THE STORY OF PDF, EPUB, EBOOK

Susan Meredith | 64 pages | 31 May 2007 | Usborne Publishing Ltd | 9780746077658 | English | London, United Kingdom The Prophet and the Origins of Islam | The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Highly persianized empires built by the Samanids , , Ghurids made significant developments. The gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable polymaths , astronomers , mathematicians , physicians and philosophers during the . By the early 13th century, the Delhi Sultanate conquered the northern Indian subcontinent , while Turkic like the and conquered much of from the throughout the 11th and 12th centuries. In the 13th and 14th centuries, destructive Mongol invasions and those of Tamerlane Timur from the East, along with the loss of population in the Black Death , greatly weakened the traditional centers of the , stretching from Persia to , but saw the emergence of the Timurid Renaissance and major global economic powers such as West Africa 's Mali Empire and South Asia 's Bengal Sultanate. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, most of the Islamic world fell under the influence or direct control of European " Great Powers. The Oil boom stabilized the Arab states of the Persian Gulf , making them the world's largest oil producers and exporters, which focuses on free and tourism. The following timeline can serve as a rough visual guide to the most important polities in the Islamic world prior to the First World War. It is necessarily an approximation, since rule over some regions was sometimes divided among different centers of power, and authority in larger polities was often distributed among several dynasties. For example, during the later stages of the Abbasid , even the capital city of was effectively ruled by other dynasties such as the Buyyids and the Seljuks , while the Ottomans commonly delegated executive authority over outlying provinces to local potentates, such as the Deys of Algiers, the Beys of , and the of . The study of the earliest periods in Islamic history is made difficult by a lack of sources. Differing views about how to deal with the available sources has led to the development of four different approaches to the history of early Islam. All four methods have some level of support today. Nowadays, the popularity of the different methods employed varies on the scope of the works under consideration. For overview treatments of the history of early Islam, the descriptive approach is more popular. For scholars who look at the beginnings of Islam in depth, the source critical and tradition critical methods are more often followed. After the 8th century, the quality of sources improves. In particular, the sources covering the Sasanian realm of influence in the are poor, while the sources for Byzantine areas at the time are of a respectable quality, and complemented by Syriac Christian sources for and Iraq. Islam arose within the context of Late Antiquity. According to tradition, the Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in around the year Most likely Muhammad was "intimately aware of Jewish belief and practices," and acquainted with the Hanif. These inspirations urged him to proclaim a strict monotheistic faith , as the final expression of the prophetic tradition earlier codified in Judaism and Christianity; to warn his compatriots of the impending Judgement Day ; and to castigate social injustices of his city. In Yathrib, where he was accepted as an arbitrator among the different communities of the city under the terms of the Constitution of , Muhammad began to lay the foundations of the new Islamic society, with the help of new Quranic verses which provided guidance on matters of law and religious observance. These leaders are known as the " " or "rightly guided" Caliphs in . They oversaw the initial phase of the Muslim conquests , advancing through Persia , , Egypt , and . Although the office of caliph retained an aura of religious authority, it laid no claim to prophecy. Umar improved administration of the fledgling empire, ordering improvement of irrigation networks and playing a role in foundation of cities like . To be close to the poor, he lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every evening. After consulting with the poor, Umar established the Bayt al-mal , [42] [43] [44] a welfare institution for the Muslim and non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced child benefit for the children and pensions for the elderly. Local populations of and indigenous , who lived as religious minorities and were taxed while paid "" to finance the Byzantine—Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests. Since the Constitution of Medina , drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad , the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws and had their own judges. In , Umar appointed Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan as the governor of Syria after the previous governor died in a plague along with 25, other people. Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury, moving away from the worship of , accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties. When Umar was assassinated in , Uthman ibn Affan second cousin and twice son-in-law of Muhammad became the next caliph. As the language is written without vowels, speakers of different Arabic dialects and other languages recited the with phonetic variations that could alter the meaning of the text. When Uthman ibn Affan became aware of this, he ordered a standard copy of the Quran to be prepared. Begun during his reign, the compilation of the Quran was finished some time between and , and copies were sent out to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire. After Muhammad's death, the old tribal differences between the started to resurface. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area. As Uthman ibn Affan became very old, Marwan I , a relative of Muawiyah, slipped into the vacuum, becoming his secretary and slowly assuming more control. When Uthman was assassinated in , Ali ibn Abi Talib , a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq. Muawiyah I, the governor of Syria, and Marwan I demanded arrest of the culprits. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict, which resulted in the first civil war the "First Fitna". Ali was assassinated by in Six months later in , in the interest of peace, Ali's son Hasan , made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In the Hasan—Muawiya treaty , Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he would be just to the people and not establish a after his death. He was killed in the Battle of the same year, in an event still mourned by Shia on the Day of Ashura. In , Arab armies conquered Kabul , [71] and in pushed into the . The Umayyad dynasty or Ommiads , whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams , the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled from to Although the Umayyad family came from the city of Mecca , was the capital. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus from Medina , which led to profound changes in the empire. In the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family to power. As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the Bayt al-mal and the Welfare State expenses to assist the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled, increased, the Umayyads asked the new converts mawali to continue paying the poll tax. The Umayyad rule, with its wealth and luxury also seemed at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad. The Bayt al-mal, the Welfare State then continued under the Abbasids. Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of . He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia. Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post- civil war anarchy. However, Shia Muslims accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing the Ummah , fabricating self-aggrandizing heresies [82] slandering the Prophet 's family [83] and even selling his Muslim critics into in the Byzantine empire. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali. Uqba won battles against the Berbers and Byzantines. Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslims from north Africa for a period. Under the rule of Yazid I , some Muslims in Kufa began to think that if Husayn ibn Ali the descendant of Muhammad was their ruler, he would have been more just. He was invited to Kufa but was later betrayed and killed. Husain's son, Imam Ali ibn Husain , was imprisoned along with Husain's sister and other ladies left in Karbala war. Due to opposition by public they were later released and allowed to go to their native place Medina. One Imam after another continued in the generation of Imam Husain but they were opposed by the Caliphs of the day as their rivals till Imam Abdullah al- Mahdi Billah came in power as first Caliph of Fatimid in North Africa when Caliphate and Imamate came to same person again after Imam Ali. This would ease in the reign of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan , a well-educated and capable ruler. Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule, all important records were translated into Arabic. In his reign, a for the Muslim world was minted. The Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the exclusive currency in the Muslim world. Al-Walid I began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early Islamic empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into and across to the west of North Africa. Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf played a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era. His reign is considered to be the apex of Islamic power. Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab governor of . Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of al-Hajjaj , one of two prominent leaders the other was Qutayba ibn Muslim who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no threat. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move to Damascus on becoming Caliph, remaining in . The intervention of Bulgaria on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ruled an empire with many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms introduced by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. He was also faced with a revolt by Zayd ibn Ali. Hisham suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The Battle of Akroinon , a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty. Al-Walid II saw political intrigue during his reign. Yazid III spoke out against his cousin Walid's "immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of the Banu Qays Arabs against Yemenis and non-Arab Muslims , and Yazid received further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya believers in human free will. He explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the Book of God and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he died. Ibrahim ibn al-Walid , named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in , before he abdicated. Marwan II ruled from until he was killed in He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. His death signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince Abd al-Rahman who escaped to the Iberian Peninsula and founded a dynasty there. The Abbasid dynasty rose to power in , consolidating the gains of the earlier . Initially, they conquered Mediterranean islands including the Balearics and, after, in the Southern Italy. Most notable was the development of Arabic prose and poetry , termed by The Cambridge as its " golden age ". The capital was moved from Damascus to Baghdad , due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in Persia and Transoxania. Although the Umayyad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family member, Abd ar-Rahman I , escaped to Spain and established an independent caliphate there in In the Maghreb , Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise central authority. Aghlabid rule was short-lived, and they were deposed by the Shiite Fatimid dynasty in By around , the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a capital there in called " al-Qahirah " meaning "the planet of victory", known today as . In Persia the Turkic Ghaznavids snatched power from the Abbasids. Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful proselytising. By some from — years later, the area up to the Ganges river had fallen. In sub-Saharan West Africa, Islam was established just after the year Muslim rulers were in Kanem starting from sometime between and , with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of Gao as early as The Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence in the 13th century. The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity. Different sects of the Islamic faith and , separated by doctrine, history, and practice, were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking the Umayyads' moral character and administration. According to Ira Lapidus , "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali ". Islamic ecumenism , promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of the Ummah in the literal meaning: that there was a single faith. developed as the Shariah was codified, and the four Madhabs were established. This era also saw the rise of classical . Religious achievements included completion of the canonical collections of of Sahih Bukhari and others. Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages, the doctrines of the Sunni and Shia , two major denominations of Islam , solidified and the divisions of the world theologically would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods. Politically, the evolved into an Islamic unitary system of government. The regional Sultanate and Emirate governors' existence, validity, or legality were acknowledged for unity of the state. According to Arab sources in the year , Al-Saffah , the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive rebellion against the from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating the entire Umayyad family and achieving victory at the Battle of the Zab , Al- Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid Caliphate. In Al-Mansur 's time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Islam. The Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order to continue the collection of the , or the tax on non-Muslims. Al-Mahdi , whose name means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's reign, becoming the world's largest city. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. Like his father, Al-Hadi [] was open to his people and allowed citizens to address him in the palace at Baghdad. He was considered an "enlightened ruler", and continued the policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was plagued by military conflicts and internal intrigue. The military conflicts subsided as Harun al-Rashid ruled. He established the library Bayt al-Hikma "" , and the arts and music flourished during his reign. The Barmakid family played a decisive advisorial role in establishing the Caliphate, but declined during Rashid's rule. Al-Amin received the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid, but failed to respect the arrangements made for his brothers, leading to the Fourth Fitna. The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Under the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the in Khorasan , which was founded during the caliph Al-Ma'mun 's reign. Similar dynasties included the Saffarids , Samanids , Ghaznavids and Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid empire's territory during his reign and dealt with rebellions. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became powerful, frustrating Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid dynasty became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and other opponents. Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious scholars averred that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the , the Abbasid inquisition which he introduced in four months before he died. The Ulema and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun. In parallel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced. During the Al-Ma'mun regime, border wars increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died while leading an expedition in Sardis. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in , the caliph ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of to search for knowledge and treasure. Workers tunnelled in near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded by his half-brother, Al-Mu'tasim , rather than his son, Al- Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun. He faced Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of . Al-Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory. Byzantine emperor Theophilus launched an attack against Abbasid fortresses. On his return he became aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his successors to rely upon Turkish commanders and slave-soldiers foreshadowing the system. The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in , but he defeated the rebels. During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid dynasty continued to grow in power. The were exempted from many tribute and oversight functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture against the opposition. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra under the caliph's patronage. Al-Wathiq succeeded his father. Using a famous sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups grew, as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have composed over one hundred songs. When Al-Wathiq died of high fever, Al- Mutawakkil succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for many reforms and is viewed as a golden age. He was the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty fell into decline. Al-Mutawakkil ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his actions against minorities. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably capturing from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by a Turkish soldier. Al-Muntasir succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. During his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor, electing Al-Musta'in. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering their Caliphs. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power. Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters, but was surrounded by parties jealous of each other. At , the Turks were having problems with the "Westerns" Berbers and , while the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal hatred. The ruler spent recklessly, causing a revolt of Turks, Africans, and Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was brutally deposed shortly thereafter. Al-Muhtadi became the next Caliph. He was firm and virtuous compared to the earlier Caliphs, though the Turks held the power. The Turks killed him soon after his ascension. Al-Mu'tamid followed, holding on for 23 years, though he was largely a ruler in name only. Thereafter, Al-Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The was founded by Hamdan ibn Hamdun when he was appointed governor of in Anatolia by the Caliphs in Al-Mu'tamid later transferred authority to his son, al-Mu'tadid , and never regained power. The became the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during this time. Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'i, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Al-Muktafi became a favourite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as the Carmathians. Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose Al-Muqtadir. Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall or assassination of another. His long reign brought the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul threw off its dependence, and the Greeks raided across the undefended border. The East continued to formally recognise the Caliphate, including those who virtually claimed independence. At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress Zoe Karbonopsina pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner [] while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother al-Qahir. He was even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison. His son Ar-Radi took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister, Ibn Raik amir al-umara ; 'Amir of the Amirs'. Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the , supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition'. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to discuss the questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of State; to distribute alms , or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids. In the late mids, the Ikhshidids of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince". Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad. Fars and were conquered. At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of little importance. The amir al-umara contented himself with dispatching his secretary to Baghdad to assemble local dignitaries to elect a successor. The choice fell on Al-Muttaqi. Bajkam was killed on a hunting party by marauding . In the ensuing anarchy in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mosul where he was welcomed by the . They assassinated Ibn Raik. Hamdanid Nasir al-Dawla advanced on Baghdad, where mercenaries and well-organised Turks repelled them. Turkish general became amir al-umara. The Turks were staunch Sunnis. A fresh conspiracy placed the Caliph in danger. Hamdanid troops helped ad-Daula escape to Mosul and then to Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated. Al-Muttaqi was at , moving to Tuzun where he was deposed. Tuzun installed the blinded Caliph's cousin as successor, with the title of Al-Mustakfi. With the new Caliph, Tuzun attacked the Buwayhid dynasty and the Hamdanids. Soon after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu Ja'far. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed. The city fell into chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted. Once the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad, Al-Muti became caliph. The office was shorn of real power and Shi'a observances were established. The Buwayhids held on Baghdad for over a century. Throughout the Buwayhid reign the Caliphate was at its lowest ebb, but was recognized religiously, except in Iberia. Buwayhid Mu'izz al-Dawla was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by fear for his own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond. The Hideaway dynasty also fractured. The Abbasid borders were the defended only by small border states. Baha' al-Dawla , the Buyid amir of Iraq, deposed al-Ta'i in and proclaimed al-Qadir the new caliph. During al-Qadir's Caliphate, Mahmud of Ghazni looked after the empire. Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was friendly towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. During this and the next period, Islamic literature , especially Persian literature , flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids. During Al-Qa'im 's reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained power. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well-received both by chiefs and people. In , the Qarmatian state collapsed in Al-Hasa. Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids. Al-Muqtadi was honoured by the Seljuq Sultan Malik-Shah I , during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was critical of the Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids. The first Caliph was Al-Mustazhir. He was politically irrelevant, despite civil strife at home and the in Syria. The global Muslim population climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by was captured by crusaders who massacred its inhabitants. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover the Al- Aqsa from the Franks European Crusaders. The Story of Islam. A Primer. By Pinault. Muslim-Christian Relations. Share Share Twitter Print. Religious authority in Islam Within the religion itself, questions of contending versions or values of Islam are left to a method of doctrinal discernment and structures of religious authority that differ in key ways from those familiar to Christians. Published in the March 24, issue:. View Contents. Also by this author Sidebar: Ritual Practice. Related Muslim-Christian Relations. Middle East. Following St. By Paul . By Griffin Oleynick. What Did to Its Christians. By Said Reynolds. Must Reads. Will a Plebiscite Bring Reform in Chile? But first, Chile must get past the pandemic. By Santiago Ramos. By Austen Ivereigh. Moving to a Rust Belt town taught me that real solidarity is harder than it looks. By Jonathan Malesic. Lawrence, Arch-Heretic. Nature is central to this collection of D. By George Scialabba. The Presidential Election. Amid the confusion created by the pandemic, one thing is clear: the election will be unlike any other. By The Editors. They eventually married. Divine Revelations When he was roughly forty, Muhammad began having visions and hearing voices. Searching for clarity, he would sometimes meditate at Mount Hira, near Mecca. On one of these occasions, the Gabriel Jibra'il in Arabic appeared to him and instructed him to recite "in the name of [your] lord. These early revelations pointed to the existence of a single God, contradicting the polytheistic beliefs of the pre-Islamic . Initially overwhelmed by the significance of what was being revealed to him, Muhammad found unflinching support in his wife and slowly began to attract followers. His strong monotheistic message angered many of the Meccan merchants. They were afraid that trade, which they believed was protected by the pagan , would suffer. From that point forward, Muhammad was ostracized in Mecca. For a time, the influence and status of his wife and his uncle, Abu Talib, the chief of the clan, protected Muhammad from persecution. After they died, however, Muhammad's situation in Mecca became dire. The Hijra Emigration became the only hope for Muhammad and his followers' survival. In , they headed to Medina, another oasis town, where they were promised freedom to practice their religion. The move from Mecca to Medina is known as the hijra —the flight—and marks year 1 of the Islamic, or hijri , calendar. Spreading the Message of Islam In Medina, Muhammad continued to receive divine revelations and built an ever- expanding community around the new faith. The conflict with the Quraish continued, but after several years of violent clashes, Mecca surrendered. Islam - Five Pillars, Nation of Islam & Definition - HISTORY

Here the received tradition includes norms that many Western Christians find vexing. But traditionally, only men are required to pray at the mosque, while women have been expected to pray at home. Mosque prayer is gender-segregated. Typically, there is a relatively small space at the back of a mosque set aside for women. And menstruating women—viewed as najis , or ritually unclean—are forbidden to enter a mosque at all. Institutionally, for centuries men alone have held the positions of preacher, imam, and muezzin who gives the call to prayer within the congregation. The existence of such voices suggests a greater diversity of views and potentials within Islam than the more alarmist views in Europe and the United States allow. Still, the challenge facing the Muslim world is clear and formidable. Today more Abrahams are needed—figures of conscience who denounce the cruelties of religious tribalism. His latest book is the novel Museum of Seraphs in Torment. The Story of Islam. A Primer. By David Pinault. Muslim-Christian Relations. Share Share Twitter Print. Religious authority in Islam Within the religion itself, questions of contending versions or values of Islam are left to a method of doctrinal discernment and structures of religious authority that differ in key ways from those familiar to Christians. Published in the March 24, issue:. View Contents. Also by this author Sidebar: Ritual Practice. Related Muslim-Christian Relations. Middle East. Following St. By Paul Moses. By Griffin Oleynick. What Turkey Did to Its Christians. By Gabriel Said Reynolds. Must Reads. Will a Plebiscite Bring Reform in Chile? But first, Chile must get past the pandemic. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi , the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate , in the First Battle of Panipat During the reign of Humayun , the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire established by Sher Shah Suri , who re-established the Grand Trunk Road across the northern Indian subcontinent, initiated the rupee currency system and developed much of the foundations of the effective administration of Mughal rule. The "classic period" of the Mughal Empire began in , with the ascension of Akbar to the throne. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, but most of them were subdued by Akbar. After the death of Aurangzeb , which marks the end of Medieval India and beginning of the European colonialism in India, internal dissatisfaction arose due to the weakness of the empire's administrative and economic systems, leading to its break-up and declarations of independence of its former provinces by the Nawab of Bengal , the Nawab of Awadh , the Nizam of Hyderabad , the major economic and military power known as Kingdom of Mysore ruled by Tipu Sultan and other small states. In , the Mughals were crushingly defeated in the Battle of Karnal by the forces of Nader Shah , the founder of the Afsharid dynasty in Persia, and Delhi was sacked and looted , drastically accelerating their decline. By the midth century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies and won over several Mughal provinces from the Punjab to Bengal. Tipu Sultan 's Kingdom of Mysore based in South India , which witnessed partial establishment of sharia based economic and military policies i. The Rocket artillery and the world's first iron-cased rockets, the Mysorean rockets , were used during the war and the based Fathul Mujahidin was compiled. During the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II , had authority over only the city of Shahjahanabad. Bahadur issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of Consequent to the rebellion's defeat he was tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned, and exiled to Rangoon. Ibrahim Muteferrika , Rational basis for the Politics of Nations []. The modern age brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while the Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. The European powers, and especially Britain and France , globalized economically and colonized much of the region. By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had declined. He transformed Turkish culture to reflect European laws, adopted Arabic numerals , the script , separated the religious establishment from the state, and emancipated woman—even giving them the right to vote in parallel with women's suffrage in the west. Following World War I, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory outside of Asia Minor was handed over to the victorious European powers as protectorates. During the war the Allies had promised the subject peoples independence in exchange for their assistance fighting the Turkish powers. To their dismay, they found that this system of "protectorates" was a smoke-screen for their continued subjugation by the British and the French. The struggles for independence from their Turkish overlords and the cooperation of partisan forces with the British were romanticized in the stories of British secret intelligence agent T. Lawrence —later known as "Lawrence of Arabia. Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and nationalism began to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and Turkey organized their governments and sought to develop national pride among their citizens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity and an inability to resolve age-old prejudices between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims. Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as , the government brought out religious expression in the re-emergence of the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as Wahabism , which found its way into the Saudi royal family. The Arab—Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the modern State of as a Jewish nation state , the consequent displacement of the Palestinian people and Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries , as well as the adverse relationship between the Arab states and the State of Israel see related Israeli—Palestinian conflict. Despite at first involving only the Arab states bordering Israel, animosity has also developed between Israel and other predominantly Muslim states. The Arab countries closed the canal and it was followed in May by the closure of the "tapline" from Saudi Arabia through Syria to . These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of petroleum in Libya , which is a short and canal-free shipping distance from Europe. In , Occidental Petroleum broke with other oil companies and accepted the Arab demands for price increases. OPEC had been emboldened by the success of Sadat's campaigns and the war strengthened their unity. In response to the emergency resupply effort by the West that enabled Israel to put up a resistance against the Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the oil embargo against the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the "front-line states", those that bordered Israel, in their struggle. The centrality of petroleum, the Arab—Israeli conflict and political and economic instability and uncertainty remain constant features of the politics of the region. Many countries, individuals and non-governmental organizations elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict for reasons such as cultural and religious ties with Islam, , Christianity , Judaism , Jewish culture , or for ideological, human rights , or strategic reasons. Although some consider the Arab—Israeli conflict a part of or a precursor to a wider clash of civilizations between the Western World and the Muslim world , [] [] others oppose this view. In the Iranian Revolution transformed Iran from a constitutional monarchy to a populist theocratic Islamic republic under the rule of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini , a Shi'i Muslim cleric and marja. Following the Revolution, and a new constitution was approved and a referendum established the government, electing Ruhollah Khomeini as Supreme Leader. During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought each other, and the Islamics captured power. The development of the two opposite fringes, the Safavid conversion of Iran to the Shia version and its reinforcement by the Iranian Revolution and the Salafi in Saudi Arabia, coupled with the Iran—Saudi Arabia relations resulted in these governments using sectarian conflict to enhance their political interests. Certain Iranian exiles also helped convince Saddam that if he invaded, the fledgling Islamic republic would quickly collapse. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Historical development of Islam. This article is about the history of Islam as a culture and polity. For a history of the Islamic faith, see Islamic schools and branches. Texts and sciences. Culture and society. Related topics. Main article: Timeline of Muslim history. Main article: Historiography of early Islam. See also: Early social changes under Islam. Main article: Rashidun Caliphate. Main article: Umayyad Caliphate. Main article: Islamic Golden Age. Main article: Abbasid Caliphate. Four constructions of Islamite law. Al-Aqsa Mosque. Main article: . Main article: . Main article: . Main article: Mongol invasions and conquests. Main article: Timurid Renaissance. Main article: Cairo. Main article: Bahri dynasty. Main article: Burji dynasty. See also: Reconquista and Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula. Main article: Almoravid dynasty. Main article: Almohad dynasty. Main article: Greater Maghreb. Main articles: Islam in and Islam in Somalia. See also: The in Indonesia to Further information: History of Islam in China. Main article: Early modern history. Main article: Ottoman Empire. Main article: Safavid Empire. Main article: Mughal Empire. Main article: Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. Main article: Arab—Israeli conflict. Modern Islamic world. Islam and the Integration of Society. Psychology Press. Islam: The Straight Path 3rd ed. . Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Press. Welch, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed. N Bengal: the unique state. Concept Publishing Company. Bengal [ Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with. Ashgate Publishing. Historical Dictionary of Mali. Scarecrow Press. Sand to Silicon: Going Global. UAE: Motivate. Arabia and Ethiopia. Zeitlin 19 March The Historical Muhammad. A History of the Arab Peoples. Harvard University Press. Montgomery Watt Muhammad at Medina. Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Medina's victories led allied tribes to attack the non-aligned to compensate for their own losses. The pressure drove tribes [ The Bakr tribe, which had defeated a Persian detachment in , joined forces with the Muslims and led them on a raid in southern Iraq [ encouraged these movements [ Montgomery Watt, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed. Hoyland , p. Men Around the Messenger. The Other Press. The Living Thoughts of the Prophet Muhammad. Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective. Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths. IUR Press. Gardner Arab Socialism. Brill Archive. Serjeant Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. Islamic Quarterly. Cambridge University Press. European Naval and Maritime History, — Indiana University Press. History of the Jihad: Islam Versus Civilization. Gregory 26 August A History of Byzantium. Lambton; Bernard Lewis The Cambridge History of Islam. The Early Caliphate. Al-Zubaidi p. Penguin, Muhammad and the Islamic tradition. New : Harper Brothers. Esposito p. Kennedy - p. Rahman pp. Meri p. State University of New York Press. The caliph accepted this and confirmed Muhammad ibn Yazid as governor of Ifriqiyah. Courier Dover Publications. Islam: Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. University of Calagary. Archived from the original on 10 April Retrieved 18 April Najjar Spring, Chambers, Encyclopedia of World Religions. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan. There were disturbances in Iraq during the first several years of Al-Ma'mun's reign. Egypt continued to be unquiet. Sindh was rebellious, but Ghassan ibn Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem for Al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin. In Babak routed a Caliphate army, killing its commander Muhammad ibn Humayd. Al-Ma'mun introduced the Mihna with the intention to centralize religious power in the caliphal institution and test the loyalty of his subjects. The Mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the state of the creation of the Qur'an: if the person interrogated stated he believed the Qur'an to be created, he was free to leave and continue his profession. Joel L. Frye Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. Greenwood Publishing Group. Modern historians have suspected that Mas'ud instigated the murder although the two most important historians of the period Ibn al-Athir and Ibn al-Jawzi did not speculate on this matter. The Political Language of Islam. University of Chicago Press. Lambton A Concise History of the Middle East. El-Gamal Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice. Rand Corporation. Saudi Aramco World : 24, 26— Archived from the original on 30 September Retrieved 9 August An introduction to Islam for Jews. Religion and politics: Islam and Muslim civilization. Farnham, England: Ashgate Pub. The Cambridge Medieval History. Archived from the original on 21 May Retrieved 3 November The Crusades Through Arab Eyes. Al Saqi Books. The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. Saudi Aramco World. Ezzati, p. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. While Timur's capital, Samarqand, became a cosmopolitan imperial city that flourished as never before, Iran and Iraq suffered devastation at a greater degree than that caused by the Mongols. Starr, S. Frederick HarperCollins Publishers India. Timur's ceaseless conquests were accompanied by a level of brutality matched only by Chinggis Khan himself. At his troops dispatched some 70, defenders, while at Delhi his soldiers are reported to have systematically killed , Indians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. The Mughal Empire. International Journal of Middle East Studies. Retrieved 7 November New Edition. Brill, Leiden. The course of empire: The Arabs and their successors. Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages. The new Cambridge medieval history. A History of Medieval Spain. Cornell University Press. University of Pennsylvania Press. Abd al-Rahman's progeny would, however, take up the title of caliph. National Geographic Books, Lambton; Bernard Lewis 21 April Oxford: Oneworld Publications. Volume 1. Granada: Francisco Ventura y Sabatel. Westminster: Archibald Constable and Company. Muslim Heritage. Archived from the original on 2 November Retrieved 18 February Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden: Brill. Islam and Politics in East Aftrica. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Bahrain tribune. Archived from the original on 6 July The Mogul emperors of Hindustan, A. Scribner's Sons. Hadarat al Arab. Translation of La Civilisation-des Arabes. API Sejarah. The Legacy of Islam. Oxford University Press, New York, p. Dictionary of wars. New York: Facts on File. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Faroqhi, Suraiya In the past fifty years, scholars have frequently tended to view this decreasing participation of the sultan in political life as evidence for "Ottoman decadence", which supposedly began at some time during the second half of the sixteenth century. But recently, more note has been taken of the fact that the Ottoman Empire was still a formidable military and political power throughout the seventeenth century, and that noticeable though limited economic recovery followed the crisis of the years around ; after the crisis of the —99 war, there followed a longer and more decisive economic upswing. Major evidence of decline was not visible before the second half of the eighteenth century. Ebn Bazzaz. The Cambridge , Vol. Encyclopaedia Iranica Vol. VIII, Fasc. IB Tauris. The name "Iran" disappeared from official records of the Saffarids, Samanids, Buyids, Saljuqs and their successor. But one unofficially used the name Iran, Eranshahr, and similar national designations, particularly Mamalek-e Iran or "Iranian lands", which exactly translated the old Avestan term Ariyanam Daihunam. On the other hand, when the Safavids not Reza Shah, as is popularly assumed revived a national state officially known as Iran, bureaucratic usage in the Ottoman empire and even Iran itself could still refer to it by other descriptive and traditional appellations". Tauris, p. The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India. Aakar Books. The Great Mughals and their India. Hay House. Retrieved 28 November Persianate Mogul Empire. Britain and the Persian Gulf: — India before Europe. : The people. Crabtree Publishing Company. Morality and Justice in and Finance. Edward Elgar Publishing. An Advanced History of Modern India. Macmillan India. Introduction Bucknell University Press. Pande University of Michigan. Delhi, the Capital of India. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Retrieved 11 August Volume 7, No. Gregg; Hy S. Rothstein; John Arquilla Potomac Books, Inc. Iran at War: — Oxford: Osprey Publishing. New York. Islam: A Short History. Modern Library. New York: McGraw-Hill. In Robinson, Chase F. The New Cambridge History of Islam. Oxford History of Islam. The Ranking of the most influential persons in history. New York: Carol Publishing Group. Holt, Bernard Lewis a. Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. Holt, Ann K. Lambton, Bernard Lewis b. Belknap Press; Revised edition. New York: Columbia University Press. Mahomet and his successors. New York: Putnam. JHU Press. The Origins of the. SUNY Press. A History of Islamic societies. Baghdad during the Abbasid caliphate: From contemporary Arabic and Persian sources. Oxford: Clarendon Press. The Arabs in History. The life of Mahomet: from original sources. Islam:Religion, History and Civilization. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. With about million followers, scholars consider Buddhism one of the major world religions. Its practice has historically been most prominent in East and Southeast The Inquisition was a powerful office set up within the to root out and punish heresy throughout Europe and the Americas. Beginning in the and continuing for hundreds of years, the Inquisition is infamous for the severity of its tortures and its Wicca is a modern-day, nature-based pagan religion. Though rituals and practices vary among people who identify as Wiccan, most observations include the festival celebrations of solstices and equinoxes, the honoring of a male god and a female goddess, and the incorporation of Mormons are a religious group that embrace concepts of Christianity as well as revelations made by their founder, Smith. Christianity is the most widely practiced religion in the world, with more than 2 billion followers. The Christian faith centers on beliefs regarding the birth, life, death and resurrection of Christ. While it started with a small group of adherents, many historians regard The Bible is the holy scripture of the Christian religion, purporting to tell the history of the Earth from its earliest creation to the spread of Christianity in the first century A. Both the Old Testament and the New Testament have undergone changes over the centuries, Live TV. This Day In History. History at Home. Muslims are monotheistic and worship one, all- knowing God, who in Arabic is known as . Followers of Islam aim to live a life of complete submission to Allah. Muslims contend that Muhammad was the final prophet. Mosques are places where Muslims worship. The Quran or Koran is the major holy text of Islam. The Hadith is another important book. Muslims also revere some material found in the Judeo-Christian Bible. Followers worship Allah by praying and reciting the Quran. They believe there will be a day of judgment, and life after death. Hijra In , Muhammad traveled from Mecca to Medina with his supporters. Sunnis and Shiites When Muhammad died, there was debate over who should replace him as leader. Some of these include: Wahhabi : This Sunni sect, made up of members of the Tameem tribe in Saudi Arabia, was founded in the 18th century. Followers observe an extremely strict interpretation of Islam that was taught by Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab. Alawite : This Shiite form of Islam is prevalent in Syria. Followers hold similar beliefs about the caliph Ali but also observe some Christian and Zoroastrian holidays. Kharijites : This sect broke from the Shiites after disagreeing over how to select a new leader. They are known for radical fundamentalism, and today are called Ibadis. The Swiss Guard. Inside The Vatican Archives. History of 's Basilica. “The story of Islam” at Usborne Children’s Books

They thought that 'Ali, Muhammad's closest surviving blood male relative, should be their next leader caliph. The other faction, the Sunnis, believed that the Prophet's successor should be determined by consensus and successively elected three of his most trusted companions, commonly referred to as the Rightly Guided Caliphs Abu Bakr, 'Umar, and 'Uthman , as leaders of the Muslim community; 'Ali succeeded them as the fourth caliph. Today the Islamic community remains divided into Sunni and Shi'i branches. Sunnis revere all four caliphs, while Shi'is regard 'Ali as the first spiritual leader. The rift between these two factions has resulted in differences in worship as well as political and religious views. Sunnis are in the majority and occupy most of the Muslim world, while Shi'i populations are concentrated in Iran and Iraq, with sizeable numbers in Bahrain, Lebanon, , Turkey, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. Depictions of the Prophet Muhammad Featured in this unit are several depictions of the Prophet Muhammad. These portrayals, while somewhat rare, are not unheard of as there were and still are many different attitudes toward depicting the Prophet, and humans in general, in the Islamic world. These attitudes varied dramatically from region to region and throughout history; the societies that produced the works discussed here are among those that allowed the depiction of the Prophet. Commissioned by Muslims for Muslims, these images appear in biographies of the Prophet and his family, world and local histories, and accounts of Muhammad's celestial journey mi'raj , as well as in literary texts. In each context, they serve a distinct purpose. They illustrate a narrative in biographies and histories, while in literary texts they serve as visual analogues to written praises of the Prophet. An image of the Prophet Muhammad at the beginning of a book endows the volume with the highest form of blessing and sanctity. Thus, illustration of him was a common practice, particularly in the eastern regions of the Islamic world see also Frequently Asked Questions. From exhibition previews to curator talks and performances, experience the best of human creativity from every corner of the globe at The Met. Visit The Met Store to discover publications and products related to The Met's current, upcoming, and past exhibitions. By David Pinault. Muslim- Christian Relations. Share Share Twitter Print. Religious authority in Islam Within the religion itself, questions of contending versions or values of Islam are left to a method of doctrinal discernment and structures of religious authority that differ in key ways from those familiar to Christians. Published in the March 24, issue:. View Contents. Also by this author Sidebar: Ritual Practice. Related Muslim-Christian Relations. Middle East. Following St. By Paul Moses. By Griffin Oleynick. What Turkey Did to Its Christians. By Gabriel Said Reynolds. Must Reads. Will a Plebiscite Bring Reform in Chile? But first, Chile must get past the pandemic. By Santiago Ramos. By Austen Ivereigh. Moving to a Rust Belt town taught me that real solidarity is harder than it looks. By Jonathan Malesic. Lawrence, Arch-Heretic. Nature is central to this collection of D. By George Scialabba. The Presidential Election. Amid the confusion created by the pandemic, one thing is clear: the election will be unlike any other. By The Editors. Facebook Twitter RSS. All rights reserved. was the state religion of three Persian dynasties, until the Today, with about million followers, Hinduism is the third-largest religion behind Christianity and Islam. Followers of Judaism believe in one God who revealed himself through ancient prophets. The history of Judaism is essential to understanding the Jewish faith, which has a rich heritage of law, With about million followers, scholars consider Buddhism one of the major world religions. Its practice has historically been most prominent in East and Southeast The Inquisition was a powerful office set up within the Catholic Church to root out and punish heresy throughout Europe and the Americas. Beginning in the 12th century and continuing for hundreds of years, the Inquisition is infamous for the severity of its tortures and its Wicca is a modern-day, nature-based pagan religion. Though rituals and practices vary among people who identify as Wiccan, most observations include the festival celebrations of solstices and equinoxes, the honoring of a male god and a female goddess, and the incorporation of Mormons are a religious group that embrace concepts of Christianity as well as revelations made by their founder, Joseph Smith. Christianity is the most widely practiced religion in the world, with more than 2 billion followers. The Christian faith centers on beliefs regarding the birth, life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. While it started with a small group of adherents, many historians regard The Bible is the holy scripture of the Christian religion, purporting to tell the history of the Earth from its earliest creation to the spread of Christianity in the first century A. Both the Old Testament and the New Testament have undergone changes over the centuries, Live TV. This Day In History. History at Home. Muslims are monotheistic and worship one, all-knowing God, who in Arabic is known as Allah. Followers of Islam aim to live a life of complete submission to Allah. Muslims contend that Muhammad was the final prophet. Mosques are places where Muslims worship. The Quran or Koran is the major holy text of Islam. The Hadith is another important book. Muslims also revere some material found in the Judeo-Christian Bible. Followers worship Allah by praying and reciting the Quran. They believe there will be a day of judgment, and life after death. Hijra In , Muhammad traveled from Mecca to Medina with his supporters. Sunnis and Shiites When Muhammad died, there was debate over who should replace him as leader. Some of these include: Wahhabi : This Sunni sect, made up of members of the Tameem tribe in Saudi Arabia, was founded in the 18th century. Followers observe an extremely strict interpretation of Islam that was taught by Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab. Alawite : This Shiite form of Islam is prevalent in Syria. Followers hold similar beliefs about the caliph Ali but also observe some Christian and Zoroastrian holidays. Kharijites : This sect broke from the Shiites after disagreeing over how to select a new leader.

The Story of Islam | Commonweal Magazine

The rise of Islam is intrinsically linked with the Prophet Muhammad, believed by Muslims to be the last in a long line of prophets that includes Moses and Jesus. Because Muhammad was the chosen recipient and messenger of the word of God through the divine revelations, Muslims from all walks of life strive to follow his example. After the holy Qur'an, the sayings of the Prophet hadith and descriptions of his way of life sunna are the most important Muslim texts. The power of the Quraish derived from their role as successful merchants. Several trade routes intersected at Mecca, allowing the Quraish to control trade along the west coast of Arabia, north to Syria, and south to . Mecca was home to two widely venerated polytheistic cults whose gods were thought to protect its lucrative trade. After working for several years as a merchant, Muhammad was hired by Khadija, a wealthy widow, to ensure the safe passage of her caravans to Syria. They eventually married. Divine Revelations When he was roughly forty, Muhammad began having visions and hearing voices. Searching for clarity, he would sometimes meditate at Mount Hira, near Mecca. On one of these occasions, the Archangel Gabriel Jibra'il in Arabic appeared to him and instructed him to recite "in the name of [your] lord. These early revelations pointed to the existence of a single God, contradicting the polytheistic beliefs of the pre- Islamic Arabian Peninsula. Initially overwhelmed by the significance of what was being revealed to him, Muhammad found unflinching support in his wife and slowly began to attract followers. His strong monotheistic message angered many of the Meccan merchants. They were afraid that trade, which they believed was protected by the pagan gods, would suffer. From that point forward, Muhammad was ostracized in Mecca. Praised for his piety, he became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister, Ibn Raik amir al-umara ; 'Amir of the Amirs'. Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the Hanbalis , supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition'. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to discuss the questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of State; to distribute alms , or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids. In the late mids, the Ikhshidids of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince". Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad. Fars and Jibal were conquered. At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of little importance. The amir al- umara Bajkam contented himself with dispatching his secretary to Baghdad to assemble local dignitaries to elect a successor. The choice fell on Al- Muttaqi. Bajkam was killed on a hunting party by marauding Kurds. In the ensuing anarchy in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mosul where he was welcomed by the Hamdanids. They assassinated Ibn Raik. Hamdanid Nasir al-Dawla advanced on Baghdad, where mercenaries and well-organised Turks repelled them. Turkish general Tuzun became amir al-umara. The Turks were staunch Sunnis. A fresh conspiracy placed the Caliph in danger. Hamdanid troops helped ad-Daula escape to Mosul and then to Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated. Al-Muttaqi was at Raqqa , moving to Tuzun where he was deposed. Tuzun installed the blinded Caliph's cousin as successor, with the title of Al-Mustakfi. With the new Caliph, Tuzun attacked the Buwayhid dynasty and the Hamdanids. Soon after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu Ja'far. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed. The city fell into chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted. Once the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad, Al-Muti became caliph. The office was shorn of real power and Shi'a observances were established. The Buwayhids held on Baghdad for over a century. Throughout the Buwayhid reign the Caliphate was at its lowest ebb, but was recognized religiously, except in Iberia. Buwayhid Sultan Mu'izz al-Dawla was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by fear for his own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond. The Hideaway dynasty also fractured. The Abbasid borders were the defended only by small border states. Baha' al-Dawla , the Buyid amir of Iraq, deposed al-Ta'i in and proclaimed al-Qadir the new caliph. During al-Qadir's Caliphate, Mahmud of Ghazni looked after the empire. Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was friendly towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. During this and the next period, Islamic literature , especially Persian literature , flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids. During Al-Qa'im 's reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained power. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well- received both by chiefs and people. In Bahrain , the Qarmatian state collapsed in Al-Hasa. Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids. Al-Muqtadi was honoured by the Seljuq Sultan Malik-Shah I , during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was critical of the Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids. The first Caliph was Al-Mustazhir. He was politically irrelevant, despite civil strife at home and the First Crusade in Syria. The global Muslim population climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by Jerusalem was captured by crusaders who massacred its inhabitants. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover the Al- Aqsa Mosque from the Franks European Crusaders. Crowds of exiles rallied for war against the infidel. Neither the Sultan nor the Caliph sent an army west. Dubays was crushed by a Seljuq army under Zengi , founder of the Zengid dynasty. Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between his son Dawud, his nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East, stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays, where he was beaten. The Caliph then laid siege to Mosul for three months without success, resisted by Mas'ud and Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's military revival. After the siege of Damascus , [] Zengi undertook operations in Syria. Al-Mustarshid attacked sultan Mas'ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultanate. Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul. The Sultan regained power, a council was held, the Caliph was deposed, and his uncle, son of Al-Muqtafi , appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to Isfahan and was killed by Hashshashins. Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks allowed al-Muqtafi to maintain control in Baghdad and to extend it throughout Iraq. The Sultan and the Caliph dispatched men in response to Zengi's appeal, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their Amirs, dared resist the Crusaders. The next caliph, Al-Mustanjid , saw extinguish the Fatimid dynasty after years, and thus the Abbasids again prevailed. Al-Mustadi reigned when Saladin become the and declared allegiance to the Abbasids. He consistently held Iraq from to the Gulf without interruption. His forty-seven-year reign was chiefly marked by ambitious and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous invocation of the Mongols, which ended his dynasty. Al-Mustansir founded the Mustansiriya Madrasah. The Mongol military governors mostly made their camp in Mughan plain , . The rulers of Mosul and Cilician surrendered. Chormaqan divided the Transcaucasia region into three districts based on military hierarchy. Baghdad was sacked and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo reigned under the tutelage of the Mamluk and nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded Al-Musta'in were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to even briefly hold political power. Al-Mutawakkil III was the last "shadow" caliph. The Fatimids originated in modern-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as until After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria and even crossed the Mediterranean into Sicily and southern Italy. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its Song dynasty , which determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages. Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels in government based on ability. The Fatimid palace was in two parts. During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Fatimid Caliphs claimed spiritual supremacy not only in Egypt, but also contested the religious leadership of Syria. At the beginning of the Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids faced severe persecution by the ruling party as they were a direct threat to the Caliphate. Owing to the Abbasid inquisitions, the forefathers opted for concealment of the Dawa's existence. Subsequently, they travelled towards the Iranian Plateau and distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political world. He sent two Dai's to Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain died soon after the birth of his son, Al Mahdi. A system of government helped update Al Mahdi on the development which took place in North Africa. He claimed genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail. Al Mahdi established his headquarters at Salamiyah and moved towards north-western Africa, under Aghlabid rule. His success of laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi was instrumental among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe. In , Al Mahdi took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiyyah. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer the surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria , as well as Sicily. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its Song Dynasty , which eventually determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages. The Fatimid dynasty continued with al- Musta'li as both Imam and Caliph, and that joint position held until the 20th Imam, al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah At the death of Imam Amir, one branch of the Mustaali faith claimed that he had transferred the imamate to his son at-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim , who was then two years old. died two months after taking power, and the rule went to his nephew, Saladin. Beginning in the 8th century, the Iberian Christian kingdoms had begun the Reconquista aimed at retaking Al-Andalus from the Moors. In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian emerged and for a time controlled Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller Crusader kingdoms over the next 90 years formed part of the complicated politics of the Levant , but did not threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers in the region. After Shirkuh ended Fatimid rule in , uniting it with Syria, the Crusader kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his nephew Saladin reconquered most of the area in , leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports. In the armies from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though lingered for several decades, and other crusades followed. The Christian Reconquista continued in Al-Andalus, and was eventually completed with the fall of Granada in During the low period of the Crusades, the was diverted from the Levant and instead took Constantinople , leaving the Eastern now the Byzantine Empire further weakened in their long struggle against the Turkish peoples to the east. However, the crusaders did manage to damage Islamic caliphates; according to William of Malmesbury , preventing them from further expansion into Christendom [] and being targets of the Mamluks and the Mongols. The Ayyubid dynasty was founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. In , Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan and conquered the Near East region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries, controlling Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, , Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. After Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself in In the s, Syria's Ayyubid rulers attempted to win independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding , by In , the dynasty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by slave regiments. A number of attempts to recover it failed, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. In , the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after. After the Crusades the Mongols invaded in the 13th century, marking the end of the Islamic Golden Age. Some historians assert that the eastern Islamic world never fully recovered. The Mongol invasion of began in at a huge cost in civilian life and economic devastation. Mongke's brother, Hulegu , was made leader of the Mongol Army assigned to the task of subduing Baghdad. The fall of Bagdhad in destroyed what had been the largest city in Islam. The last Abbasid caliph, al-Musta'sim , was captured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and destroyed. The cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell in Plans for the conquest of Egypt were delayed due to the death of Mongke at around the same time. The Abbasid army lost to the superior Mongol army, but the invaders were finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north of Jerusalem in at the pivotal Battle of Ain Jalut. Most Ilkhanid rulers were replaced by the new Mongol power founded by Timur himself a Muslim , who conquered Persia in the s, and moved against the Delhi Sultanate in India and the Ottoman Turks in Anatolia. Timur's ceaseless conquests were accompanied by displays of brutality matched only by Chinggis Khan , whose example Timur consciously imitated. The plague began in China, and reached in Egypt in , spreading over the following years to most Islamic areas. The combination of the plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a seriously weakened position. The Timurid dynasty would found many strong empires of Islam, including the Mughals of India. The based in Central Asia ruled by the Timurid dynasty saw a tremendous increase in the fields of arts and sciences , spreading across both eastern and western world. Remarkable was the invention of Tamerlane Chess , reconstruction of the city of Samarkand , and substantial contributions made by the family of Sultan Shah Rukh , which include Gawhar Shad , polymath Ulugh Begh , and Sultan Husayn Bayqara in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and architecture. The empire receive widespread support from multiple Islamic scholars and scientists. A number of Islamic learning centres and mosques were built, most notably the Ulugh Beg Observatory. The prosperity of the city of Herat is said to have competed with those of Florence , the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance as the center of a cultural rebirth. The aspects of the Timurid Renaissance were later brought in Mughal India by the Mughal Emperors [] [] [] and served as a heritage of states of the other remaining Islamic Gunpowder empires : the Ottoman Turkey and the . In , the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by slave regiments, and the Mamluk Sultanate was born. Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the Mongol forces. In the s, the Mongols sacked and controlled the Islamic Near East territories. The Mongols were again defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Hims a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether. Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest interval between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires — Fatwas given during these conflicts changed the course of Political Islam. As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, the Mamluks sponsored many religious buildings, including mosques, and khanqahs. Though some construction took place in the provinces, the vast bulk of these projects expanded the capital. Many Mamluk buildings in Cairo have survived to this day, particularly in Old Cairo. The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General Tarik ibn Ziyad , first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania. Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar named after the General , it won a decisive victory in the summer of when the Visigothic king Roderic was defeated and killed on 19 July at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq's commander, Musa bin Nusair crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought. After the Abbasids came to power, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia, [] and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula. The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of Hicham II who was ousted because of his indolence. Some of the taifas , such as that of Seville, were forced to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille. Abd al-Rahman I and Bedr a former Greek slave escaped with their lives after the popular revolt known as the . Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Rahman I was one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr reached modern day near . Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have been sure whether he would be welcome. Following the Berber Revolt s , the province was in a state of confusion, with the Ummah torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of followers for Europe. News of the prince's arrival spread throughout the peninsula. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he took advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to control Zaragoza. Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies from the field with parts of their army. After Rahman I consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus . Rahman I did not claim the Muslim caliph, though. Al-Andalus was a safe haven for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids. In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur had planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his army confronted the Abbasids, killing most of the Abbasid army. The main Abbasid leaders were decapitated, their heads preserved in salt, with identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. He began the building of the great mosque [cordova], and formed ship-yards along the coast; he is moreover said to have been the first to transplant the palm and the into the congenial climate of Spain: and he encouraged science and literature in his states. He died on 29 September , after a reign of thirty-four years and one month. Rahman I's successor was his son Hisham I. He called for a jihad that resulted in a campaign against the Kingdom of Asturias and the County of Toulouse ; in this second campaign he was defeated at Orange by William of Gellone , first cousin to Charlemagne. One, Abdallah, went to the court of Charlemagne in Aix-la-Chapelle to negotiate for aid. Abd ar- Rahman II succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias , whose southward advance he halted. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids. He responded to William of Septimania 's requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald 's nominations. Muhammad I was succeeded by his son Mundhir I. During the reign of his father, Mundhir I commanded military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muladi rebellions. At his father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two-year reign, Mundhir I fought against Umar ibn Hafsun. He died in at Bobastro, succeeded by his brother Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi. Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muladi. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The Umayyad conquest of North Africa continued the century of rapid Muslim military expansion following the death of Muhammad in By the Arabs controlled Mesopotamia , had invaded Armenia , and were concluding their conquest of Byzantine Syria. Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad caliphate. By the end of all of Egypt was in Arab hands. A subsequent attempt to conquer the Nubian kingdom of was however repelled. in Tunisia was the first city founded by Muslims in the Maghreb. Arab general Uqba ibn Nafi erected the city in and, in the same time, the Great Mosque of Kairouan [] considered as the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the western Islamic world. This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history. The Idrisid were the first Arab rulers in the western Maghreb Morocco , ruling from to The dynasty is named after its first sultan I. The Almoravid dynasty was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara flourished over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian Peninsula during the 11th century. Under this dynasty the Moorish empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, Tlemcen in Algeria and a part of what is now Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north. The Almohad Dynasty or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the fifth Moorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together with Al-Andalus. The history of Islam in the Horn of Africa is almost as old as the faith itself. Through extensive trade and social interactions with their converted Muslim trading partners on the other side of the , in the Arabian peninsula , merchants and sailors in the Horn region gradually came under the influence of the new religion. Early Islamic disciples fled to the port city of Zeila in modern-day northern Somalia to seek protection from the at the court of the Aksumite Emperor in present-day Somalia. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have then settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had by then all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea came under the sway of the Muslim Caliphs. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region. Local Islamic governments centered in Tanzania then Zanzibar. The people of Zayd were Muslims that immigrated to the Great Lakes region. In the pre-colonial period, the structure of Islamic authority here was held up through the Ulema wanawyuonis , in Swahili language. These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in South East Africa before territorial boundaries were established. The chief Qadi there was recognized for having the final religious authority. On the Indian subcontinent , Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the peninsula, in today's Kerala state. Arabs traded with Malabar even before the birth of Muhammad. According to that legend, the first mosque of India was built by Second Chera King Cheraman Perumal, who accepted Islam and received the name Tajudheen. Historical records suggest that the Cheraman Perumal Mosque was built in around Islamic rule first came to the Indian subcontinent in the 8th century, when Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh , though this was a short-lived consolidation of Indian territory. Islamic conquests expanded under Mahmud of Ghazni in the 12th century CE, resulting in the establishment of the Ghaznavid Empire in the Indus River basin and the subsequent prominence of Lahore as an eastern bastion of Ghaznavid culture and rule. Ghaznavid rule was eclipsed by the Ghurid Empire of Muhammad of Ghor and Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad , whose domain under the conquests of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji extended until the Bengal , where Indian Islamic missionaries achieved their greatest success in terms of and number of converts to Islam. Many prominent sultanates and emirates administered various regions of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to the 16th centuries, such as the Qutb Shahi , Gujarat , Kashmir , Bengal , Bijapur and Bahmani Sultanates , but none rivaled the power and extensive reach of the Mughal Empire at its zenith. Persian culture, art, language, cuisine and literature grew in prominence in India due to Islamic administration and the immigration of soldiers, bureaucrats, merchants, Sufis, artists, poets, teachers and architects from Iran and Central Asia, resulting in the early development of Indo-Persian culture. Islam first reached Maritime Southeast Asia through traders from Mecca in the 7th century, [98] particularly via the western part of what is now Indonesia. Arab traders from Yemen already had a presence in Asia through trading and travelling by sea, serving as intermediary traders to and from Europe and Africa. They traded not only Arabian goods but also goods from Africa, India, and so on which included ivory, fragrances, spices, and . According to T. The same argument has been told by Dr. Burger and Dr. After Western Imperialist rule, this name was changed to reflect the name used today; the Indian Ocean. Soon, many Sufi missionaries translated classical Sufi literature from Arabic and Persian into Malay ; a tangible product of this is the Jawi script. Coupled with the composing of original Islamic literature in Malay, this led the way to the transformation of Malay into an Islamic language. Through trade and commerce, Islam then spread to Borneo and Java. By the late 15th century, Islam had been introduced to the Philippines via the southern island of Mindanao. As Islam spread, societal changes developed from the individual conversions, and five centuries later it emerged as a dominant cultural and political power in the region. Three main Muslim political powers emerged. The Aceh Sultanate was the most important, controlling much of the area between Southeast Asia and India from its centre in northern Sumatra. The Sultanate also attracted Sufi poets. The Sultanate of Demak on Java was the third power, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated the local Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century. Portuguese forces captured Malacca in under naval general Afonso de Albuquerque. The Sultanate's territory, although vastly diminished, remains intact to this day as the modern state of Brunei Darussalam. Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas headed for China for the third time in —51 after Caliph Uthman asked him to lead an embassy to China, which the Chinese emperor received. These imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation of gunpowder and more efficient administration. The Seljuq Turks declined in the second half of the 13th century, after the Mongol invasion. Osman I afterwards led it in a series of battles with the Byzantine Empire. The Ottomans were established in the Balkans and Anatolia by the time Bayezid I ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a growing empire. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to Timurid authority. When a number of Ottoman territories regained independent status, ruin for the Empire loomed. However, the empire recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I, Mehmed I , waged offensive campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting Asia Minor and declaring himself sultan in Around this time the Ottoman naval fleet developed, such that they were able to challenge Venice , a naval power. They also attempted to reconquer the Balkans. A factor in this siege was the use of muskets and large cannons introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress succumbed in , after 54 days of siege. Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated. In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia under the leadership of Shah Ismail I , defeating the ruling Turcoman federation also called the "White Sheep Turkomans" in The Ottoman sultan Selim I sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at the Battle of Chaldiran in Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt, absorbing their territories in Suleiman I also known as Suleiman the Magnificent , Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus to the Uzbeks on the eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had fallen under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial, rivalling the Ottomans. While Suleiman I's rule — is often identified as the apex of Ottoman power, the empire continued to remain powerful and influential until a relative fall in its military strength in the second half of the eighteenth century. The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in Tabriz in and later conquered the rest of Iran. They were of mixed ancestry, originally Kurdish , [] but during their rule intermarried with Turkomans , [] , [] Circassians , [] [] and Pontic Greeks. This resulted in the Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam. Zaydis , the largest group amongst the Shia before the Safavid Dynasty were also forced to convert to the Twelver Shia. The Zaydis at that time used the , as did most Sunnis and there were good relations between them. Abu Hanifah and Zayd ibn Ali were also very good friends. The Safavids dynasty from Azarbaijan ruled from to , and which established Twelver Shi'a Islam as the region's official religion and united its provinces under a single sovereignty, thereby reigniting the Persian identity. Their origins go back to Firuz Shah Zarrinkolah , a local dignitary from the north. During their rule, the Safavids recognized Twelver Shi'a Islam as the State religion, thus giving the region a separate identity from its Sunni neighbours. In , Tahmasp I acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts. Carpetmaking became a major industry. The tradition of Persian miniature painting in manuscripts reached its peak, until Tahmasp turned to strict religious observance in middle age, prohibiting the consumption of alcohol and hashish and removing casinos , taverns and brothels. Tahmasp's nephew Ibrahim Mirza continued to patronize a last flowering of the arts until he was murdered, after which many artists were recruited by the Mughal dynasty. Both shrines received jewelry, fine manuscripts and Chinese porcelains. Abbas moved the capital to Isfahan , revived old ports, and established thriving trade with Europeans. Amongst Abbas's most visible cultural achievements was the construction of Naqsh-e Jahan Square "Design of the World". The Safavid Dynasty was toppled in by the Hotaki dynasty , which ended their forceful conversion of Sunni areas to Shiaism. Mughal Empire was a power that comprised almost all of South Asia , founded in It was established and ruled by the Timurid dynasty , with Turco-Mongol Chagatai from Central Asia , claiming direct descent from both Genghis Khan through his son Chagatai Khan and Timur , [] [] [] and with significant Indian Rajput and Persian ancestry through marriage alliances; [] [] the first two Mughal emperors had both parents of Central Asian ancestry, while successive emperors were of predominantly Rajput and Persian ancestry. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi , the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate , in the First Battle of Panipat During the reign of Humayun , the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire established by Sher Shah Suri , who re-established the Grand Trunk Road across the northern Indian subcontinent, initiated the rupee currency system and developed much of the foundations of the effective administration of Mughal rule. The "classic period" of the Mughal Empire began in , with the ascension of Akbar to the throne. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, but most of them were subdued by Akbar. After the death of Aurangzeb , which marks the end of Medieval India and beginning of the European colonialism in India, internal dissatisfaction arose due to the weakness of the empire's administrative and economic systems, leading to its break-up and declarations of independence of its former provinces by the Nawab of Bengal , the Nawab of Awadh , the Nizam of Hyderabad , the major economic and military power known as Kingdom of Mysore ruled by Tipu Sultan and other small states. In , the Mughals were crushingly defeated in the Battle of Karnal by the forces of Nader Shah , the founder of the Afsharid dynasty in Persia, and Delhi was sacked and looted , drastically accelerating their decline. By the midth century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies and won over several Mughal provinces from the Punjab to Bengal. Tipu Sultan 's Kingdom of Mysore based in South India , which witnessed partial establishment of sharia based economic and military policies i. The Rocket artillery and the world's first iron-cased rockets, the Mysorean rockets , were used during the war and the Jihad based Fathul Mujahidin was compiled. During the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II , had authority over only the city of Shahjahanabad. Bahadur issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of Consequent to the rebellion's defeat he was tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned, and exiled to Rangoon. Ibrahim Muteferrika , Rational basis for the Politics of Nations []. The modern age brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while the Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. Here the received tradition includes norms that many Western Christians find vexing. But traditionally, only men are required to pray at the mosque, while women have been expected to pray at home. Mosque prayer is gender-segregated. Typically, there is a relatively small space at the back of a mosque set aside for women. And menstruating women—viewed as najis , or ritually unclean—are forbidden to enter a mosque at all. Institutionally, for centuries men alone have held the positions of preacher, imam, and muezzin who gives the call to prayer within the congregation. The existence of such voices suggests a greater diversity of views and potentials within Islam than the more alarmist views in Europe and the United States allow. Still, the challenge facing the Muslim world is clear and formidable. Today more Abrahams are needed—figures of conscience who denounce the cruelties of religious tribalism. His latest book is the novel Museum of Seraphs in Torment. The Story of Islam. A Primer. By David Pinault. Muslim-Christian Relations. Share Share Twitter Print. Religious authority in Islam Within the religion itself, questions of contending versions or values of Islam are left to a method of doctrinal discernment and structures of religious authority that differ in key ways from those familiar to Christians. Published in the March 24, issue:. View Contents. Also by this author Sidebar: Ritual Practice. Related Muslim-Christian Relations. Middle East. Following St. By Paul Moses. By Griffin Oleynick. What Turkey Did to Its Christians. By Gabriel Said Reynolds. Must Reads. Will a Plebiscite Bring Reform in Chile? But first, Chile must get past the pandemic.

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