Circular Motion, Contrariety, and Aristotle's Unwinding Spheres
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The Ptolemaic System Claudius Ptolemy
Putting it All Together: The Ptolemaic System Claudius Ptolemy (c. 90 - c. 168 CE) • Librarian at Alexandria • “The Great Treatise” & “The Almagest” (to the 12th Century) The Ptolemaic System: Objectives Wanted: A Model to explain the observed apparent motions of the Sun, Moon, Planets, and the Celestial Sphere. The Model should explain related phenomena such as the lunar phases, eclipses, and planetary brightness variation. The Model should be capable of accurately predicting these phenomena. (When? Where? Details?) The Model is geostatic, geocentric, and uses only uniform circular motions. (cf., the Aristotelian doctrines and the Aristarchian heresy.) The Ptolemaic System Observations • The apparent rotation of the Celestial Sphere • The annual motion of the Sun along the ecliptic • The monthly motion of the Moon The lunar phases and the synodic month Lunar and Solar Eclipses • The motions of the planets on the celestial sphere Direct and retrograde motions Planetary brightness variations Periodicities: The synodic periods Assumptions • A Geostatic cosmology (The Earth does not move.) • Uniform Circular motions (It is a “perfect” universe.) Approaches • The offsets and epicycles introduced by Hipparchus The Ptolemaic System For Inferior Planets (Mercury Venus) Deferent Period is 1 Year; Epicyclic period is the Synodic Period For Superior Planets (Mars, Jupiter, Saturn) Deferent Period is the Synodic period; Epicyclic Period is 1 year The Ptolemaic System (“To Scale”) Note: Indicated motions are with respect to the Celestial Sphere AGAIN: Problems with the Ptolemaic System Recollect the assumptions • The Earth doesn’t move (“geostatic”) • The Earth is at the center of the universe (“geocentric”) • All motions are circular (... or combinations thereof) • All motions are uniform (.. -
Thinking Outside the Sphere Views of the Stars from Aristotle to Herschel Thinking Outside the Sphere
Thinking Outside the Sphere Views of the Stars from Aristotle to Herschel Thinking Outside the Sphere A Constellation of Rare Books from the History of Science Collection The exhibition was made possible by generous support from Mr. & Mrs. James B. Hebenstreit and Mrs. Lathrop M. Gates. CATALOG OF THE EXHIBITION Linda Hall Library Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering and Technology Cynthia J. Rogers, Curator 5109 Cherry Street Kansas City MO 64110 1 Thinking Outside the Sphere is held in copyright by the Linda Hall Library, 2010, and any reproduction of text or images requires permission. The Linda Hall Library is an independently funded library devoted to science, engineering and technology which is used extensively by The exhibition opened at the Linda Hall Library April 22 and closed companies, academic institutions and individuals throughout the world. September 18, 2010. The Library was established by the wills of Herbert and Linda Hall and opened in 1946. It is located on a 14 acre arboretum in Kansas City, Missouri, the site of the former home of Herbert and Linda Hall. Sources of images on preliminary pages: Page 1, cover left: Peter Apian. Cosmographia, 1550. We invite you to visit the Library or our website at www.lindahlll.org. Page 1, right: Camille Flammarion. L'atmosphère météorologie populaire, 1888. Page 3, Table of contents: Leonhard Euler. Theoria motuum planetarum et cometarum, 1744. 2 Table of Contents Introduction Section1 The Ancient Universe Section2 The Enduring Earth-Centered System Section3 The Sun Takes -
Max Planck Institute for the History of Science Aristotle And
MAX-PLANCK-INSTITUT FÜR WISSENSCHAFTSGESCHICHTE Max Planck Institute for the History of Science 2012 PREPRINT 422 TOPOI – Towards a Historical Epistemology of Space Pietro Daniel Omodeo, Irina Tupikova Aristotle and Ptolemy on Geocentrism: Diverging Argumentative Strategies and Epistemologies TOPOI – TOWARDS A HISTORICAL EPISTEMOLOGY OF SPACE The TOPOI project cluster of excellence brings together researchers who investigate the formation and transformation of space and knowledge in ancient civilizations and their later developments. The present preprint series presents the work of members and fellows of the research group Historical Epistemology of Space which is part of the TOPOI cluster. The group is based on a cooperation between the Humboldt University and the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science in Berlin and commenced work in September 2008. Contents 1 Introduction 1 2 Aristotle 5 2.1 Aristotle’s confrontation with the cosmologies of his prede- cessors . 6 2.2 Aristotle’s presentation of his own views . 9 3 Ptolemy 15 3.1 The heavens move like a sphere . 16 3.2 The Earth, taken as a whole, is sensibly spherical . 24 3.3 The Earth is in the middle of the heavens . 24 3.4 The Earth has the ratio of a point to the heavens . 32 3.5 The Earth does not have any motion from place to place . 33 4 Conclusions and perspectives 37 Chapter 1 Introduction This paper aims at a comparison of the different argumentative strategies employed by Aristotle and Ptolemy in their approaches to geocentrism through an analysis of their discussion of the centrality of the Earth in De caelo II, 13-14 and Almagest, I, 3-7. -
OR GREAT BOOK. Figure 10 Explains the Cosmographic System of The
36 THE "ALMAGEST" OR GREAT BOOK. Figure 10 explains the cosmographic system of the same astronomer. In the centre we see the Earth, externally surrounded by fire [which is precisely opposite to the truth, according to the fundamental principles of modern geology; but the reader will understand that we are not attempting here to expose the errors of Ptolemaus; we confine ourselves to a description of his system]. Above the Earth spreads the first crystalline heaven, which carries and conveys the Moon. In the second and third crystal heavens the planets Mercury and Venus respectively describe their epicycles. The fourth heaven belongs to the Sun ; wherein it traverses the circle known as the ecliptic. The three last celestial spheres include Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Beyond these planets shines the heaven of the fixed stars. It rotates upon itself from east to west, with an inconceivable rapidity and an incalculable force of impulsion, for it is this which sets in motion all the fabulous machine. Ptolemaus places on the extreme confines of his vast Whole the eternal abode of the blessed. Thrice happy they in having no further cause to concern themselves %I c r ~NT about so terrible a system ; a system far from transparent, notwithstand ing all its crystal! S The treatise in which the Greek SU N X astronomer summed up his labours r _N_U remained for generations in high ( favour with the learned, and especi r F; r ally with the Arabs, whose privilegp and renown it is to have preserved intact the precious deposit of the sciences, when the Europe of the N - twelfth and thirteenth centuries was plunged in the night-shadows of the profoundest ignorance. -
Historical Astronomy
Historical Astronomy (Neolithic record of Moon Phases) Introduction Arguably the history of astronomy IS the history of science. Many cultures carried out astronomical observations. However, very few formed mathematical or physical models based on their observations. It is those that did that we will focus on here, primarily the Babylonians and Greeks. Other Examples At the same time, that focus should not cause us to forget the impressive accomplishments of other cultures. Other Examples ∼ 2300 year old Chankillo Big Horn Medicine Wheel, Observatory, near Lima, Wyoming Peru Other Examples Chinese Star Map - Chinese records go back over 4000 Stonehenge, England years Babylonian Astronomy The story we will follow in more detail begins with the Babylonians / Mesopotamians / Sumerians, the cultures that inhabited the “fertile crescent.” Babylonian Astronomy Their observations and mathematics was instrumental to the development of Greek astronomy and continues to influence science today. They were the first to provide a mathematical description of astronomical events, recognize that astronomical events were periodic, and to devise a theory of the planets. Babylonian Astronomy Some accomplishments: • The accurate prediction of solar and lunar eclipses. • They developed mathematical models to predict the motions of the planets. • Accurate star charts. • Recognized the changing apparent speed of the Sun’s motion. • Developed models to account for the changing speed of the Sun and Moon. • Gave us the idea of 360◦ in a circle, 600 in a degree, 6000 in a minute. Alas, only very fragmentary records of their work survives. Early Greek The conquests of Alexander the Great are oen credited with bringing knowl- edge of the Babylonians science and mathematics to the Greeks. -
Philoponus on the Nature of the Heavens and the Movement of Elements in Against Aristotle on the Eternity of the World
_full_journalsubtitle: Journal of Patrology and Critical Hagiography _full_abbrevjournaltitle: SCRI _full_ppubnumber: ISSN 1817-7530 (print version) _full_epubnumber: ISSN 1817-7565 (online version) _full_issue: 1 _full_issuetitle: 0 _full_alt_author_running_head (change var. to _alt_author_rh): Varlamova _full_alt_articletitle_running_head (change var. to _alt_arttitle_rh): Philoponus on the Nature of the Heavens _full_alt_articletitle_toc: 0 _full_is_advance_article: 0 446 Scrinium 14 (2018) 446-461 Varlamova www.brill.com/scri Philoponus on the Nature of the Heavens and the Movement of Elements in Against Aristotle on the Eternity of the World Maria Varlamova Saint Petersburg State University of Aerospace Instrumentation [email protected] Abstract This paper deals with the John Philoponus' arguments against the eternity of the heav- ens in context of the dispute against the eternity of the world. The theory of eternity of the heavens was defended by Aristotle in his Physics and in the 1st book On the Heavens. In his treatise On Eternity of the World against Aristotle Philoponus attacks the argu- ments of Aristotle in order to prove the essential finititude of the heavens. The Philoponus' arguments are related to the nature and motion of elements and especially to the nature of fire. In order to explore the Philoponus' arguments against Aristotle I compare his doctrine with the Aristotle's theories of elemental nature and celestial motion. Keywords eternity of the heavens – elements – aether – fire – movement – Philoponus – Aristotle * The present study is a part of the project Nr. 16-03-00047, “Nature and movement in the ‘Commentaryon the Physics of Aristotle’ by Michael Psellos. Study of the influence of the late antique tradition, of the correlation between physics and the Orthodox theology, and of the reception in the later Peripatetic physics”, implemented with a financial support of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research. -
A Presocratics Reader
2. THE MILESIANS Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes were all from the city of Miletus in Ionia (now the western coast of Turkey) and make up what is referred to as the Milesian “school” of philosophy. Tradition reports that Thales was the teacher of Anaximander, who in turn taught Anaximenes. Aristotle begins his account of the history of philosophy as the search for causes and principles (in Metaphysics I) with these three. 2.1. Thales Thales appears on lists of the seven sages of Greece, a traditional catalog of wise men. The chronicler Apollodorus suggests that he was born around 625 BCE. We should accept this date only with caution, as Apollodorus usually calculated birthdates by assuming that a man was forty years old at the time of his “acme,” or greatest achievement. Thus, Apollodorus arrives at the date by assuming that Thales indeed predicted an eclipse in 585 BCE, and was forty at the time. Plato and Aristotle tell stories about Thales that show that even in ancient times philosophers had a mixed reputation for practicality. 1. (11A9) They say that once when Thales was gazing upwards while doing astronomy, he fell into a well, and that a witty and charming Thracian serving-girl made fun of him for being eager to know the things in the heavens but failing to notice what was just behind him and right by his feet. (Plato, Theaetetus 174a) 2. (11A10) The story goes that when they were reproaching him for his poverty, supposing that philosophy is useless, he learned from his astronomy that the olive crop would be large. -
Proof of Geocentric Theory E
Proof of geocentric theory E. A. Abdo Abstract: Rejected by modern science, the geocentric theory (in Greek, ge means earth), which maintained that Earth was the center of the universe, dominated ancient and medieval science. It seemed evident to early astronomers that the rest of the universe moved about a stable, motionless Earth. The Sun, Moon, planets, and stars could be seen moving about Earth along circular paths day after day. It appeared reasonable to assume that Earth was stationary, for nothing seemed to make it move. Furthermore, the fact that objects fall toward Earth provided what was perceived as support for the geocentric theory. Finally, geocentrism was in accordance with the theocentric (God-centered) world view, dominant in in the Middle Ages, when science was a subfield of theology. Introduction: The geocentric model created by Greek astronomers assumed that the celestial bodies moving about the Earth followed perfectly circular paths. This was not a random assumption: the circle was regarded by Greek mathematicians and philosophers as the perfect geometric figure and consequently the only one appropriate for celestial motion. However, as astronomers observed, the patterns of celestial motion were not constant. The Moon rose about an hour later from one day to the next, and its path across the sky changed from month to month. The Sun's path, too, changed with time, and even the configuration of constellations changed from season to season. These changes could be explained by the varying rates at which the celestial bodies revolved around the Earth. However, the planets (which got their name from the Greek word planetes, meaning wanderer and subject of error), behaved in ways that were difficult to explain. -
The First Solvay: 350 BC Aristotle's Assault on Plato
The First Solvay: 350 BC Aristotle’s Assault on Plato by Susan J. Kokinda May 11—If one looks at the principles embedded in stein’s relativity, Planck’s quantum. and Vernadsky’s Plato’s scientific masterwork,Timaeus , especially from noösphere. But in the immediate foreground was Philo- the vantage point of the work of Einstein and Verna- laus of Croton (in Italy), the earliest Pythagorean from dsky in the Twentieth Century, one can understand why whom any fragments survive. (Fortunately, Philolaus the oligarchy had to carry out a brutal assault on Plato himself survived the arson-murder of most of the and his Academy, an assault led by Aristotle, which ul- second generation of Pythagoreans in Croton, and relo- timately resulted in the imposition of Euclid’s mind- cated to Greece.) In the footprints of those fragments deadening geometry on the world, and the millennia- walks the Timaeus. long set-back of Western civilization. Philolaus’ fragments are like a prelude to the inves- That the oligarchical enemy of mankind responds tigations which fill theTimaeus . And so, astronomy, ge- with brute force to those philosophers and scientists, ometry, and harmony were at the core of the work of who act on the basis of human creativity, was captured Plato’s Academy. Indeed, every member was given the in the opening of Aeschylus’ great tragedy, “Prometheus assignment of developing an hypothesis to account for Bound.” On orders from Zeus, the Olympian ruler, the motions of the heavenly bodies. Kratos (might) and Bios (force) oversaw Prometheus’ And it is to Philolaus that Johannes Kepler refers, in punishment. -
Mathematics and Cosmology in Plato's Timaeus
apeiron 2021; aop Andrew Gregory* Mathematics and Cosmology in Plato’s Timaeus https://doi.org/10.1515/apeiron-2020-0034 Published online March 18, 2021 Abstract: Plato used mathematics extensively in his account of the cosmos in the Timaeus, but as he did not use equations, but did use geometry, harmony and according to some, numerology, it has not been clear how or to what effect he used mathematics. This paper argues that the relationship between mathematics and cosmology is not atemporally evident and that Plato’s use of mathematics was an open and rational possibility in his context, though that sort of use of mathematics has subsequently been superseded as science has progressed. I argue that there is a philosophically and historically meaningful space between ‘primitive’ or unre- flective uses of mathematics and the modern conception of how mathematics relates to cosmology. Plato’s use of mathematics in the Timaeus enabled the cosmos to be as good as it could be, allowed the demiurge a rational choice (of which planetary orbits and which atomic shapes to instantiate) and allowed Timaeus to give an account of the cosmos (where if the demiurge did not have such a rational choice he would not have been able to do so). I also argue that within this space it is both meaningful and important to differentiate between Pythagorean and Platonic uses of number and that we need to reject the idea of ‘Pythagorean/ Platonic number mysticism’. Plato’s use of number in the Timaeus was not mystical even though it does not match modern usage. -
Hestia: the Indo-European Goddess of the Cosmic Central Fire
Hestia: The Indo-European Goddess of the Cosmic Central Fire Marcello De Martino Abstract: The Pythagorean Philolaus of Croton (470-390 BCE) created a unique model of the Universe and he placed at its centre a ‘fire’, around which the spheres of the Earth, the Counter-Earth, the five planets, the Sun, the Moon and the outermost sphere of fixed stars, also viewed as fire but of an ‘aethereal’ kind, were revolving. This system has been considered as a step towards the heliocentric model of Aristarchus of Samos (310-230 BCE), the astronomical theory opposed to the geocentric system, which already was the communis opinio at that time and would be so for many centuries to come: but is that really so? In fact, comparing the Greek data with those of other ancient peoples of Indo-European language, it can be assumed that the ‘pyrocentric’ system is the last embodiment of a theological tradition going back to ancient times: Hestia, the central fire, was the descendant of an Indo-European goddess of Hearth placed at the centre of the religious and mythological view of a deified Cosmos where the gods were essentially personifications of atmospheric phenomena and of celestial bodies. In 1960, an article came out in a scientific journal which specialised in topics which were a bit more eccentric that those of traditional research studies on the history of religions, especially the classical ones. Its title was On the Relation between Early Greek Scientific Thought and Mysticism: Is Hestia, the Central Fire, an Abstract Astronomical Concept?.1 The author was Rudolph E. -
Cicero on the Philosophy of Religion
CICERO ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION: DE NATURA DEORUM AND DE DIVINATIONE. A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by John Patrick Frederick Wynne January 2008 CICERO ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION: DE NATURA DEORUM AND DE DIVINATIONE. John Patrick Frederick Wynne, Ph. D. Cornell University, 2008 Cicero wrote de Natura Deorum (dND), de Divinatione (Div.) and de Fato (Fat.) in succession and describes the latter two as continuations of the first. I argue that the three dialogues form a trilogy, in which Cicero as author indicates a stance on the material he presents (but that too little of the fragmentary Fat. remains to be useful for my purposes). There are much-debated attributions of preferences to Cicero’s propriae personae at the conclusions of dND and Div.; I take these preferences to express Cicero’s authorial stance. I examine relevant parts of the speeches to which they react and, first, make philosophical interpretations of each (often comparing other sources for Hellenistic thought) and, second, pay attention to the interaction of Cicero’s characterization of each speaker with the arguments the speaker gives. I find that Balbus in dND advocates the avoidance of superstition and the reform of religious beliefs in line with Stoic physics and that Cotta has a strong commitment to traditional Roman religious views consistent with his sceptical epistemology. Cotta’s scepticism is elusive in its details but perhaps yields a kind of fideism. I find that Quintus Cicero’s advocacy in Div.