The heroes of Greek mythology are so exceptional that they are more akin to the gods than mortal men. The undertakings and transgressions of heroes are significantly different to the everyday lives of classical Greeks. Heroes commonly overcome physical and mental boundaries; the hero has the ability to travel across realms and barriers that are widely viewed as impossible. In doing so, the deeds completed involve exploits far beyond normal, as they interact with a wide variety of objects, people, worlds and creatures which are in many cases divine and mystical. Like the gods, the heroes work towards keeping a balance between order and chaos. They worked together to control life on Earth, and the common people honoured and worshiped them for their accomplishments. Heroes demonstrate the morals and values of the Greek gods for the ordinary people. Many are favoured by the gods, and some achieve apotheosis. Heroes exemplify the connection between the mortal and the divine many have divine parentage and are classified as demi gods. Most have divine connections. The heroes of Greek mythology truly overcome the barrier of humanity; they illustrate the recurring nature of time and existence and the possibility of immortality.
Heroes commonly traverse barriers that are viewed as impossible for common people. They often transgress physical, geographical and cosmological boundaries, indicating their ability to move through realms that are normally impervious. One such idea that exemplifies this is the katabasis; the crossing between the boundaries of living and dead. Odysseus for example crosses this boundary between life and death and is able to reach home (Homer, Odyssey 11). The prophet Orpheus chooses to enter the underworld in order to bring his love, Eurydice, back to the world of the living (Euripides, Alcestis 357‐60). In crossing the barrier, the hero must often overcome challenges and mortal danger, but not necessarily by themselves. Heroes often obtain divine support or knowledge such as the directions given to Odysseus by the goddess Circe (Homer, Odyssey 10.503‐541), which is not available to the common man. Charles Segal argues that when he [Odysseus] and his men return to Circe, they are together called, alone of mortals twice dying; yet Odysseus alone among these returns to the land of the living, bringing his heavy burden of death back to the world of life.1 Odysseus, even though his men were also classified as “twice dying”, was the only ultimate survivor of the ordeal. Heroes must also make use of their strength or talents exceeding mortals in order to traverse this barrier. Including when Orpheus, with his music was able to “charm Demeter's daughter or her husband with song” (Euripides, Alcestis 359) – the only person to ever do so. The crossing to the underworld can quite literally be seen as the ultimate barrier between life and death. Heroes such as Heracles are able to move between the worlds with freedom, and even passing through the underworld is a feat beyond most mortals. The heroes who demonstrate the ability to transgress normal boundaries bridge the gap between gods and men.
The deeds of heroes often involve feats beyond normal capacity and interaction with divine, monstrous or fantastical creatures and worlds far‐removed from everyday experience. Most heroes have some sort of divine connection to the gods. The gods may aid or work to undermine the heroes’ actions. Achilles in one of his battles with the Trojans comes up against the mighty force of the Xanthus River (Homer, Iliad 21). This is a fight that Achilles cannot win alone, and with divine intervention from Athena and Poseidon he can now outrun the river (Homer, Iliad 21.327 ‐ 64). This entire scene sees the hero’s triumph over the elements and according to Mueller “a spectacular
1 Odysseus’ voyage is the triumph of life over death see Segal (1994), 42‐4 extension of natural causality”2, reinforcing the sheer supernatural power of the scene. Whitman states that “Achilles has proved through the activities of Zeus that his head is in Olympus [and] that his honour is from Zeus”3. The heroes’ interaction with the divine demonstrates that the heroes represent the gods and some of their traits are reflected by this. Suzanne Said comments that “Athena intervenes most frequently to inspire thoughts in men that enable them to escape from difficulties.”4 Odysseus would have died if not for Athena, who: “put a thought in his mind. On he rushed and seized the rock with both hands” (Homer, Odyssey 5.427‐8). The gods certainly have a direct influence over heroes’ lives as opposed to mortal men, which allows them to complete miraculous deeds. This connection with divine or otherworldly creatures is exemplified through monsters. There are countless examples of heroes outwitting or defeating monsters. Odysseus uses his cunning to escape from the Cyclops (Homer, Odyssey 9) and Scylla (Homer, Odyssey 12). Hercules during his 12 labours must defeat a wide variety of mythical creatures including the Hydra (Apollodorus 2.5.1). The quest is the ultimate test for a hero, and is the basis of their mythology. Conquering a monster was often a main focal point for heroic quests. Anyone who is cunning, strong or brave enough to complete the epic quest was honoured above all common men.
Like the gods, the heroes worked together to control life on Earth and to keep a balance of order and chaos. The common people honoured and worshiped them for their deeds. Heroes such as Heracles were worshiped as the divine protector of mankind. He had a large number of shrines and festivals were celebrated in his honour. Hercules was worshiped both as a god and a hero (Herodotus 2.44.5). Sacrifices were offered to them, showing the level of devotion the common people had for the heroes. Achilles, Hector and other heroes of the Trojan War were also viewed as strong battle commanders, worthy of respect from all parties. Achilles myrmidon are the epitome of this. The myrmidon are a feared force that is loyal to Achilles above everyone else. Achilles when rallying his troops: “aroused the strength and spirit of every man, and yet closer were their ranks serried when they heard their king” (Homer, Iliad 16.210‐2.15). This shows the deep underlying respect and honor they have for their leader, who they value above all other men. When Odysseus visited Hades (Homer, Odyssey 12) he met Achilles (Homer, Odyssey 11.465), who ruled the dead as he had commanded troops in life. Even before his death, we learn that Achilles was worshipped as a god (Homer Odyssey, Book 11.479). The countless examples of hero veneration and cult worship show that the common people view heroes as something greater than human. The common people learn and try to emulate the heroes’ morals and actions. They worship, honour and love the heroes as both men and gods.
Heroes demonstrate the morals and values of the Greek gods for the common people. The stories of the heroes are littered with lessons that the common people can learn from. These include moral lessons about how one should act or behave in certain situations and lessons about how or why certain things are. Charles Segal argues that Odysseus teaches the Cyclops a moral lesson: that “the evil deeds were bound to recoil back upon him because he did not revere the laws of guest friendship.”5 Thus Zeus and the other gods have punished him (Homer, Odyssey 9.447‐79). Odysseus
2 Mueller argues that this scene shows the hero’s triumph over the elements and an indulgence into the supernatural see Mueller (1984), 129 3 Whitman argues that at the beginning of Book XVI, Achilles touches the gods see Whitman (1958), 196 4 Said (2011), 328 5 Segal (1994), 202 is demonstrating the necessity to follow the god’s way of living. And through his [Polyphemus] encounter with Odysseus, he moves towards a world where higher moral normal comes into play.6 Beye furthers this, stating that Odysseus is “humble in his understanding of the powers which hold man.7 Odysseus understands and respects the god’s power, and is trying to demonstrate this to the common man. This idea is further reinforced when Odysseus confronts the suitors (Homer, Odyssey 22). The gods punish the group for the crimes committed by one of its members and pay no heed to attenuating circumstances, nor do they feel pity.8 The same applies to the suitors since Amphinomus and Leiodes are not spared; Odysseus rejects Leiodes’ prayers (Homer, Odyssey 22.310‐29). The heroes show that they follow the code given by the gods. On their quests they teach others the values and morals that are passed to them by the gods own way of living. This shows that the heroes are examples of how the gods would act and behave in certain situations. The heroes model their actions on the gods, rather than mortal man.
Many heroes have a divine connection which closely ties them to the gods. All heroes, regardless of parentage have some sort of connection to the gods, whether it is favour, or incurring wrath. Heroes such Heracles, who is the son of Zeus, and Achilles who is the son of the nymph Thetis, are classified as demigods. The greatest heroes achieve apotheosis through the god’s blessings. Odysseus is one such hero who has an intimate connection due to his similarities to Athena. The gods often have protégés whom they help or direct. Athena herself states about her and Odysseus: “being both well versed in craft, since thou art far the best of all men in counsel and in speech, and I among all the gods am famed for wisdom and craft.” (Homer, Odyssey 13.296‐9). In the Odyssey, Suzanne Said explains that the special relationship is explained by the similarities between a hero and a goddess who both excel in cunning and intelligence.”9 Many other heroes have regular interactions with the gods, when incurring help, or for negative consequences such as when Hector, in his battle with Achilles is tricked by Athena into stopping and facing him (Homer, Iliad 22.229‐47). This relationship between hero and god further distances the hero from common mankind. No normal mortal who isn’t in possession of desirable heroic traits or attributes would have such a connection to the divine. Whitman argues that “[the] heroic nature partakes of the absolute qualities of divinity itself”10. This shows that the heroes have deep underlying connections to the immortals. The heroes embody the qualities of the gods, often they are the direct offspring of gods, or are descent from them. The bonds between heroes and gods are linked in numerous ways and reflect on the divine nature of the heroes themselves.
The similarities between the heroes of Greek mythology and the gods are numerous and diverse. Heroes commonly traverse barriers that would be impossible for mortal men. Social, geographical or cosmological boundaries that take heroes to supernatural places filled with a diverse range of mythological creatures and people. These journeys often are perilous, and the hero must demonstrate their strength, knowledge and cunning that exceeds the mortal man. Heroes may have
6 Segal argues that whether he [Polyphemus] acknowledges Zeus or not (Homer, Odyssey 9.275‐79), he eventually gets judged and punished according to a world order defined by the justice of Zeus see Segal (1994), 202 7 Beye (1972), 203 8 Suzanne Said states that “the gods want us to remember their commandments” see Said (2011), 345 9 Said (2011), 346 10 Whitman argues that “parallels can be found in epic literature to valor represented by Homer. For example the ideal hero, the crafty hero” see Whitman (1958), 155 the support of other supernatural deities when confronting these challenges. Some heroes have the direct support of gods or other powerful unearthly beings and many are directly connected to the gods by birth or by action. Their journeys teach mortals the values and beliefs upheld by the gods. The common people understand and respect the power of the hero, and worship them. The hero is truly akin to the gods. Many achieve immortality and live out their days amongst the gods. Heroes’ names are remembered through all the ages.
Bibliography
Primary Texts: Apollodorus Library trans. James Frazer (1921) located at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0022
Euripides Alcestis trans. David Kovacs (1994) located at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0088
Herodotus The Histories trans. A.D Godley (1920)
Located at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0126
Homer Iliad trans. A.T. Murray (1924) located at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0134
Homer Odyssey trans. A.T. Murray (1919) located at: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0136
Secondary Texts: Whitman, Cedric H. Homer and the heroic tradition (Harvard, 1958)
Segal, Charles. Singers, Heroes, and Gods in the Odyssey (New York, 1994)
Beye, Charles R. The Iliad, the Odyssey and the Epic Tradition (New York, 1972)
Said, Suzanne. Homer and the Odyssey (Oxford, 2011)
Mueller, Martin. The Iliad (London, 1984)