Alberta Archaeological Review

ALBERTA ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW

Number 20 ISSN 0701-1776 Spring 1990

Inside: • Lac La Biche Mission Book Reviews page 3 page 16 • News and Notes Field Trip Photos page 6 page 20 • Tooth Enamel Patterns page 7 Archaeological Society of Alberta Charter #8205, registered under the Societies Act of Alberta on February 7, 1975

PROVINCIAL SOCIETY OFFICERS FOR 1989-90 South Eastern Centre: President: James Marshall (elected April 1989) 97 - 1 Street E Medicine Hat, Alberta T1A 5J9 President: Dr. Brian O.K. Reeves 527-2774 #16, 2200 Varsity Estates Dr. N.W. Rep.: John H. Brumley Calgary, Alberta T3B 4Z8 Group Box 20, Veinerville 286-8079 Medicine Hat, Alberta T1A 7E5 527-8152 Executive Secretary/ Mrs. Jeanne Cody Treasurer: P.O. Box 4609, Postal Station C Alberta Underwater President: John Marczyk Calgary, Alberta T2T 5P1 Archaeology Society: 4323-115 Street 243-4340 Edmonton, Alberta T6J 1P5 427-3608 (bus.) Editor, Review & Dr. Michael C. Wilson Rep.: as above Publications: Department of Geography University of Lethbridge Peace River Centre: President: Morris Burroughs 4401 University Drive 9205-111 Avenue Lethbridge, Alberta T1K 3M4 Grande Prairie, Alberta T8V 3L7 329-2524 532-9588 ERRATA Past President: John H. Brumley Your editor has played the "switch captions" game again. I Group Box 20, Veinerville carefully selected four of the five field trip photographs that Medicine Hat, Alberta T1A 7E5 Jim Marshall sent, and worked up captions - then managed to 527-8152 substitute the "left out" photo for one of the selected ones. For the record, then, the top photo on page 13 of AAR #19 Vice-President: (position not filled) is looking northeastward and the river is to the right! See the back page of this issue for the proper version - and don't Elected Secretary: Beth (Mrs. E.A.) Macintosh blame Jim Marshall for the slip! #314, 4516 Valiant Drive N.W. Calgary, Alberta T3A 0Y1 • • • 288-1837 Members of the Archaeological Society of Alberta receive a copy of the Alberta Archaeological Review. Non-members and institutions may subscribe to the AAR for $7.50 (under REGIONAL CENTRES AND MEMBER SOCIETIES review) per calendar year. Cheques should be made payable to (election dates vary) the Archaeological Society of Alberta. Unsolicited contributions are welcome for consideration for Calgary Centre: President: A. Geoffrey Payne possible publication. The AAR welcomes submissions con 2510 - 21 Street N.W. cerning Alberta archaeology or of special interest to practising Calgary, Alberta T2T 5A8 or avocational archaeologists in Alberta. The views expressed 244-5296 are those of the writers and do not necessarily reflect those of Rep.: Wes Johnston the Archaeological Society of Alberta: we welcome healthy 27 Hendon Drive N.W. debate. Communications regarding subscriptions and submis Calgary, Alberta T2K 1Y6 sions to the AAR should be sent to the Editor, Dr. M.C. Wilson, Department of Geography, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Edmonton Centre: President: G.F. (Jerry) Paschen Alberta, T1K 3M4. Communications regarding the Archaeo 11911 University Avenue logical Society of Alberta should be addressed to the Executive Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1Z6 Secretary/Treasurer (address upper left). 436-4913 Partial funding for this issue is provided by a grant Rep.: Nick Sheptycki from Alberta Culture. 5811-113ASt. Edmonton, Alberta T6H 1A9 Cover: Migrating Indians in the Calgary area, ca. 1886. 434-2316 Note what appears to be filleted meat on the drying racks (made from at least four travois lashed together). The can vas tipi is anchored by stakes, but one stone (light grey) Lethbridge Centre: President: Robert F. Shore may be visible at base on right together with unidentified 937 - 16 Street S. darker masses. The blanket on the right travois serves as a Lethbridge, Alberta TlJ 3C1 sun-shade. This photograph is part of a series taken along 327-8007 the Canadian Pacific Railroad right-of-way for promotion Rep.: Lawrence Halmrast al purposes. Norman Denley Collection, National P.O. Box 165 Archives of Canada, neg. no. PA 66595; identity of pho Warner, Alberta T0K 2L0 tographer not certain (probably O.B. Buell). Printed with 642-2126 permission of National Archives. THE LAC LA BICHE MISSION, ALBERTA

by Tom Maccagno1

INTRODUCTION ment. The Lac La Biche Mission served points as far north as Fort Good Hope by river transportation. With the arrival of The Lac La Biche Mission, Notre Dame des Victoires, was the railroads in the late 19th century the Lac La Biche Mission founded at its present location 10 km west of the existing slipped into a state of decline and reverted to a pastoral role. town of Lac La Biche in 1855 by Oblate Missionaries, Peres Tissot and Maisonneuve, who were carrying out the instruc tions of renowned Bishop A. Tache, O.M.I. The Lac La Biche THE BEAUTIFUL QUEEN OF THE LAKE Mission (Figure 1) quickly earned the title, Tentrepot du (LA BELLE REINE DU LAC) nord" (Storehouse of the North). It was also the venue of a number of accomplishments which, it is respectfully submitted, Lac La Biche! I've heard so much about it! I have warrant its recognition as a National Historic Site: for exam finally arrived! What joy! ple, the first wheat grown in commercial quantities in what was to become Alberta, the first grist mill (1863), the first resi This was, in the past, the departure point for convoys dential school in Alberta, the first printing press in this to the Far North. The annual supplies were carried here province (1878), and the introduction of various pre-industrial across the Prairies from the Red River in ox carts and skills which played a key role in the transition of Native peo horse-drawn wagons. These supplies were stored in a ples from a nomadic economy. In addition, it boasted the first large warehouse until spring when they were sent on to cut road in Alberta, which was completed in 1856 and con their destination by way of the La Biche River, a tributary nected the Lac La Biche Mission with Fort Pitt, thereby secur of the Athabasca River whose rapids are so justly feared ing an overland route to St. Boniface and the Red River Settle (Breynat 1945:327; translated from original French).

' £? .-^i.~ ' ;iT>''<*r --'•'• FIGURE 1 The Lac La Biche Mission, Notre Dame des Victoires, founded by Les Oblats de Marie Immaculee in 1855. Undated photograph, pub lished by permission, Provincial Archives of Alberta (# OB 1054).

President, Lac La Biche Mission Historical Society, P.O. Box 1622, Lac La Biche, Alberta TOA 2C0. [Ed. note: there will be more about this important site in the next issue of AAR.] Lac La Biche is a magnificent sheet of water dotted Oblate Missions and Codex Historicus, Notre Dame des Vic with islets of more or less considerable size, which are toires quickly reveal the importance of proper relations with covered with stretches of virgin prairie. It was to these the Hudson's Bay Company. Perhaps the following entry in islands that the native Indians came, each Autumn, for the Codex Historicus says it best: the fishing season, so as to secure a supply of fish for June 16-17, 1903. Warm weather. Some tomato and their subsistence during the winter... the Mission at Lac celery plants are sent for the occasion to Mrs. Spencer: La Biche, being an Episcopal residence, took on great this helps to keep good relations with the Hudson's Bay importance and became prominent over all other Mis Company. [James Stuart Spencer was the Honourable sions after St. Albert. Large warehouses were construct Company's factor at Lac La Biche at that time.] ed in which to store and keep the supplies of all the northern missions. There, early in the spring of each However, the Honourable Company was not the only com year, boats were built in order to be ready to be mercial enterprise in the region. The Lac La Biche Mission launched at high water time in the rainy season. And was also the home of many Metis fur traders, the role of when the goods were arriving from Red River or when whom is another little-known chapter in our history which has they were transferred to the boats and the little fleet was moldered into oblivion. One of the best known of the free getting ready for the trip, there was, around the mis traders at the Lac La Biche Mission was Joseph Ladouceur. sion's buildings, and along the shore of the lake, a busy The Lac La Biche Mission Historical Society (hereafter called and picturesque scene of noisy and bustling activity simply "the Society") is in possession of a Bill of Lading which (Legal 1914:45). indicates that he made a trip to Fort Garry in 1877 to pur chase from the H.B.C. $1395.91 worth of trade goods and Much like the pell-mell scenes described by Bishop Gabriel supplies for cash and furs. There can be no doubt that he used Breynat, O.M.I, and Bishop Emile Legal, O.M.I., the Lac La the goods and supplies to compete against the H.B.C. at Lac Biche Mission and other sites in the local area now represent La Biche! an archaeological potpourri on a scale rarely to be found in Alberta. The timespan of finds in the area is known to extend A number of Metis from the La La Biche Mission played from Agate Basin to the present (McCullough 1982). In other important roles in the history of the region: for example, words, there appears to be evidence of continuous human Louis Fosseneuve, the famous "Captain Shot," who earned occupation for at least 10,000 years in the Lac La Biche his title because he was the first person to shoot the much- region. feared Grand Rapids on the Athabasca River. This feat in 1867 spelt the death of the Methye Portage. Other historically However, it is not only the many centuries which have important Metis were Father Albert Lacombe's guide, Alexis washed the shores of the Lac La Biche Mission site itself, but Cardinal; Julien Cardinal, who turned back a band of maraud also its incredible complexity that cries out for attention. It ers during the Riel Rebellion of 1885, and Henri Sylvestre may be trite to say that the surface has only been scratched, Bourque, who provided much assistance to the Mission. A but this would indeed be a fair and objective assessment of the predominantly Metis settlement of 600 persons existed at the current archaeological status of the Lac La Biche Mission, Lac La Biche Mission in 1873. which is rapidly approaching a critical crossroads in its bid to become a world-class tourist destination because of its rare Le lac la Biche est une centre du population blend in Alberta of cultural, natural, and spiritual heritage, as heterogene d'environ 600 ames, dont [il y a] 200 metis well as the unrivalled beauty of its surroundings. francais de provenance crise, 300 Cris des bois et 100 Montaignais ou metis franco-montaignais...(Oblate Mis The Lac La Biche Mission was declared a Provincial His toric Resource on 1 September 1987 by the Hon. Dennis L. sions 1875:170). Anderson, Minister of Culture and Multiculturalism. Trilingual Nearby Black Fox Island also offers many challenges for the (Cree-French-English) plaques commemorating this event carry archaeologist. In 1975 E.J. McCullough discovered a prehis the following message: toric pottery-bearing site on this island; the site was later inves tigated by Kathy Connor Learn in 1982 (Learn 1985; 1986). THE NOTRE DAME DES VICTOIRES MISSION The pottery was identified as Clearwater Lake Punctate, with a thermoluminescence date of ca. A.D. 1520 (430±20% B.P.: The Notre Dame des Victoires Mission began with a Alpha-561; Learn 1986:29). Prehistoric pottery with differing log cabin adjacent to the Hudson's Bay Company post patterns has also been located by the author at several nearby six miles east of here in 1853. In 1855, the Oblates sites, including the Lac La Biche Mission site itself. decided to build on this site, and make Notre Dame des Victoires the depot for supplying their missions in the It is likely that only a properly funded and comprehensive Peace, Athabasca, and Mackenzie River districts. Within archaeological study, linked to an interpretive program, will a few years, the Mission complex grew to include a con adequately reveal the Lac La Biche Mission to be a repository vent and church, flour mill and granaries, a sawmill, and of important evidence bearing upon mid- to late 19th-century various storehouses and sheds. preindustrial skills in Alberta. Such a study would be a key component of an urgently needed master plan. Consider the The Lac La Biche Mission site also served as a residen following inventory of the Lac La Biche Mission and its stock tial school for native children and, from 1870 to 1889, in 1864: as the residence for Henri Faraud, Vicar Apostolic of Athabasca-Mackenzie. Notre Dame des Victoires embod Cet etablissement comprenait des lors maisons, en ied the Oblates' commitment to mission activity in north grande partie en pierre, 1 vaste etable et 3 autres ern Alberta in the latter half of the nineteenth century. maisons en bois, 18 chevaux, 32 betes a cornes, dont 11 boeufs de travail, 1 moulin a bras, 1 moulin a eau, de As the foregoing indicates, a Hudson's Bay post also stood vastes terrains en culture (Benoit 1904, vol. 2:494). on the shore of Lac La Biche approximately 10 km southeast of the present location of the Lac La Biche Mission. The Hon It can be said without fear of contradiction that the Lac La ourable Company first made its presence known at Lac La Biche Mission area is so rich in artifacts that it is probably Biche upon the arrival of the famous explorer and geographer, impossible to dig a hole anywhere on the site without causing David Thompson, in 1798. Cursory examinations of the some disturbance to historic or prehistoric artifacts, or to the remains of vanished historic structures. Fortunately the Society title, "la belle reine du lac," during the latter part of the 19th has a wealth of historic photographs and documents which century. A proper translation of the wealth of historic docu provide many invaluable clues with respect to the historic ments and publications is also essential. The accurate preser structures. vation and restoration of the Lac La Biche Mission is impossi A survey of the garden area at the Lac La Biche Mission ble without access to this information, which would also shed revealed a wide variety of items: for example, a pyx, square much additional light as to how much the La La Biche Mission nails, blue ceramics, fragments of a Perry Davis Vegetable contributed to the development, history and heritage of west Pain Killer bottle, a ceramic marble, fragments of rosary, a ern Canada. spun-back button, etc. (Maurice Doll, pers. comm.). It is also The Society needs everyone's assistance if the Mission is to noteworthy that a nearby cultivated field has yielded bone but become a household word once more. Its enormous contribu tons, spun-back white metal buttons, shards of underglaze tion to the development history and heritage of Alberta must transfer-printed earthenware, pipe fragments, and gun parts be rescued from oblivion now. Only thus will Albertans better similar to those recovered from the Buffalo Lake Metis site, understand and appreciate the role it played in the develop just north of Stettler, Alberta (Maurice Doll, pers. comm.; see ment of Western Canada as a region. Only thus will the Soci also Doll and others 1988). The earthenware was made in ety, in turn, gain lasting satisfaction from knowing that future England and includes Ivy, B-772, Continental Views/Louis generations will also be able to visit the Mission; and be grate Quatorze, Macaw/Pagoda, Honeysuckle, and Shamrock and ful that we rescued it from oblivion despite formidable odds Thistle. Several sponge-stamped and painted earthenware pat and a race against time. terns were also comparable between sites (M. Doll, pers. The Lac La Biche Mission has the "right stuff" to become a comm.; Doll and others 1988:220-221, 409-411). Particular world-class tourist destination point. The Society has provided ly poignant is a small religious artifact depicting the Blessed leadership in the fields of education, awareness, and example. Virgin, perhaps a souvenir of a special occasion celebrated at Surely adequate funding for the protection of our birthright is nearby Notre Dame des Victoires. the responsibility of senior levels of government. Unfortunate During the summer of 1988 a collection was made from ly, the Mission appears at times to be the victim of petty, the historic beachfront under the supervision of Dr. Heinz puerile, partisan politics at the hands of a Provincial Govern Pyszczyk, Historic Sites Development Archaeologist, of the ment which can find $345,000,000 for infrastructure for a Archaeological Survey of Alberta. A number of 19th-century needy mutinational corporation in connection with a proposed items were found; not surprisingly, these appeared to include nearby bleach kraft pulp mill, but then says it lacks funds for a some Hudson's Bay Company trade goods. Master Plan for the Mission and for its proper restoration and preservation as a major tourist destination point of great beau ty and historic importance. THE SOCIETY'S ROLE AND GOALS The moral cost of the Provincial Government's question All of the described activities have provided a learning able priorities is very high. It could be the irrecoverable loss of experience for the Society, which jealously guards its role. The a vital part of our history and consequently of our collective staff of Alberta Culture realize that the Society does not memory. With a loss of memory, there usually follows a loss of believe in blind subservience and that recommendations must dignity. be justified and inaction questioned. There are occasions when "A nation that does not honor its past has no future." the Society questions the recommendations of the Historic - Lycurgus of Sparta Sites Service; for example, only historians were included in a list for proposed work on the historic structures. Are we to believe that an historical archaeologist is less competent than BIBLIOGRAPHY an historian in this regard? Benoit, Dom (Joseph Paul Augustin) The Society's motto is "Perseverance." It has appeared to 1904 Vie de Mgr Tache: Archeveque de St-Boniface. the Society at times that Alberta Culture's guideword is Librairie Beauchemin, Montreal. 2 vols., 610 + "Intransigence." The restoration of the Lac La Biche Mission 936 p. has not been an easy task to date despite its now-indisputable status as one of the most important historic sites in Alberta. Breynat, Monseigneur Gabriel, O.M.I. The Society has not seen eye to eye with Alberta on the plain 1945 Cinquante ans au Pays des Neiges. Vol. I, and ordinary meaning of Section 2 of the Alberta Historical Chez les Mangeurs de Caribous. FIDES, Montreal. Resources Act: 2. The Minister is responsible for Doll, Maurice F.V, Robert S. Kidd and John P. Day (a) the co-ordination of the orderly development, 1988 The Buffalo Lake Metis Site: A Late Nineteenth (b) the preservation, Century Settlement in the Parkland of Central (c) the study and interpretation, and Alberta. Provincial Museum of Alberta, Human His (d) the promotion of appreciation of Alberta's his tory Occasional Paper no. 4. 411 p. Edmonton. toric resources. Learn, Kathleen Connor 1985 Chemical and mineralogical comparison of A PLEA FOR THE FUTURE OF THE PAST prehistoric pottery and raw clays from Black Fox Island, Lac La Biche. In: D. Burley (compiler), It is to be hoped that the archaeological community in Archaeology in Alberta 1984:102-117. Archaeo Alberta will lend its voice to that of the Society in order to logical Survey of Alberta, Occasional Paper 25. convince Alberta Culture of the urgent need for a proper Mas Edmonton. ter Plan or Interpretive Development Plan in order to direct 1986 Pottery and Prehistory of Black Fox Island: Techni future development of the Lac La Biche Mission. The Lac La cal Patterns in a Cultural Perspective. Unpublished Biche Mission must be restored to the grandeur and status M.A. Thesis (Anthropology), University of Alberta, which earned it the reputation, "l'entrepot du nord," and the Edmonton. Legal, Reverend Emile J., Archbishop of Edmonton Oblate Missions 1914 Short Sketches of the History of the Catholic Missions de la Congregation des Missionaires Churches and Missions in Central Alberta. 174 p. Oblats de Marie Immaculee (= Les Missions des Privately published, Winnipeg. Oblats de Marie Immaculee). Quarterly, published since 1862. A. Hennuyer, Paris. McCullough, Edward J. 1982 Prehistoric Cultural Dynamics of the Lac La Biche Region. Archaeological Survey of Alberta, Occasional Paper 18. 166 p. Edmonton.

• •

NEWS AND NOTES

PUBLICATIONS Rock Art U.S. Federal Archaeology The proceedings of the 14th Annual American Rock Art Research Association (ARARA) Conference are available, The U.S. Department of the Interior has released a 104- titled Preserving Our Rock Art Heritage, Occasional Paper page report entitled Federal Archeology: The Current Pro 1. In addition to the keynote address by Constance Silver on gram, prepared by the National Park Service. This is billed as rock art conservation, the volume contains the text of a panel the first study of all aspects of the Federal archaeology pro discussion on conservation and a selected bibliography of 170 gram, providing descriptions of archaeological activities and international publications on rock art protection. Copies may programs sponsored by and required of Federal agencies. be ordered for $15.50 (U.S.) from Helen K. Crotty, Activities range from archaeological inventory to law enforce ARARA Publications, P.O. Box 65, San Miguel, Cali ment and public education programs. Recommendations are fornia 93451, U.S.A. made for the improvement of existing programs. The report is available for $10.00 (U.S.) from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20202-9325. The stock number is 024-005-010- W.C. Wonders Festschrift 572. International orders must include an extra 25% for The Department of Geography at the University of Alberta postage. Credit card orders can be made (MasterCard or Visa); has published a book in honour of Prof. William C. Wonders, orders can be faxed to (202) 275-0019. founder of the department, who retired in 1988. The book, entitled A World of Real Places: Essays in Honour of Canadian Archaeological Association Publications William C. Wonders (edited by P.J. Smith and E.L. Jackson), Back issues of the Canadian Journal of Archaeology and includes a variety of geographical themes and at least two the CAA Newsletter are available from the CAA Executive papers of direct interest to Alberta archaeologists. Ian A. Office. Volumes and numbers are as follows: CJA volumes 1 Campbell contributed an article entitled "Photo interpretation to 6 and 10 to 12, $15.00 each; volumes 7 to 9, numbers 1 of rock weathering at Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park," while and 2 of each volume, $10.00 per number or $18.00 for Bruce Rains, Donald Kvill and John Shaw contributed "Evi both numbers in a volume; Newsletter volumes 2 (Fall '82 dence and some implications of coalescent Cordilleran and issue), 3 (Spring '83), 5 (Spring and Fall '85), 6 (Fall '86), and Laurentide glacier systems in western Alberta." A World of 7 to 9 (Spring and Fall, '87-89), $2.50 per issue. Write to the Real Places is available for $22.00 (including postage and CAA Executive Secretary, Bjorn Simonsen, Space handling) from the Department of Geography, University of 162, Box 127, 3170 Tillicum Road, Victoria, B.C. Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H4. Payment must accom V9A 7H7 to order these publications. pany your order.

• • VARIATION IN TOOTH ENAMEL PRISM PATTERNS AS A MEANS OF MAMMALIAN IDENTIFICATION

by Peter Koegler1

INTRODUCTION shown that specific enamel prism patterns do exist and can be used as a taxonomic indicator (Gantt and others 1977). The most informative and identifiable fossil remains of The purpose of the present paper is to introduce the reader mammals are teeth, which are composed of the most durable to the enamel prism patterns of several of the common mam substances in the body: dentine and enamel (Butler 1963). malian species of southern Alberta and to examine the possi Dentine forms the inner layer of the tooth and contains much bilities for their identification on the basis of enamel prism pat more mineralized material and less organic matter than bone; terns. If such identifications can be made, the potential exists hence, it is much harder. Enamel, which is even more resistant for even tiny enamel fragments from archaeological sites to be to wear, forms the outer surface of the tooth and is nearly devoid of organic matter, being composed of large, uniformly identified, adding a new dimension at sites where no other oriented apatite (calcium phosphate) crystals. Each crystal is faunal remains are available for study. surrounded by a very thin organic sheath (McFarland and oth ers 1985). This unique structure of the tooth allows it to METHODS AND MATERIALS remain intact long after other parts of the body have decom posed and therefore in many cases teeth are the only means Teeth of twelve common mammalian species from south of phylogenetic reconstruction and identification. ern Alberta were provided by Dr. M.C. Wilson (Department of Enamel is of particular importance because of its distinctive Geography, University of Lethbridge) for analysis. Of these, crystalline structure. Analyses of the ultrastructural features of two were in a subfossil state, having been buried but not signifi enamel with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) have cantly altered (Table 1).

FIGURE 1 The research team at work with the Scanning Electron Microscope. From left to right: Peter Koegler, Doug Bray and Michael Wilson. Photo by Ruth Klinkhammer, Office of Communications and Public Relations, University of Lethbridge.

1c/o Dept. of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta T1K 3M4.

7 TABLE 1 Mammalian Species Examined During the Study Order PRIMATES Family Hominidae 1. Homo sapiens human Order LAGOMORPHA Family Leporidae 2. Lepus townsendii white-tailed prairie hare 3. Lepus americanus showshoe hare Order RODENTIA Family Castoridae 4. Castor canadensis Canada beaver Family Sciuridae 5. Spermophilus richardsonii Richardson's ground squirrel Family Cricetidae 6. Microtus sp. vole Order CARNIVORA Family Canidae 7. Canis sp., cf. C. lupus large canid, ?wolf (subfossil; late Holocene) Family Procyonidae 8. Procyon lotor raccoon Family Mustelidae 9. Mephitis mephitis striped skunk Order PERISSODACTYLA Family Equidae 10. Equus caballus horse Order ARTIODACTYLA Family Cervidae 11. Odocoileus hemionus mule deer Family Bovidae 12. Bison bison bison plains bison (subfossil; late Holocene)

%.*?w* **J

%*.

iff A^i^*i?«lh^3Kili fi%: **""i -/iff- .* ft'"-' M&* ••'•••• jMJt\W^ •* 1 •••.'' ^ W. N J »w*i*Jrs Mf -M 1 ••-*, ••¥••% .*••*%» 'I i '% % •

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FIGURE 2 Bison (Bison bison) molar surfaces before and after etching. Left, surface cleaned with alcohol and acetone but not etched, showing dis continuous primless layer. Right, surface after cleaning and etching with 10% HCL, showing well-defined prisms. Both views X1000.

8 Wherever possible, incisors, premolars and molars were all used, but in some cases only molars or premolars were avail able. Where necessary, teeth were extracted from maxillae or mandibles either by manipulation or through use of wire cut ters and a small chisel and hammer. Once teeth were isolated, ;vst. \% <.;%-i.-vsix;** buccal (external) surface of the tooth. Cross-sections of enam el were also obtained from this surface. In a few instances the teeth were small enough to be mounted whole. The specimens were then cleaned and etched following procedures outlined by Gantt and others (1977). Each speci men was cleaned in absolute alcohol for one hour followed by one hour in 100% acetone; each was then etched in a 10% solution of hydrochloric acid for 2.5 minutes. The procedure removed the outer prismless layer of enamel. The specimens were subsequently washed twice in distilled water and allowed to air-dry. They were then glued to an aluminum stub with a silver-conductive compound and again air-dried. The 2 to 5 *»*k mm2 pieces of tooth were mounted enamel-side up, with some oriented to show a cross-sectional view of the enamel. Whole tooth specimens were mounted with the buccal surface facing upward and in all cases the surfaces were oriented per pendicular to the direction of the electron beam. The mount ed specimens were then coated with 30 nm of gold using an SEM Polaron Sputter Coater. The specimens were observed on a Hitachi S-500 scan ning electron microscope at an accelerating voltage of 20 keV and at various magnifications (Figure 1). Photographs were taken using a Pentax K-1000 camera with Ilford Pan F film to FIGURE 3 provide a permanent record of the prism patterns. For consis tency, prisms were oriented with their "heads" pointing to the Snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) premolar surface, showing upper left-hand corner of the photograph at a magnification effect of excessive etching, removing the organic substance and of 1000X, except in the case of cross-sectional views. leaving relatively undefined prisms (XI000).

FIGURE 4 FIGURE 5 Vole (Microtus sp.) molar surface, showing lesser effects of Surface view of beaver (Castor canadensis) premolar, showing excessive etching (XI000). extent of enamel prism pattern variation in a single specimen (X1000). 62 118 20KM 581)0

FIGURE 6

"Herbivore group" prism patterns (see also Figures 1 and 4). Le/t, mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) premolar enamel fragment in oblique view, showing inclined nature of prisms (X450). Right, mule deer premolar in surface view (X1000).

Sillily : |»HBk' '. i SHSKT' " - - ^^^^siif^itlI'iE«#iil%. f r#M \ ji%x&?\ •HK

FIGURE 7

"Carnivore/omnivore group" prism patterns. Le/t, canid (Canis sp., cf. C. lupus) premolar fragment in oblique view, showing tendency to more perpendicular direction of prisms (X400). Right, canid premolar in surface view (X1000).

10 FIGURE 8 Schematic representation of prism patterns in mammalian enamel (redrawn from Boyde 1965). Curved heavy lines represent the prism outlines, or prism sheaths, in cross-section and are planes where abrupt changes in crystallite orientation occur. The hexagonal outlines represent the areas of enamel produced by single ameloblasts (enamel-producing cells). Stippled areas indicate the full extent of individual prisms, a, Pattern 1, predominant in odontocete Cetacea (toothed whales), Sirenia (manatees), Insectivora (insectivores) and Chiroptera (bats), b, Pattern 2, occurring in Ungulata (hoofed mammals), Marsupialia (marsupials) and Primates, c, Pattern 3, occurring in Primates, Carnivora (carnivores) and Proboscidea (elephants).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Individual Variation Technique Another problem that arose was that of variation in prism pattern within one species and even within the same speci The technique of etching with 10% HC1 for 2.5 minutes men. The detected variations were slight but could cause prob worked well on the teeth with thicker enamel. The prisms and lems in attempts to distinguish closely related species. A photo their boundaries were well defined. This is illustrated in Figure graph of a beaver (Castor canadensis) specimen illustrates the 2, left and right, of Bison bison prisms. Figure 2, left, repre potential for variation to underscore this point (Figure 5). In sents the surface of a bison tooth which has been cleaned in the upper left-hand corner of the image the prisms appear alcohol and acetone but not etched; note the prismless layer. long and narrow, but toward the center they appear shorter The tooth in Figure 2, right, has been cleaned and etched to and broader. Most of the surface of the tooth resembled the reveal well-defined prisms. However, this technique did not latter pattern, but given the small size of samples used, such work as well on the more delicate teeth of the vole (Microtus variation could introduce problems of consistency. Analogous sp.) and particularly of both hares (Lepus townsendii and L. problems were noted in comparisons of different individuals of americanus). In the case of the hares, the acid etched too far a single species. Probably such problems can be minimized into the surface of the enamel, removing all of the organic through use of multiple reference samples wherever possible. substance and leaving undefined prisms (Figure 3). The gener It is also possible that the improved preparation procedure al pattern was still distinguishable, but not nearly as clearly as described above could reduce some of the apparent variation if in other teeth examined. In the case of the Microtus speci it relates, for example, to differential etching rather than to men, a similar problem was noted but the prisms were better true individual variation. defined than with the hares (Figure 4). Reducing the concen tration of HC1 or reducing the length of etching time may cor rect this problem. Interestingly, the technique failed to reveal Comparison of Patterns Between Groups of Species any prism pattern in the case of the horse teeth (Equus cabal- Results obtained in this and other studies show that there lus), possibly because of greater thickness of the prismless are significant differences among groups of the species stud layer. This problem is left for further study. ied. The greatest and most noticeable difference was found Gantt (1979) suggested an alternative but more involved between cheek teeth (premolars and molars) of herbivores and preparation procedure to reduce the amount of inconsistency cheek teeth of carnivores or omnivores. Use of the terms due to differential etching. He suggested that specimens be "herbivore," "carnivore," and "omnivore" admittedly involves prepared by placing a 1 cm2 highly polished facet on the mid- generalization as to diet but serves usefully in the present con cervical crown of a tooth using a series of fine-grit carbinet text. What can be termed the "herbivore group" tends to have papers in order of decreasing grit size. A 0.074M phosphatic enamel prisms that grow from the enamel/dentine junction at acid solution should then be used to etch the specimens for 30 an angle (from the perpendicular) that gradually increases as to 60 seconds. He also suggested the use of stereo-analysis to the prisms reach the surface (Figures 2, 3, 5 and 6). The see better the structure and orientation of the prisms. This prisms at the surface appear to extend at an angle greater procedure has been developed and used successfully in the than that of prisms of the "carnivore/omnivore group." case of rare fossil specimens, where individual specimens are Prisms of the carnivore/omnivore group grow from the enam at a premium and must be studied most efficiently; however, it el/dentine junction at a right angle or at a relatively constant may also prove useful in maintaining consistency with speci angle. Surface prisms extend from the surface at an angle mens of extant species. closer to 90° than in the case of the herbivores (Figure 7).

11 02109 20KU 01006 20KU

FIGURE 9 FIGURE 10

Human (Homo sapiens) molar surface showing Pattern 3 Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) molar surface showing circu enamel prisms (see Figure 7), with open side of prism facing lar-appearing prisms resembling Pattern 1 more than Pattern 2 the gap between two adjacent prisms (XI000). (X1000). See text for discussion; see also Figure 6, right.

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Raccoon (Procyon lotor) molar surface showing hexagonal pat Snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) incisor surface showing tern of prisms and prism sheaths (XI000). distinctive wave pattern in enamel prisms (X1000).

12 It was hypothesized that this difference in structure could be mammalian groups on the basis of three fundamental prism an adaptation by the herbivores to increase the strength of the patterns (Figure 8), based upon the most commonly occurring enamel (i.e., its resistance to abrasion) through an adjustment pattern in each group. The differences noted by Boyde were of the prism angle. Herbivores would require such adaptations also observable in the specimens prepared for this study, for increased resistance to wear because of the abrasive nature though taxonomic correspondences were not identical. All of of many plants (such as grasses) which incorporate opaline sili the herbivores tended to follow Pattern 2, in which the prisms ca into cell walls. Certainly it is widely hypothesized that were horseshoe-shaped in cross-section and were arranged in increases in tooth crown height among the specialized herbi rows so that the open side of each prism abutted the convex vores are adaptations to offset the increasing abrasiveness of closed side of the adjacent prism. The carnivores and omni- forage plants. Available literature dealing with enamel struc vores studied tended to follow Patterns 1 and 3. Pattern 3 was ture seems to offer no support for this hypothesis, however. particularly evident in a human (Homo sapiens) molar (Figure Other authors have suggested that increased strength of 9), where the open side of each prism faced the gap between enamel is associated with development of gnarled surface pat two adjacent prisms. The canid (Canis sp.), raccoon (Procyon terns (Scott and Symons 1971) or increased enamel thickness lotor) and skunk (Mephitis mephitis) did not display horse (Flynn and others 1987). These other structural adaptations shoe-shaped prisms; rather, they appeared circular or hexago do not preclude or exclude the possibility that prism angle is nal (Figure 10), seeming to follow Pattern 1. This seems in also a factor. contradiction to Boyde's assignment (Pattern 3) but this asser It is possible that differences in prism angles may be due to tion requires further study. It should be noted in Boyde's the fact that many herbivores have continuously erupting defense that he found that most animals have all three pat teeth; that is, the upper crown begins to erupt while the lower terns somewhere in their dentition; the important criterion is part of the crown is still being formed. In most groups, crown the characteristic occurrence. formation eventually stops and roots form; however, in extreme cases crown growth continues through the life of the animal and roots never form. It is possible in such cases that Comparison of Patterns Between Individual Species the prism angle is a byproduct of this process. The enamel The prism patterns of the specimens analyzed could be epithelium remains stationary, depositing enamel as the tooth characterized into two major groups, as noted above, on the grows (Scott and Symons 1971), thus resulting in a gradual basis of their general characteristics: herbivores and carni- change in the angle of the prisms. vores/omnivores. It was also possible to distinguish individual Prism pattern groups do not necessarily correspond one-to- species within these groups by close examination of prism one with established taxonomic groups. As a result, a dichoto- shape and size. Given that only a limited number of species mous key to prism pattern groups mimics but does not mirror was studied in this pilot project, it is not possible to say that established classifications. Boyde (1965; see also Vrba and the characters observed are restricted to the species named. Grine 1978) developed a key to distinguish between major What is important here is that the major groups could be fur-

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FIGURE 13 FIGURE 14 Vole (Microtus sp.) incisor surface showing alternation of prism Richardson's ground squirrel (Spermophilus richardsonii) pre direction and absence of coordinated wave pattern (X400). molar showing horseshoe-shaped prisms (X1000).

13 Specimens as Grouped bu Prism Pattern. Shape and Size

HERBIVORES CARNIVORES/OMNIVORES

LAGOMORPHA RODENTIA ARTIOPACTVLA Lepus townsendii Bison bison Lepus americanus Odocoileus hemionus

CRICETIPAE SCIURIDAE CASTOR1DAE CARN VORA PRIMATES Microtus Spermophilus Castor Homo sapiens sp. richardsonii canadensis

MUSTELIDAE PROCYONIDAE CANIDAE Mephitis mephitis Procyon lotor Canis lupus

FIGURE 15 Dendrogram illustrating subdivisions of mammalian tooth sample studied here. These subdivisions agree in general with those of other studies, indicating the potential of SEM studies in identification of modern or fossil enamel fragments. Additional testing of criteria is, of course, required.

ther subdivided, opening the possibility for progress toward deer (Odocoileus hemionus), were closely similar (Figures 2 identification of individual genera, if not species. Such poten and 6). In the case of rodents and lagomorphs both incisors tial was particularly evident in the carnivore/omnivore group. and cheek teeth were considered. The two species of hare For the present study, only molars were considered in detail, were so similar as to be indistinguishable in this study. Incisors based on availability of specimens. Both the prism and the of both exhibited prisms pointing in the same direction and prism sheath appeared hexagonal in the raccoon (Figure 11) also exhibited a distinctive wave in the prism pattern (Figure and the large canid (Figure 7), but the prisms were slightly 12). The cheek teeth provided no basis for distinguishing the smaller in the raccoon. The skunk exhibited hexagonal prism two. The rodents examined included beaver (Castor canaden sheaths but the prisms appeared circular (Figure 10). The sis), vole (Microtus sp.), and Richardson's ground squirrel sheath in the human molar appeared hexagonal but the (Spermophilus richardsonii), all of which displayed a distinc prisms were horseshoe-shaped (Figure 9). tive alternation of incisor prism direction without the wave In the herbivore group (including such widely disparate found in the hares (Figure 13), thus distinguishing them satis forms as ungulates and lagomorphs) it was more difficult to factorily from the lagomorphs. Prism patterns in the cheek distinguish among individual genera/species. Subgroups could teeth (molars, in this case) were useful in further distinguishing be distinguished on the basis of certain similarities, and in the three rodents. The beaver had broad, large horseshoe- some cases the subgroups could be further subdivided to the shaped prisms (Figure 5); the ground squirrel displayed small individual genus/species level. However, it must again be er, more distinct horseshoe-shaped prisms (Figure 14); and noted that the statements are only valid for the material exam the vole had pointed prisms that alternated directions (Figure 4). ined; they must be tested through further and more rigorous sampling. Of course it should be possible to distinguish lago- On this basis it is possible to construct a preliminary dendro morph, rodent and ungulate teeth on the basis of other char gram illustrating the subdivisions observed thus far (Figure 15). acteristics, but these statements are made with reference only It was found that the groups derived in this study resembled to enamel prism patterns. taxonomic groupings developed on other criteria. However, given the small sample size, there is obviously a need for further The two ungulates examined, bison (Bison bison) and mule testing of both the criteria and the derived groups.

14 CONCLUSION Boyde, A. 1965 The structure of developing mammalian dental It is definitely possible to use tooth enamel prism patterns enamel. In: M.V. Stack and R.W. Fearnhead as a means for the identification of at least general groupings (eds.) Tooth Enamel. International Symposium (i.e., higher taxonomic levels) of mammals in southern Alber on the Composition, Properties and Fundamental ta. This has obvious applications in terms of the identification Structure of Tooth Enamel:163-167. Wright, of fragmentary material from archaeological sites, especially in Bristol. areas where soil acidity has caused loss of all but the most resistant tooth fragments. The technique outlined in this study Butler, P.M. is unrefined but works quite well for rapid observation of the 1963 Tooth morphology and primate evolution. In: D.R. general characteristics of prism patterns. The findings here Brothwell, (ed.) Dental Anthropology: 1-13. Perga- agree with those of other workers (e.g., Hillson 1988). mon Press, Oxford. Symposia of the Society for the A more intensive and detailed study must be undertaken to Study of Human Biology, Vol. V. determine if prism patterns can be used to distinguish reliably between species in lower taxonomic groups (e.g., at the family Flynn, J.E., E. Nevo and G. Heth or genus level, or at the species level itself). Techniques such 1987 Incisor enamel microstructure in blind mole as stereo analysis, etching and polishing could be very useful rats: adaptive and phylogenetic significance. in improving upon the present results. These techniques could Journal of Mammalogy, 68(3):500-507. aid in reducing the amount of variation in observed patterns, in increasing the reproducibility of results, and in increasing Gantt, D.G. the confidence level of identification and even in phylogenetic 1979 A method of interpreting enamel prism patterns. reconstruction. Scanning Electron Microscopy, 11:491-496. Additional research is already under way at the University of Lethbridge along these lines. Alternative methods are being Gantt, D.G., D. Pilbeam and G. Steward tested, involving both grinding and etching of enamel surfaces. 1977 Hominoid enamel patterns. Science, 198:1155- Reference samples are being prepared for identification pur 1157. poses, under the direction of D. Bray (Biological Sciences) and M.C. Wilson (Geography), to assist in the identification of Hillson, Simon "unknown" specimens from archaeological, paleontological, 1988 The scanning electron microscope and the study of and forensic projects. ancient teeth. In: S.L. Olsen (ed.) Scanning Elec tron Microscopy in Archaeology: 249-260. BAR International Series no. 452. Oxford. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS McFarland, W.N., F.H. Pough, T.J. Cade and J.B. Heiser This research was conducted in 1988 and 1989 as an 1985 Vertebrate Life. Second Edition. Macmillan undergraduate independent study course project at the Univer Publishing Company, New York. 636 p. sity of Lethbridge, under the supervision of Douglas Bray (Bio logical Sciences) and Michael C. Wilson (Geography). The author expresses his gratitude to both individuals for providing Scott, J.H. and N.B. Symons the initial idea for the project, and to both departments for 1971 Introduction to Dental Anatomy. Sixth Edition. providing the necessary research specimens, facilities, and E. & S. Livingstone Ltd., London. 447 p. equipment. Soper, J.D. 1964 The Mammals of Alberta. The Queen's Printer, BIBLIOGRAPHY Edmonton. 402 p. Banfield, A.W.F. Vrba, E.S. and F.G. Grine 1981 The Mammals of Canada. Second printing, Uni- 1978 Australopithecine enamel prism patterns. Science, versify of Toronto Press, Toronto. 438 p. 202:890-892.

15 BOOK REVIEWS

NOSE HILL: A POPULAR GUIDE "bad" still depend to an uncomfortable degree upon one's own cultural background. Edited by Beryl Hallworth. 133p. + 8 pis. + map. Calgary Some years back I attended a public forum concerning pro Field Naturalists' Society, Calgary, Alberta. 1988. ISBN 0- posed preservation of Nose Hill Park as a natural area, a pro 921-224-04-4. Reviewed by Michael C. Wilson1- posal that I supported without reservations. A prominent natu The Calgary Field Naturalists' Society has distinguished ralist rose to argue that the city should ban grazing animals itself in recent years through its efforts to publish readily from the area (in reference to horses roaming there) and pre understandable natural history guides to the city and its "natu vent grass fires from being started. "Without fire and horses," ral areas." We all know, or should know, that landscapes in he said, "the area can return to its natural state." Despite my the city have been influenced by human activities for many support for the park concept, I rose to disagree with this state thousands of years, with the disturbances of the Historic peri ment. "If I wanted to tell the facts of life to a blade of grass," I od being both obvious and pervasive. Despite it all, there replied, "I would tell it about grazing and fire." After all, grass remain small patches with what passes at first glance for "nat es have co-existed with grazing animals for millions of years. ural" vegetation (ignore the introduced weeds) and the belea Just as grazing animals have become better at grinding down guered remnants of the "natural" fauna. In 1975, the CFNS and digesting coarse grasses, so have the grasses evolved even brought out Calgary's Natural Areas: A Popular Guide, edit more abrasive stems and leaves to combat them, in a never- ed by Peter Sherrington, which has become standard issue for ending cycle. Part of the success enjoyed by grasses lies in any naturalists trying to root out the Calgary that was, before their resistance to consumption by any but the "specialists" white settlement. Calgary's Natural Areas was a signal accom (horses, cattle, bison, pronghorn, and the like). In a heavily plishment for this avocational group: an ambitious and largely grazed area the grasses are better at withstanding such pres successful effort by a group of dedicated volunteers. That dedi sures than are many of the softer herbaceous plants — so that cation and the volunteer spirit live on in Nose Hill: A Popular grasses can dominate as long as the grazing continues. Many Guide, which represents a more detailed study of one of the grasses are also relatively fire-resistant, so in a prairie subject "natural areas" described in the 1975 work: Nose Hill Park, to frequent fires, again they win out over less resistant plants. on what is still the northern fringe of Calgary. Within a few An additional advantage enjoyed by grasses is their resilience more years, the park will be completely encircled by develop and resistance to trampling; many herbaceous plants are easily ment as the city continues its relentless push northward. broken when trampled. The moral of this is that if one removes grazing animals and prevents fires from occurring, Neither book really tells us what a "natural area" is, the grassland will gradually change to a herbaceous meadow, beyond the statement that "The natural areas of Calgary are rich in lovely wildflowers and supporting a great diversity of an aggregate of natural communities" and that they tend to plant and animal species. This is all highly pleasing to the eye, display "a stable vegetation cover known as 'climax' which but is it natural? The answer, simply, is "No." It is a special lasts indefinitely in an area while environmental conditions form of managed landscape, made up largely of "natural" remain unchanged" (Allen and others 1975:7). From both species, but in a combination perhaps never before seen. A books it appears that "natural areas" are areas that approxi natural "climax" grassland on Nose Hill, subject to grazing by mate the state of the landscape and biota before the time of bison and to frequent fires of both natural and cultural origin, white settlement. The role of Native people in changing the was, by our measure, probably a lot more monotonous — but landscape is either ignored, forgotten, or belittled: "In the surely no less interesting. In fact, the imprint left by grazing span of just two generations human activity has wrought more animals or by people manipulating fire would itself have been changes in the flora and fauna of Calgary than nature has over of great interest. Even many scientists have yet to acknowl the last 5,000 years" (ibid.:6). One would think from this that edge fully the extent to which landscapes have been modified human beings have only just arrived in Alberta. Are Native by people, and the extent to which those same landscapes can peoples still to be classed as somehow "wild" and simply a therefore serve as valid documents of human activities other part of "nature"? There is much evidence that Native people wise unrecorded. were able to use fire knowledgeably to effect ecological change: for example, to modify grasslands in order to increase My conclusion, then, is that this managed landscape, as their palatability for bison. Native peoples also harvested wood pretty as it may be, is as strongly affected by human pressures for winter fuel and lodgepoles, as well as collecting wild fruits as are many of the landscapes that we readily dismiss as "dis in considerable quantities and digging for wild tubers. Many turbed." The rich wildflower meadow that will appear in the animals were hunted, some in mass drives, for meat and absence of grazers is highly appealing, for example, to pho hides, by experienced and sophisticated hunters. How can we tographers and painters, because of its varied colours and the assume, a priori, that these efforts had no influence on the delicate characteristics of many of its species. It is highly biota or landscape? Of course Native people were deeply con appealing to people who maintain lists of all the species they cerned about the preservation of their environment, but they have seen — a reasonable pursuit if the list does not become a also faced difficult decisions in times of resource scarcity. competitive end in itself, overriding other considerations. It is There seems to be a widespread feeling that to admit that highly appealing to children, who can pick flowers for presen Native people affected the natural landscape is the same as tation to proud mothers (even if the kids occasionally pick saying that they were despoilers of the landscape. Let us face black henbane instead of wild roses). It may even start to go facts: all living beings leave their imprints upon the environ back to bush as aspen sprouts finally are freed of their con ment. Differences in effects are as much of degree as of kind, stant pruning by the grazers. It is appealing and lovely and and judgments as to which effects are "good" and which are lush and exciting; it is simply not "natural." Nose Hill Park (natural or not) was, and is, a great idea. Nose JDept. of Geography, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta T1K Hill: A Popular Guide was, and is also, a great idea. This 3M4. carefully assembled guide, essentially an annotated catalogue

16 of plants and animals to be found in the area, is well put I fear that others may wish to have the pits filled in. The fact together and attractively packaged. The fact that I can almost that these pits are just about the only place where one can see smell the rich meadow when I read the book relates, of rock wrens in Calgary may turn out to be the argument that course, to my own experiences in the park; but much of the convinces local naturalists to conserve the pits as well - magic of the area comes through to the reader. The varied human disturbance in this case has favored a relatively scarce habitats on Nose Hill, ranging from grasslands to aspen native bird species. groves, are summarized, all too briefly (in two pages), by Gor The discussion of archaeology and history by Beryl Hall don Kerr. The plants, editor Beryl Hallworth's specialty, come worth is the most problematic and disappointing chapter in through particularly well and are given detailed, if at times the book, in part because of her obvious unfamiliarity with quite technical, treatment: flowering plants other than grasses basic archaeological terms. The rambling chapter begins by by Hallworth and Gordon Kerr, grasses by Linda Cole and noting that "Palaeo-Indians" camped at the Hawkwood site, Catherine Osborne, mushrooms by R.M. Danielson, and starting as early as 8250 years ago. It soon becomes clear, lichens and mosses by Maxwell Capen. Of the rich insect however, that Hallworth has misread the Hawkwood report fauna, only the skippers and butterflies are treated, in an dis and believes that all prehistoric Native people were "Palaeo- appointingly brief listing by Harold Pinel. What about the Indians," right up to the Historic period. Thus we find that grasshoppers, which surely must rank near the top in terms of "Palaeo-Indians" were succeeded in the area by the Blackfoot, biomass for the area? Were butterflies chosen for their beauty "who entered the area in the 1700's" (p. 13). All of the infor (or because they are "collectible"), and are grasshoppers sim mation from multiple levels at the Hawkwood Site (ranging ply "pests"? What about the many fascinating (and often from true Paleo-Indian to Late Prehistoric) is lumped together attractive) beetles? to characterize the "Palaeo-Indian" way of life. There were, Birds are described in an annotated list by Don Stiles, and we are told, "many projectile points ("arrow-heads") for mammals by Herta Przeczek. The line drawings for these spears, darts, and atlatls" (p. 12). Etherington chert is said to chapters are in most cases surprisingly good, but the book be "from the Livingstone Range in Kananaskis Country" — cannot serve as an identification guide. The white-tailed hare does the Kananaskis now reach to Crowsnest Pass? One looks is described on p. 107 as "relatively slim" but the drawing on in vain for references to Marie Wormington's and Dick Forbis' p. 108 shows one of the fattest hares I have ever seen, even well-known introduction to Alberta archaeology (Wormington allowing for its crouched pose. Designation of introduced and Forbis 1965), Terry Moore's edited summary of Alberta species is uneven; the ring-necked pheasant and European archaeology (Moore 1981), or Rod Vickers' more recent thor starling are identified as such but the gray partridge (p. 90) is ough review of Alberta Plains prehistory (Vickers 1986) — all not. For some reason, scientific names of the birds are not readily available sources (The Vickers monograph was even given alongside their common English names, even though free!). Gail Helgason's The First Albertans appeared in 1987 the formal names do appear for all other animals and plants. and could have been unavailable in time for incorporation. My Organization of these chapters is a bit confusing and it own summary (with Ken Hardy) of Calgary archaeology (Wil appears that the individual authors were not given firm guide son and Hardy 1987) has also been overlooked, even though lines. The bird chapter is properly organized in taxonomic the same volume is cited by Desmond Allen in his geology order, following the order used in standard identification chapter. Ken Hardy's 1982 bibliography of Calgary archaeolo guides (based upon the American Ornithologists' Union check gy, available in area libraries, should by now have ensured that list). The mammal chapter, on the other hand, lists species local authors would have an easier job of searching for the alphabetically by common name — and not always clearly, at earlier references. Reference is made to a thesis by James that. The Richardson pocket gopher appears under "G," and Rogers, for which the title, Archaeology of Nose Hill, is given, the Richardson ground squirrel under "S," despite the fact that along with the date "ca. 1964" and the explanation "M.A. "pocket gopher" and "ground squirrel" are the key names. Thesis, University of Alberta at Calgary" (p. 22). A simple Oddly, even the common names are not standardized usage; telephone call to the University of Calgary would have con in many cases simple names like "badger," "lynx," and "bison" firmed to Hallworth that no such thesis exists, despite the fact are used, without the standard modifiers. Why, then, be so that Rogers did produce other inventories relating to the Cal careful as to specify "northern plains red fox"? Hallworth's gary area. Was this a citation based upon hearsay? historical summary at the start of the book mentions early Under the heading, "The Blackfoot," we find irrelevant sightings of wolves and pronghorn antelope in the Nose Hill (however interesting) discussion of the use of glacial erratics by area (p. 17) and even the killing of a wolf that lived near Split bison for rubbing stones, and a discourse about the Erratics Rock in Nose Creek valley (p. 18), but neither species is listed Train; then there is the simple note that the "Split Rock" in in the mammal chapter — even though bison are listed as for Nose Creek valley was "revered by the Indians" (p. 13). What, mer residents. These lapses, which suggest a lack of coordina exactly, does this mean? Was it admired? Was it worshipped? tion between editor and authors, could be corrected easily in Surely there is more to Native religion than a throw-away the next edition and only mildly detract from the value of the comment suggesting that they revered big rocks. The Barry book. Medicine Wheel is located on the Spy Hill upland a short dis This review is written for archaeologists, and I have tance west of Nose Hill (Forbis 1968), and suggests a more reserved comment about the geological and archaeological complex ceremonial link to the landscape. chapters for last. Desmond Allen has written a succinct and Mention is made of a bison kill in McPherson Coulee, north interesting chapter about geology, concentrating appropriately of Nose Hill, and its accumulation of bones, which leads Hall on the effects of glaciation. Nose Hill exhibits many of the worth into an aside about the bone-picking industry of the late geological features that typify the Calgary area, from the Pale- 19th Century. She notes that great quantities of bones were ocene Porcupine Hills Formation bedrock sandstones to the stacked along the railroads, and that Regina's original name glacially transported quartzite boulders of the Erratics Train, was "Pile of Bones," suggesting by association that the name and Allen's summary is up-to-date. In view of the rarity of came from this source. The real story is more complicated, exposures of the probable Tertiary preglacial gravels in the because the name "Pile of Bones" was established long before Calgary area, I would have wished to see a spirited argument that industry saw its florescence and before a town by that for preservation and interpretation of some of the exposures name existed. The Palliser Expedition in September, 1857, in the now-abandoned gravel pit at the east end of Nose Hill; passed the "Creek before where the bones lie" and the "Creek

17 where the bones lie," the latter identified by Spry (1968:139) REFERENCES CITED as Wascana Creek (=Pile of Bones Creek, or Manybones Creek), which flows through Regina. The creek might have Allen, D., J.W. Case, I. Halladay, and S. Mitchell been so named because it eroded through a local bison kill 1975 Introduction. In: P. Sherrington (ed.) Calgary's deposit; even today in the rural Northwestern Plains many Natural Areas: A Popular Guide: 1-11. Calgary people refer to bison kill sites as "bone piles." The Powers- Field Naturalists' Society, Calgary. Yonkee Bison Kill in Montana, for example, is known in its immediate area as the "Yonkee Bone Pile," though this usage is fading. The bottom line is that Hallworth is too eager to pre Forbis, R.G. sent a colourful story (in this case, in a completely irrelevant, 1968 A Review of Alberta Archaeology to 1964. rambling aside under the heading "The Blackfoot") rather than National Museum of Man, Publications in Archaeol to review the facts carefully. ogy, no. 1. Ottawa. 49 p. Hallworth also reports that the name for Spy Hill comes from the fact that traders brought mirrors to the Indians; these Fraser, W.B. mirrors "were popular with the women, and with the men, 1967 Calgary. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Toronto. 134 p. because they used them for signalling." Because the hill was used for signalling, it was called "Spy Hill" (p. 14). Other sources that discuss this name are more cautious, given that Hallworth, B. "spy" has multiple meanings. At least with the name "Nose 1975 Nose Hill. In: P. Sherrington (ed.) Calgary's Natural Hill" Hallworth is more careful; she cites alternatives (though Areas: A Popular Guide: 70-76. Calgary Field Nat both relate to a woman losing her nose) and indicates sources. uralists' Society, Calgary. Thankfully, and to her great credit, she provides a full quote of the oft-mentioned story of the disposal of Running Weasel's Hardy, K.J. remains by his friend Deerfoot in the Nose Hill area. Contrary 1982 Calgary Archaeology, 1959-1980: A Select Anno to earlier popular accounts (Fraser 1967; Hallworth 1975), tated Bibliography. Published by the author; origi the body was not placed atop Nose Hill but in fact was in the nal submitted to Faculty of Library Science, Univer valley of Nose Creek. sity of Alberta, Edmonton. 57 p. Nose Hill is prominent enough to have served as a land mark for travellers; thus it is mentioned regularly in early Helgason, Gail accounts. Under the subheading "Exploration and Settle 1987 The First Albertans: An Archaeological Search. ment," Hallworth provides a roughly chronological smorgas Lone Pine Publishing, Edmonton. 222 p. bord of early white travellers and settlers, concentrating in the latter case upon colourful characters and incidents. The emphasis on narrative history based in unusual events or per Moore, T.A. (ed.) sonalities is in strong contrast, however, to the careful scientif 1981 Alberta Archaeology: Prospect and Retrospect. ic approach adopted in the botanical chapters. What were the Archaeological Society of Alberta, Lethbridge. historical forces that shaped the ethnic makeup and economic 108 p. pattern of the area? Is Hallworth trying to tell us that history and archaeology are somehow not deserving of the same level Spry, Irene M. (ed.) of objectivity and scholarship as are the plants and animals? 1968 The Papers of the Palliser Expedition 1857-1860. Are they only "background" anecdotal information, tossed in The Champlain Society, Publication 44. 694 p. to add a bit of spice? The conclusion is inescapable that the Toronto. section on archaeology, in particular, was thrown together with only limited input from any of the many archaeologists Vickers, J.R. who reside in the Calgary area. Is the Calgary Field Natural 1986 Alberta Plains Prehistory: A Review. ists' Society aware that there is an Archaeological Society of Archaeological Survey of Alberta, Occasional Alberta, similarly made up of academic, consulting, and avoca Paper 27. Edmonton. 139 p. tional members, and with a long-established chapter in Cal gary? Inasmuch as reports of the CFNS now make regular ref erence to archaeology, it would seem appropriate for volun Wilson, M.C. and K.J. Hardy teers from the Archaeological Society to contribute to such 1987 The archaeology of the Calgary area, Alberta. endeavors in future, because it would be so, so easy to pro In: L.E. Jackson, Jr. and M.C. Wilson (eds.) duce something better than appears in the Nose Hill volume. Geology of the Calgary Area: 129-142. Canadian Nose Hill: A Popular Guide is, despite its flaws, a signifi Society of Petroleum Geologists, Calgary. cant addition to Calgary's natural history literature. The lessons learned in its production will help to ensure even bet Wormington, H.M. and R.G. Forbis ter guides for other natural areas. As a volunteer effort, this is 1965 An Introduction to the Archaeology of Alberta, an enviable book and I applaud the CFNS and the participat Canada. Denver Museum of Natural History, ing authors for their energetic efforts. Proceedings, no. 11. Denver. 248 p.

18 AGRICOLA AND THE CONQUEST OF THE associated with the processual school, rejected traditional culture- NORTH history and adopted a very programmatic epistemology. This involved reducing explanations to a set of deterministic, exter By W.S. Hanson. 210 p. Barnes and Noble, Totowa, New nal phenomena, very often ecological in nature. Only by doing Jersey. 1987. $28.50 (U.S.). Reviewed by Philip G. Duke1. this, it was argued, could we finally reach cross-cultural expla nations for human behavior. That historical analysis was to be Every age seems to have its "favorite" general, whether it replaced by a deductive (Hempelian) scientific procedure be George S. Patton, Napoleon Bonaparte or Alexander the which was itself by the 1950s already becoming somewhat Great, and in Agricola (A.D. 40-93), the Romans apparently discredited outside archaeology was an irony ignored by, or had their own paragon of military and civil virtue. Yet all unknown to, most of us. heroes have their hidden side, and in this splendid book W.S. Hanson, Lecturer in Archaeology at the University of Glas However, some prehistorians never accepted the inappro- gow, exposes Agricola for what he really was: a rather nonde priateness of historiographic methods in archaeology, and script governor of Britain whose single most important "feat" new approaches like postprocessual archaeology have revived was to have as his son-in-law the historian Tacitus, a man history's fortunes. Some prehistorians have rediscovered that whose biography made Agricola the stuff of legends. Combin historical analysis is a perfectly "scientific" way of doing busi ing a reanalysis of historical resources with the latest of ness, and that the use of this methodology does not necessari archaeological finds, Hanson is able to present a fundamental ly involve the "dangers" about which the processualists ly different picture of the historical Agricola. In so doing, he warned. both shows that archaeology need not always be subservient The first danger was that in remaining idiosyncratic, histori to history in understanding the historical past, and exemplifies cal explanation could not, by definition, apply itself to the sort the precise nature of historical enquiry, a feature which is of of generalizations which were deemed the real objectives of more than passing interest to archaeologists, as I shall discuss archaeological explanation. Secondly, the evaluation of the later on. explanation had to rely too heavily on an evaluation of the In all fairness to Tacitus, on whose shoulders most of the explainer, and this involved factors which were not at all scien burden of irresponsibility must fall, history at the close of the tific (e.g., the analyst's personal reputation, and his/her posi first century A.D. was rather different than it is today. For one tion and visibility within the academic community, etc.). thing, it was much more explicitly didactic, its purpose being These were valid complaints, had they been true. However, not only to document past events, but also to use them as a theoretical shifts in the last twenty-five years have shown them lesson for the present. This is very clearly seen in Tacitus' to be of less consequence than had first been thought. The treatment, in the Annals, of the Germans against whom the emergence in the mid-1970s of middle-range theory was a Romans had waged a protracted campaign. The Germans are tacit admission that things in the past were a lot more compli presented as Rousseau-like Noble Savages, in sharp contrast cated and that probably the definition of cross-cultural "laws" to the decadent and weak Romans who were, Tacitus implies, of human behavior was not feasible in the foreseeable future, committing a collective imperial suicide. if at all. In essence, a move to "explaining" more temporally It isn't really surprising, then, that Tacitus lavished the same and spatially restricted cultural phenomena became more sort of treatment on his father-in-law in a combination of his acceptable. Moreover, Hanson's "personality" does not get in tory, biography and funeral oration. Tacitus, as Hanson points the way of his arguments. His own objectives are clearly stat out, was further motivated by his enmity toward the Emperor ed, and it is perfectly possible to evaluate his arguments in the Domitian, who is implicated as having poisoned Agricola. light of the data. If his hypotheses are not stated as a "cold" According to Hanson, however, Tacitus just plain got it wrong, scientific procedure - i.e., listed with their various test implica presumably on purpose. In a very clearly written final chapter, tions - this is merely because of how history is written. It does Hanson argues that Tacitus embellished all of Agricola's sup not, by itself, mean that Hanson did not consider other expla posed military virtues. His reputation as a military genius is nations or fail to present them to the reader. A shift back to a shown to have relied both on Tacitus' deliberate vagueness historiographic mode of discourse might also make archaeolo and a victory at Mons Graupius which was virtually assured gy more interesting to read, not only for the general reader, given the overwhelming tactical and technological superiority but also for the professional. of the Romans. His apparently innovative coordination of I found a few small "typos" in the text which are a very marine and land operations had long been established prac minor source of irritation, and perhaps a glossary of technical tice. Finally, his claim to the "discovery" that Britain was an terms might enhance the book's enjoyment for the lay-reader. island was fallacious - this fact had long been known. The maps and photographs are clearly produced. The book is As much as the substantive arguments enthralled me, I was lightly written, but never loses its seriousness or the thread of intrigued even more by the implications that this type of his its argument. It provides a good example of how to combine torical analysis has for prehistoric archaeology. During the various sources of evidence into a single analysis, and I recom past two decades there has been much vitriol hurled at the use mend Hanson's book to anybody interested in this period of of historical methods in archaeological interpretation. In trying human history and the historical approach to understanding to make archaeology a science, some archaeologists, mostly the past.

• • •

department of Anthropology, Fort Lewis College, Durango, Colorado 81301, U.S.A.

19 FIELD TRIP PHOTOGRAPHS, SUFFIELD MILITARY BLOCK

by James Marshall1

Society members cross terrace surface near Cactus Flower site (EbOp-16). The site (middle right) extends back from a cutbank of the South Saskatchewan River. View to northeast.

Society members examine the Cactus Flower site (EbOp-16), where the old excavation pit is still open for examination. View to south, South Saskatchewan River beyond site. Annual meeting, April 1989.

J97 - 1 Street E., Medicine Hat, Alberta T1A 5J9. The photographs and captions presented here correct an error made in issue 19 of AAR, in which one photograph was mislabelled (by the Editor). The Editor apologizes to readers for transposing photographs.