household/Institution
4. Household size: ______[in number]
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Water Consciousness
General Questions
1. How do you rate the current availability of water? Very adequate=5 Adequate =4 Undecided =3 Inadequate =2 Very Inadequate=1 2. Are you using water properly? Yes=1 No=0 3. Based on Q2, how do you explain it? ______4. In your opinion, are there measures to be taken to save water for consumption? Yes=1 No=0 5. If yes for question 4, what are they? ______6. In your opinion, should you be charged for the water you extract/use? Yes=1 No=0 Measuring water consciousness
Strongly Agree=5, Agree=4, uncertain=3, Disagree=2, Strongly Disagree=1
S.No. Questions/Items Answer
7. Water security is a concern in your community
8. I support any kind of effort to conserve water
9. Currently, water is abstracted/used unwisely
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10. Every water extractor/user must be charged
11. I can afford to pay if reasonable charge is introduced
12. Setting water charge encourages me to extract/use water in proper manner
Social Concern
13. Do you think that all water supply abstractors/users should be charged equally if charge is a must? Yes=1 No=0 14. Based on Question13, why? ______
15. Do you think that all water supply abstractors/users can pay (afford)? Yes=1 No=0 16. If no for Q15, what should be done to those who can’t pay? ______17. Will you afford the water charge if it is set? Yes=1 No =0
Social Impact Assessment
18. If water charge is set, in what way does it affect you? Positively =1 Negatively =0 19. Based on Q1, if your answer is “positively”, how do you explain it? I will extract/use water properly=1 I will get water regularly=2 If any other, please specify: ______
20. Based on Q1, if your answer is “negatively”, how do you explain it? My production cost will increase=1
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The prices of water will increase=2 If any other, please specify: ______
21. Do you think that the advantage of setting water charge outweighs the disadvantages? Yes=1 No=0 22. Based on Q4, what mechanism should be employed to reduce the negative consequences of water charge? ______23. Who should participate in mitigating the negative impacts? In what way? ______Environmental Concern
24. If water charge is set, will it ensure water availability/water security in the future? Yes=1 No=0 25. If charge is set for the water extracted/used, will it help the fair distribution of water? Yes=1 No=0 26. If yes for Q 25, how? ______27. Do you think that the way you extract/use water will consider to the future impact? Yes=1 No=0 28. If yes for question 27, how do you describe it? ______
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A.IV Hydropower, Aquaculture and Recreation
The Study of Water Abstraction / Use and Treated Wastewater Discharge Charge
HYDROPOWER, AQUACULTURE AND RECREATION WATER ABSTRACTION CHARGE DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
Questionnaire No
January 2018,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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A. SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HYDROPOWER Code______
Dear Respondent;
This questionnaire is designed to collect data for hydropower charge study for Awash basin authority. The purpose is to set a fair change that enhance sustainable use and management of water resources in the basin. Thus, we request your genuine response.
SECTION 1: IDENTIFICATION PARTICULRS
SECTION 2: SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, ENVIRONEMTALISSUES OF WATER ABSTRACTION FOR HYDROPOWER
Yes 2.1 Water Consciousness No (0) (1)
2.1.1 Does the power plant get sufficient water? Ο Ο
2.1.2 Is there mechanism employed by the power plant to utilize water efficiently? Ο Ο
2.1.3 Do you pay for the water utilized by the power plant? Ο Ο
2.1.4 Do you pay for the water utilized by the aquaculture? Ο Ο
Socioeconomic Fairness and Impacts Yes 2.2. No (0) (1)
Water abstraction by a plant will have greater impact on other economic Ο Ο 2.2.1 entities
2.2.2 Do all power plants can afford water charge for the water they abstract? Ο Ο
2.2.3 Are you willing to pay for the water abstracted for hydropower Ο Ο
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Yes 2.3. Environmental concern No (0) (1)
2.3.1 Water security is key for the power plantcurrently?
2.3.2 If water charge is set, will it sustain power production?
Does setting water charge will improve fair distribution of water among d/t 2.3.3 users?
Does setting water charge will improve the security of living things in water 2.3.4 body?
Direction:Please write or check on the appropriate answer for the following questions Code______
Social aspects related to water use for hydropower: Please check Yes=1 or No=0
Check List for Hydro-power, recreation and aquaculture
I. Hydro-power (Ethiopian Electric Power, Ethiopian Electric Utility and Ethiopian Energy Agency) 1) Does the power plant get sufficient water? 2) Is the power plant in need of additional water? 3) Do you think that water is scarce resource? 4) Are there mechanisms employed by the power plant to utilize water efficiently? Is it employing water conservation and protection activities? What are they? 5) Is the water utilized by the power plant free? 6) Do you think that the power plant should pay for the water it consumes? 7) Do you think that power plants’ way of water consumption is imposing costs on the environment? Other creatures? What about this power plant? 8) Will this power plant be willing to pay if water charge for the water it uses? 9) What are the water conservation activities your organization is performing? Page | 138
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10) How did you secure license for water abstraction and payment for water abstraction (if any experience of payment)? How much you are paying? 11) If water charge is introduced, is your organization willing to pay for water abstraction? Under what conditions you plan to pay? 12) How you cover the cost your organization incur due to the introduction of water charge? Explain the strategies you follow. 13) What do you think are the positive and negative impacts of introducing water charges for water abstraction? 14) What strategies or measures should be taken to overcome the negative consequences of introducing water charge? 15) Do you think that all power plants should pay equally if payment is a must for the water they consume to generate power? If not, why? 16) Do you think that all power plants can pay (afford) for the water used to generate power? 17) If this power plant is asked to pay for the water it uses, can it pay? If not, why? 18) Do you think that charge/price should consider the amount of water consumed by power plants?
II. Recreation
1. Do you the experience of paying water charge for using water for recreational purpose? How much the organization is paying for license and other water related navigations? If Not paying so far, how you see the introduction of water charge? 2. Is your organization willing to pay water charge? If yes, how much? Why? If no, why not? Under what conditions you are willing to pay? Why? 3. What do you think the introduction of water charge have on the recreation industry (both positive and negative? 4. Mention some measures to reduce the negative consequences of water charge introduction?
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5. What recreational facilities connected with water bodies /sources do prevail in your locality? Please enlist the most significant ones? i. ______ii. ______iii. ______6. How do you create users access to water related recreational facilities such lakes? Is it with payment or without payment? 7. What are the perceptions of the stakeholders on the recreational uses of water bodies? 8. A recreational use of water bodies are areas where human beings interact with nature and require requires conservations that must be compensated through the payment of users a. Strongly agree b. Just agree c. Disagree d. Strongly disagree
9. Are you willing to pay for the recreational uses connected to water bodies such as boating and the like? If no, please explain your main reasons? 10. How much do you propose to pay for the recreational uses of water bodies? 11. Do you think that users of recreational services will be discouraged if a payment system is introduced? If yes, please explain how this could it be the case? 12. In case the payments for recreational uses are imposed, whom should you think manage it? How? And through what systems? 13. What are the parameters to be taken in setting charges for recreational uses of water bodies in Awash Basin? 14. Does the introduction of charges on the recreational uses of water provoke conflicts of interest among various stakeholders? If Yes, how? Please explain it and in what ways could it be managed as well? 15. What are the major management problems/challenges of recreational water uses?
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III. Aquaculture
16. Do you the experience of paying water charge for using water for recreational purpose? How much the organization is paying for license and other water related navigations? If Not paying so far, how you see the introduction of water charge? 17. Is your organization willing to pay water charge? If yes, how much? Why? If no, why not? Under what conditions you are willing to pay? Why? 18. What do you think the introduction of water charge have on the recreation industry (both positive and negative? 19. Mention some measures to reduce the negative consequences of water charge introduction? 20. What recreational facilities connected with water bodies /sources do prevail in your locality? Please enlist the most significant ones? iv. ______v. ______vi. ______21. How do you create users access to water related recreational facilities such lakes? Is it with payment or without payment? 22. What are the perceptions of the stakeholders on the recreational uses of water bodies? 23. A recreational use of water bodies are areas where human beings interact with nature and require requires conservations that must be compensated through the payment of users a. Strongly agree b. Just agree c. Disagree d. Strongly disagree
24. Are you willing to pay for the recreational uses connected to water bodies such as boating and the like? If no, please explain your main reasons? 25. How much do you propose to pay for the recreational uses of water bodies?
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26. Do you think that users of recreational services will be discouraged if a payment system is introduced? If yes, please explain how this could it be the case? 27. In case the payments for recreational uses are imposed, whom should you think manage it? How? And through what systems? 28. What are the parameters to be taken in setting charges for recreational uses of water bodies in Awash Basin? 29. Does the introduction of charges on the recreational uses of water provoke conflicts of interest among various stakeholders? If Yes, how? Please explain it and in what ways could it be managed as well? 30. What are the major management problems/challenges of recreational water uses?
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B. List of institutions visited/contacted
Organizations contacted: Domestic and non-domestic water supply
Urban water suppliers Shewa Robit Water Supply and Sewerage Service Office
Dessie Town Water Supply and Sewerage
Semera Logia Water Supply and Sewerage Sevice Office
Rural water suppliers Ephrata and Gidem
Ada Woreda
Gimbich Fentalie
Industries Kuriftu Resort
Ethiopia Tannery SC pittards England
Universities Wollo University
Semera University
Adama Science & Technology Institute
Dire Dawa University
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Industries Visited: Industrial water use and treated wastewater
S.No. Industry Location Response Date visited
17. Meta Abo Brewery Factory Sebeta Yes May 7,2018
18. Yes Bottling Factory Sebeta Apt May 7,2018
19. Yalkoneh Flower Farm Sebeta Yes May 7,2018
20. Ayka Addis Textile Factory Sebeta Yes May 7,2018
21. Bole Lemi Industrial Park AA(Bole) Yes May 8,2018
22. Heineken Brewery Factory AA(kilinto) No May 8,2018
23. Awash Tannery(Elico) AA(Saris) Yes May 8,2018
24. Nifas Silk Paint PLC. AA(Legahar) Yes May 9,2018
25. Bekash Chemical PLC. AA(megenagna) Yes May 9,2018
26. Bole Arabsa 2B MBR (AWSSA) AA No May 9,2018
27. Kality WWTP(AWSSA) AA No May 9,2018
28. Addis Ababa Kera AA Apt May 10,2018& R
29. Kadisco Hospital AA Yes May 11,2018
30. Addis Ababa Glass Factory AA(Asko) Yes May 11,2018
31. Methahara Sugar Factory Methara Yes May 12,2018
32. Alha Food and Plastic Factory Adama Apt May 13,2018
33. Wonji Sugar Factory Wonji Apt May 13,2018
34. Ethio-Pulp & Paper share Wonji Yes May 13,2018
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Company
35. Jianxin Zhang Crust & Finished Mojo No May 13,2018 Leather
36. Mojo Tannery Mojo No May 14,2018
37. Elfora Bishoftu Yes May 14,2018
38. Awash Melkasa Chemical Awash Apt May 14,2018 Factory
39. Abssina Steel Factory Bishoftu Yes May 14,2018
40. Kombolcha Tannery Kombolcha Yes May 15-17,2018
41. BGI Beer Factory Kombolcha Yes May 15-17,2018
42. Kombolcha Textile Factory Kombolcha Yes May 15-17,2018
Institutions contacted: (Water Supply)
. Shewa Robit Water Supply and Sewerage Service Office . Dessie Town Water Supply and Sewerage . Semera Logia Water Supply and Sewerage Sevice Office . Ephrata and Gidem . Ada Woreda . Gimbich Fentalie . Kuriftu Resort . Ethiopia Tannery SC pittards England . Wollo University . Semera University . Adama Science & Technology Institute
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. Dire Dawa University
Organizations contacted: Hydropower, Recreation and Aquaculture
1. Koka Hydropower Plant 2. Misrak Shoa Water, Energy and Mines Office 3. Awash II and III Hydropower Plants 4. Awash Fall Park Lodge 5. Beseka Hayq, South of Methara 6. Sabure Fishing Association 7. Debub Wollo Zone Water, Energy and Irrigation Department 8. Animal and Fishery Development Hayq woreda office 9. Lake Hayq Rikum Lodge 10. Wollo University 11. Ardibo lake 12. Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation 13. Bisheftu Town Culture and Tourism 14. Fishery Resources Development, Ministry of Agriculture
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