Managing the Microclimate

Managing the Microclimate27 Practical Note Spate Irrigation Note Spate Practical Practical Note #27 2 Managing the Microclimate The Brundtland Report, 1987 The Brundtland Report, and regional climate scenarios, microclimates in microclimates scenarios, and regional climate landscapes are almost entirely unstudied (Chen et al. 1999). is little chanceThere future near in the humans that will be able to modify the climate, most notably temperatures, on any 2015). when However, large zooming in on landscapes scale (Gliessman there them, within systems agro-ecological the and large a that extent the to done, be can muchthat is share of the effects of global climate change can be buffered by gained has resilience of Resilience the landscape. building the microclimatic much importanceoverarchingan as in the concept the and interactions human-environment of analysis environmental by affected are humans which in way change processes (Janssen Holling (1973) was the first to introduce & resilience Ostrom in 2006). relation to the Resilience Alliance defined stability it as of “the capacity of ecosystems. collapsing without disturbance tolerate to system a The controlled is that state different qualitatively a into by a different set of processes. A resilient system can withstand shocks & Salt 2006). necessary” (Walker and rebuild itself when This Practical Note interaction between different microclimate factors seeks to and also understand aims to offer examples the of microclimate is interventions. Microclimate management composed out of a myriad of climatic conditions in localised areas on the earth’s that come together recognise to critical is It 1999). al. et (Chen surface the unique nature of zones, such as microclimate forests and fields, and the influence of different of such zones on landscape processes. In the end, determining is a in ecological factor microclimate and regeneration plant as varied as processes wildlife and cycling, nutrient respiration, soil growth, habitat, and is related to the spread of diseases, insects and natural disturbances such as fire. The scales to space term is often applied microclimate the mesoclimate by up to 100 m, which is followed 2008). up to 100 km (Foken that has a range In the first their relationships are discussed. components and section, the management part, In the second microclimate various microclimate potential interventions have are listed that together transform functions and to affect productive landscapes. 1 Figure 1: various climateFigure 1: various scales and associated 2008) Foken phenomena (Source: In the global climate change debate, adaptation adaptation changeclimate global In the debate, The concepts. dominant are mitigation and challenge is to create production systems that can withstand rising temperature and weather exacerbating events, while finding ways to sequester carbon from the air. go Meanwhile, microclimates largely view unobserved of the and climate this unattended. change is a that huge In exists missed today, opportunity. offers muchmanagement potential as a third Micro-climate to next adaptation way and mitigation that builds ecosystem resilience and brings positive for agricultural impact systems and biodiversity. Focusing on the microclimate is global to Compared landscape. the improve to a pro-active approach When changes are made in a landscape, changes When changeslandscape, in a made are When farmers plant to the microclimate. are made communities when and field, their around or in trees change they retention, water improve to bunds dig is them. Microclimate the local climate around a result of the topography, landscape interaction characteristics between the and regional climate. local the 1. Building resilience1. Building microclimate through management “When the century began, neither human numbers nor technology had the power radically to alter planetary to radically nor technology the power had the century“When numbers human neither began, have and their activities that numbers increased human do vastly not only century As the systems. closes, plants and among in waters, soils, in unintended changesoccurring in the atmosphere, are but major, power, the relationships and in of among all animals, The rate these. of change the ability is outstripping of scientific and our current capabilitiesdisciplines and advise.” to assess Practical Note #27 factors, and how these can influence each other each influence can the these how and factors, of overview these of Understanding the maincharacteristics an provides various themicroclimate. factorsthatdetermine section This pestsanddiseases. the occurrenceof and biota soil nitrogen by fixate to capacity life, biotic soil of vigour the germination, and growth plant for temperatures actual the frost, of and dew presence the ecosystems, different the to air microclimate the moisture available The determines in the soil and retention. water and use land vegetation, by conditions, soil landscape, determined specific the are again These 2008). surface (Foken underlying the of effects and processes radiation exchange, matter and energy as such layer, surface the in processes different between Microclimates are the localised, dynamic interplays components 2. Microclimate Figure 2: Microclimate components andinterlinkages (Source MetaMeta, 2016) Figure 2:Microclimate 2 4 shows the soil different that types are of formed Figure 2015). (Gliessman soil the in particles sand bydetermined canresult is the relative clay, Textureamount of silt and moisture. of movement that and loss heat the in of transfer and the capacity influences storage water its determines soil a of texture The matter activity. biological organic and content depth, determined structure, is texture, again its which by soil, a to water of addition the and capacity waterstoragesoil’s the by determined is cropsfor available moisture Soil 2.1 Soilmoisture implemented for currentandfutureneeds. be better can interventions how and landscape, different management practices can transform the provides the building blocks for understanding how Managing the Microclimate Speed Quick Medium Slow Capillary rise (in cm) 20 - 50 50 - 80 80 - several meters Soil texture Coarse (sand) Medium Fine (clay) Table 2: Capillary (Brouwer rise range Source: et Table al. 1985) infiltration and increase runoff, thereby decreasing thereby increase runoff, and infiltration availability. water Soil texture, soil organic matter activity at the and surface and in the ground, together biological form the soil structure. The structure is related to the formation of micro- and macro-aggregates, being the ways in which structure A good help resist can the are held together. different particles wind as erosion, and as well water increase water percolation and storage moisture retention soil’s the addition, In 2015). capacity (Gliessman capacity is influenced by itsorganic content. improves content carbon An organic the in increase the retention water capacity when soils are sandy, while it decreases the water retention capacity in fine-textured soils such clay. as For soils ofincrease an content, carbon initial high with an organic carbon increases their water retention in capacity any case (Rawls, 2003). Thus, an organic matter increase can in be beneficial, especially for coarse soils. The type of important soil effect on and erosion. soil Sandy are thus more susceptible to and clump together, soils moisture hardly have an erosion. Silt and clay soils on the other hand form smaller of up made are They aggregates. stronger important an plays moisture Soil however. particles helps to reduce soil particles, and in bonding role wind erosion. 3 Figure 3: Sowbug entering its hole (Source: Kowsar 2009) Kowsar entering its hole (Source: Figure 3: Sowbug erosion erosion than other soils in the area. In the Gareh Bygone plains, their role is essential in forming macro-networks, and facilitating soil moisture rechargeand groundwater rates (MetaMeta 2011). This allows water users in the floodplains to period of the year. during a prolonged available have groundwater Water holding capacity Low Medium High Pore size Pore Large Medium Small 0.05 - 2 0.002 - 0.05 < 0.002 Size (mm) Size Sowbugs are crustaceans, 20 - 25 mm long and 5 mm wide, that are common to the arid flood spreading spreading flood arid the to common are that wide, mm 5 and long mm 25 - 20 crustaceans, are Sowbugs areas of Iran, such as the Gareh Bygone plains. are They ecosystem engineers as can they change the soil structure by altering the soil compaction through the creation of pore spaces that allow for better water infiltration.By burrowing in the soil, sowbugs ensure that soils in floodplains are not sealedfine by sediment. They help to aerate the soil and provide avenuesfor soil infiltration of Soil water. that are burrowed by the sowbug have higher organic matter, better structure, and are more resistant to Box 1: Soil moisture availability and sowbugs Soil moisture 1: and sowbugs availability Box Sand Silt Clay Particle Clay Clay particles are the smallest particles, have the most potential have highest surface area, and to absorb water. Sand has the largest particlesand the lowest water absorption capacity (Bonan 2016). Thus, sandy soils will usually have moisture lower availability and a harden can soils clay However, higher soils. clay than rate evaporation in drought-prone areas, which will decrease from these relative amounts. These particles amounts. each relative these from uptake the influence that properties different have of and heat. and the transfer of energy water Figure 4: Soil texture classificationFigure 4: Soil texture scheme (Source: Gliessman 2015 Table 1: Soil particle characteristics Bonan (Source: Table 2016) Practical Note #27 Chilling tales2016) inthesoil(Source: water Figure 5:Capillary Vacher 2003) withinthesukakollusFigure 7:Evening andnighttemperature outside(pampa)(Source: Lhomme& theraisedfields(Source: AgriculturesNetwork2013) Figure 6:Functioningof while in the suka kollus, the temperature laid between 11.5 - 18 In the study, the diurnal temperature range for the pampas was found to be between 10.7 - 20 - 10.7 between be to found was pampas the for range temperature diurnal study,the the In soil temperature in the suka kollus shows lower temperature variability in relation to the pampas system. The 7. figure in (2003) Vacher & byLhomme described is This differences. temperature present areas surrounding and fields raised depth, and humidity coverage,soil plant texture, soil the of Depending relative humidityby 3.3percent,comparedtothesurrounding plains. the crops (Lhomme & Vacher 2003). According to Roldán and colleagues (2004) the moisture raises the The stored heat is released at night, generating will moisture be which available as condensed water to fields.raised between the canals the waterin the stored up heat bysunlight the achieved letting is This buffer against prevailing nightfrost, andprovide moisturefor crops. a water as water, act with filled when fields, the around canals The 2011). al. et (Lombardo societies found, being in an flood-proneagricultural technique mountain plains that were used by pre-Columbian From the Andes to Amazonia, raised fields known as Suka Kollus (Bolivia) and Waru-Waru (Peru) can be Box intheAndes practices 2:Microclimate temperatures of sukakollus’ soilsimprovetemperatures of their resilience against extreme climates. 4 trcs epr ae mlcls Smlry plant Similarly, molecules. water deeper attracts surface soil the at created is that waterdeficit the as action, capillary upwardswaterthrough draws percolation. Evaporation from thesoilsurface soil downwards,called water the upper pulls gravity layers, the saturates water irrigation. infiltrated or Once precipitation from soil a to water of addition the is Infiltration lifting.hydraulic and transpiration evaporation, percolation, infiltration, The movement waterof in the soil is determined by action Capillary o C (Angelo et al. 2008). The moderate o C, Managing the Microclimate Figure 8: Albedo effect from croplands croplands from Figure 8: Albedo effect et Jackson (B) (Source: (A) and forests al. 2008) plant plant growth, but also affects weather and patterns local rainfall patterns. On the when contrary, there is only limited soil moisture more energy is available for sensible heating and near-surface decade, In the past increase. air temperatures been muchthere has research the relationship on occurrence the and moisture lackofsoil a between of extreme temperatures and heat waves, both at the local and regional scale (Seneviratne et al. also moisture soil of influence balancing The 2010). counts for low temperatures as well, as wet events. frost soils during soils dry than longer warm stay of level When a good soil moisture is available soil biotic life can prevail. Micro-organisms break down organic matter and release nutrients, which contributes to soil fertility. Optimal conditions are met when moisture takes up around 60 percent of water of excess An space. pore water available the prevents the supply of oxygen, which microbial activity can to stop, slow, or lead turn anaerobic, which will have negative effects on regular with plant areas growth in Hence, 2005b). Benites & (Bot flooding,proper drainage is required to ensure good soil fertility. Furthermore, excess water can cause nutrients to be lost due to leeching. On the other hand, low moisture levels decrease enzyme activity, which will processes. Nitrogen cycling is especially affected, hamper nutrient already releasing being a limiting nutrient 2005). (Sardans & Peñuelas in many soils 2.2 Soil temperature Soil temperature is radiation, determined and thermal by capacity of the conductivity soil. incoming The extent to which incoming and heat radiation is absorbed or by reflected is influenced soil colour. Darker soil tends to absorb a higher fraction of solar radiation, while lighter soils tend to reflect radiation and to be cooler. Thermal 5 Soil moisture conductivity thermal The is determinants. microclimate one of and heat capacity of the the soil is greatly increased most when important soil moisture of process is the transferring Evapotranspiration is present water from the surface (Bona heating to to the compared atmosphere, energy ofwhich amount 2016). high a takes the air. Thus, areas with available have soil a moisture more balanced microclimate with air and soil lower temperatures. This not only facilitates Soil moisture and microclimate Upward Upward movement of months after the last up to several can occur water through the precipitation. soil In areas dominated by one or two wet seasons, this ensures water availability after second a enabling thus ended, has season rainy the further is water of availability The period. cropping byinfluenced the depth at which soil moisture can be found. Some of the available soil moisture will reachableis not that depth a at be some plants, for to others. while it is available The speed at which capillary water in action the soil depends can on the move water deficit at the surface layer or around the plant roots, and on the soil type as well. Most soils sandy facilitate bigger are spaces pore as movement, rapid a and hold water less capillary movement tightly. takes place However, against gravity, as finelytextured the soils like clay providecan better conditions to facilitate the upward movement of water and hence reach higher 1985). This movement water is part of (Brouwer the diurnal et al. water the cycle, diurnal the For cycle. seasonal and deficit in the soil which is created during the day during movement the water is compensated by for of the availability groundwater. night, given transpiration transpiration creates a water deficitaround the root zones, as water is absorbed through the root hairs. Practical Note #27 rvnig ol eprtrs rm on below going from temperatures soil preventing while day, the during evaporating from moisture heat from escaping during the night. Thisprevents prevents day,and the during soil keepsthe of that out heat agent insulating an as acts thus and soils, mineral the to compared when conductivity very lowa has (Bonan thermal organicmatter Soil 2016). air than conductive more times twenty is greatly increases the thermal conductivity, as water and organic matter. soilmoisture Thepresence of moisture soil porosity, or composition, texture mineral soil the are soil the of capacity heat and conductivity thermal determine that Factors the ground toswell (Bonan2016). can occur. The expanding ice in the soil then causes heaving frost low, continuously are temperatures when However, occurrence. frost reduce help to the surfaceair. Inhighlands,moisture isused soil heats and soil the from releases slowly heat when to store heat.Thiscan be noticed duringcoldernights, soil a of ability the with deals capacity Heat dew. of formation the waterand of movement the understand to important is quicker.downThis cool thus and faster, high energy with lose conductivity Soils thermal down. cools and up heats soil a that means rate. In other words, it indicates the speed at which conductivity higher radiation can flow in and a out the of soil at a higher and transfers soil a heat, which in rate the is conductivity (Source: Bonan2016) saturation) contentaspercentage of (soil water Table capacity 3:Thermalconductivityandheat 100% 50% 0% Peat soil(porosity=0.8) 100% 50% 0% Clay soil(porosity=0.4) 100% 50% 0% Sandy soil(porosity=0.4) Air Water Organic matter Clay minerals Quartz Soil component (W m conductivity Thermal 0.50 0.29 0.06 1.58 1.18 0.25 2.20 1.80 0.30 0.02 0.57 0.25 2.92 8.80 -1 K -1 ) 3.87 2.18 0.5 3.10 2.25 1.42 2.96 2.12 1.28 0.0012 4.18 2.50 2.38 2.13 (MJ m capacity Heat -3 K -1 ) 6 surface levels. moisture Usingthecoolingeffect of or plants situated lower reaching from radiation decreasing (partially) shading, provide also can local Vegetation humidity. the increases can and lowers temperature which vegetation transpiration, Local and increase characteristics possible. on-site modifications several are There localairtemperature. of determinant important Incoming and outgoing radiation isthemost 2.3 Airtemperature temperatures during thenight. surface increasing while day, the energy and thus lowering local temperatures during will lead to evaporation, taking a higher amount of moisture soil higher as role,key a plays moisture evapotranspirationdecreasing or fromSoil plants. soil temperatures play a distinct role by increasing low and high Both 2015). (Gliessman higher are temperatures air simultaneously when desiccation increase and fertility, soil reducing thereby and nitrification inhibit plants, by uptake water inhibit temperatures soil low hand, other the On 2016). can micro-organisms temperatures(FAO of processes biological stall extreme while growth, plant affect negatively can temperatures soil High soil. the in micro-organisms and roots plant seeds, for necessary warmth the providing by growth crop influences temperature Soil 2016). (Bonan months being heat stored with during warmer scales, months and time released in longer colder over also thereby occurs process surface, same The the extremes. to out balancing released is heat and night, the soil’s heat transfer direction is reversed, at cooler is surface lowerthe When temperatures. to leads and surface direct the from away heat Heat transfer into the soil during the day transports andmicroclimate Soil temperature at night. temperatures during the day and low temperatures at ahighrate, thesoil of contributingtohighsoil out and in flows capacity.Heat heat low a having while exists, conductivity this thermal effect, high that In means moisture. soil low and soils sandy have generally Deserts differences. large creates moisture soil of presence the soils, peat and clay While heat capacity is very similar between sandy, 2012). (Nicholson heat various capacity soil of types are shown in table and 3 conductivity thermal The one. lower a have soils clay while conductivity, thermal a higher have generally soils Sandy night. at freezing Managing the Microclimate 1998 (Source: Foken 2008) Foken 1998 (Source: th material has a very low albedo and hence absorb hence and albedo low very a has material a lot of sunlight (Nicholson more 2012). However, evapotranspiration also takes place which transmits in heat back into the forests, air in the form conflicting that several This shows vapour. of water factors lead to warming and cooling effects from different kinds of land use, making it not a simple task to determine effects on the microclimate. Air temperature and microclimate result of is a air temperature While the overall conditions place, taking processes radiation various from meters few a within profile temperature the in as well as Temperature, rapidly. change surface the processes surface by affected is wind, and moisture and properties with which it interacts. Vegetation shading, changes through balance the radiation while being a barrier to wind (Gliessman 2015). Figure 10 shows the typical cycle daily in a temperature forest. The maximum air occurs temperature in the upper crown, usually about two one hours to after local noon (Foken 2008). Below the crown, the daytime temperatures are lower. At night, minimum occur in the upper temperatures and surface earth’s ofthe cooling the to due crown cooling. called radiation the air near the ground, This particularly happens with a clear sky, wind Particularly in and calm the humidity. low evening, its surroundings. than is warmer a forest and diurnal and seasonal range, The air temperature fluctuations, play a largethe local role flora and in determining an fauna. optimum temperature organisms for All growing, have and their minimum and maximum temperature thresholds 7 Local albedo is the plays reflectivityIt absorbed. ofis radiation much a surface how and determines in determining local air temperatures, role a large and can vary greatly conditions. Local plays topography a large role in according to the determiningbeing Aspect, radiation. incoming the local amount the influences facing, is slope a direction the albedo Soil shading. as well as received radiation of is mainly determined by the moisture content. The interaction between rainfall and air temperature is important, changes as precipitation the local In evaporation. moisture for provides albedo and general, a dry soil has higher albedo than a wet a higher albedo than forests, have soil. Croplands meaning that croplands reflect more sunlight back heat surface lower in resulting atmosphere, the into (Jackson et al. 2008). Vegetation and organic in the soil to decrease the overall air temperature air temperature the overall in the soil to decrease mitigating yields through can mean increased crop temperatures. The extreme incoming and outgoing radiation balance shows the input of energy into the system that is used for crucial processes such as warming the air and soil, photosynthesis, and evapotranspiration. Figure 9: Temperature plot during the night between a small hill (knoll) and a groove (150 m away) in the the night between plot during hill (knoll) and a groove a small Figure 9: Temperature Ecological-Botanical Garden of of the University Bayreuth on May 14 Figure 10: Daily cycle of air temperature in and According to Baumgartner (Source: a forest above (2008)) (1956) in Foken Practical Note #27 reduced photosynthesis between 24 - 34 - 24 between photosynthesis reduced The optimal range of Arabica is 18 - 21 - 18 is Arabica of range optimal The coffee, the effect is even more strongly pronounced. sufficient water is present. For shade crops, as such in yield losses or result even plant loss, even in cases where can which prevented, even or delayed 36 - 40 - 36 between threshold temperature maximum has rice 2016) (Source: Fondriesttemperatures Environmental Inc. Figure 11:Relative humidityfor different maize development is hindered above 35 example, For stages. growing different for vary dew pointtemperature (Gliessman 2015). push the relative humidity to 100 percent, reaching form. At smaller scales, in temperature can changes to start will clouds and fog mist, and saturated, is air the means percent 100 of humidity hold. relative A could it vapour water total the of percent percent thus indicatesthattheairisholding25 25 of humidity relative A hold. can air the vapour vapour in the air compared to the amount of water Relative humidity is a measure of the ratio humidity. of water air increases turn in which evaporation, water more promotes weather Warmerair. hold cold than to vapour able hold, being can air air warm the with vapour water of amount the dew and fog and formation. The air temperature determines cloud, for radiation basis the available is It by moisture. induced is evapotranspiration, which of result the is humidity Air 2.4 Airhumidity Fullerton & (Beresford 1989). disease to susceptible pestsanddiseases, asplantsbecome more of effects and spread the on influence an have also (Luo caused temperatures air Higher 2015). is Gliessman 2011; stress heat further possible and moisturefrom transpirationrelease of isinhibited, the As shut-down. to processes plant causes heat Extreme 2007). (Lin that above photosynthesis no o C. When these are exceeded, growth is growthexceeded, are these When C. o C, while o o C, with C, C, and 8 helps to reduce local surface temperatures, which which temperatures, surface local reduce to helps are notremoved. Theshade from vegetation layersair warmer local as it dew,reduce also but of formation the in assist can windbreaks speeds, wind dew.lessening By of duration and formation the in role a plays shade provides or windbreak (Richards formation vegetation2004). The presenceof thatacts as a dew inhibit winds to strong found to were moderate sites, unsheltered in formation. dew waswind light dewWhile foundhelp formation in to role a play also winds Local reach humidity air saturation point. make circumstances case in temperature can lead to rainfall ina landscape, air the in changes to combination in humidity, air High 2016). Bonan 2012; (Nicholson vegetation from away the air humid transports it Here, as atmosphere does. air dry local the mix to essential is wind local of presence as water easily absorb as not vapour does air humid since plants, from transpiration down slows humidity air High Air humidityandmicroclimate surface onleaves, increasingtheiralbedo. reflective a leaves darkens it albedo, its lowering and soil, the moistens, it While and canopies. soils plant of both albedo, the affects also Dew 2006). Berliner & (Agam regions semi-arid and arid in require,especially plants waterthat the to addition asanimportant moisture canthusserve Air 2014). al. (Tomaszkiewiczet saturation water leaf to due hours early the in kick- photosynthesis start can and transpiration reduces surface absorption, leaf through directly used a is mm 30 Dew year. of total a with year, a nights 200 forms is on dew place, year taken has a research where dew mm most desert, 10 Negev the - in 5 while accumulated, Andes, the In 2012). (Nicholson examples local of number a are There environments. semi-arid and arid in growth plant for moisture of source important an be can Dew during the diurnal cycle, can lead to dew formation. changes temperature with combined humidity, Air fog dew depositionarelike deposition. thoseof of effects the of Many surface. cool a at droplets settling and interception, rather than the formation of by caused is moisture of deposition The process. atmospheric purely a is fogThus, surface. the saturationconditionsat point,regardless of reaches concentration vapour the water when atmospheric occurs Fog deposited. be can it which upon surface cold relatively a needs Dew 2006). on a colder surface to form dew (Agam & Berliner moisture in the form of water vapour then condenses Air temperature. point dew the equals or lowerto Dewis surface temperaturethe the at when occurs Managing the Microclimate levels levels 2 for for growth, remove excess humidity the and overall humidity lower level, thereby reducing potential the for diseases. Furthermore, many cereal pollinated. are wind crops surfaces heterogeneous to have tend Landscapes with much difference in (Foken surface 2008). characteristics In can combination result in with a humidity and complicated roughness, surface’s wind, the flowon dependent system, this that is and temperature profile. These profiles can shift night, the direction reverses as winds blow towards towards blow winds as reverses direction the night, the warmer water air mountains startsand warm hills, to rise upslope surface. With cool the night at while wind), (valley day regards the during to air moves downslope (mountain wind) (Gliessman, 2015). At the farm level, wind can be stimulated through corridors or blocked through the presence of vegetation or shelterbelts. While large-scale pressure fields cause windspeed and direction, the topography of a landscape influence the winds, leading to and small-scale climate obstacles is forest a above and in velocity Wind differences. to friction. greatly reduced due Wind and microclimate Wind can have a cooling effect by removing the boundary layer of warm air around a plant. This can also increase water consumption the by plant, air drier with it replacing and layer the removing as cause can Wind transpiration. increased causes will on depending cooler or warmer be to temperatures Gliessman, 2016; (Bonan temperature ambient the 2015). In addition, air movement in the ofcanopy CO good maintain to essential is vegetation 9 In Tigray, local forms of reforestation and area exclosures have led local to forms have an increased ofintensity of and area exclosures reforestation springs In Tigray, and soil moisture in areas the surrounding This cropland. is due likely infiltrationto ofimproved rainfall and a better water storage capacity of the a landscape. to transform can come together processes soil. microclimate of how example Together with water harvesting measures, it is an In the Raya Azebo valley in In Azebo valley northernthe Raya Ethiopia’s Tigray region, farmers reported that the treatment led to an increase in humidity and a decrease in local temperatures. Areas close to stone bunds show high soil fertility, partially due to a decreased loss of soil organic matter, higher and moisture, soil ofhigher placement noticeably the to led bunds partially Similarly, availability. due moisture soil to increased water retention, and cooler soil temperatures. The crop potential and intensity frost addition, In season. increased rainy the after longer for available be to moisture soil moisture retention has caused soil the soil. has decreased as the increased soil moisture protects damage In 2010, the Ethiopian government launched a land restoration agricultural programme productivity with by the improving aim to the double management of natural (IWMI, 2015). harvestingExtensive water and re-greening efforts were undertaken. Both resources physical and and agricultural lands biological soil and water conservation measures were introduced in more than 3.000 with watersheds, mid and bottom slopes. soil bunds and stone bunds being constructed on almost all upper, Box 3: Soil and water conservationBox measures in Ethiopia At a large scale, differences cause pressure scale, At a large air movement. At induce can barriers and differences temperature smaller scales, topography, different wind directions and speeds. At a local suchlandscape morphology scale, as the presence importantan plays mountains and bodies ofwater role. Microclimatic phenomena include small-scale circulation systems, such as mountain and winds, valley land-sea wind circulations, and katabatic winds 2008). (Foken, during For warmer example, months, land mass heats up faster than the water At land. the towards blow to winds causing surface, 2.5 Wind direction and speed increases the chances of dew & formation (Agam Berliner, 2006). transport The air humidity can presence play a significantrole ofA humidity. local decreasing and increasing both in wind to air warm where monsoon, the is example dramatic inland. laden with moisture moves Figure 12: Generation of internal boundary layers Foken (Source: surface an inhomogeneous above 2008) Practical Note #27 Table 4: The effects of different types of water storage on microclimate components storageonmicroclimate water differentTable typesof 4:Theeffects of one goal does not undermine the ability to achieve investments inlandscapes to ensurethatachieving and gives risetotheneedfor strategies thatguide energy water, This holistically. addressed be to need livelihoods food, soils, biodiversity, a wide-ranging topic. Issues related to ecosystems, et al.1999). The microclimate anditsinteractions is the howacross scales can knowbe influenced and and managed components to (Chen microclimate important between dynamics thus is delayed It or rainfall. irregular more or droughts, peaks, temperature it be effects, its amplify or change climate against buffer either may Microclimates 3. Towards interventions a toolkit for microclimate et al.2015). (Ong capacity storage moisture soil and potential effect cascading a haveon themicroclimate vegetation through alossof can This fertility. soil is wind erosion, and the loss of top soil that reduces plants, damage. causingstructural Anothereffect from stems and leaves hit wind the in suspended Sediments crops. and leaves to damage possible as such wind from effects mechanical direct also are There 2015). (Gliessman range their expand pollination, to wind of use make also insects while host, new a with As to spread to wind on depend pests. fungi and bacteria and diseases also like nutrients of fromparticles soil otherplaces, andseeds, but transporter a as act can Wind surface related and temperature andmoisturelevels. types use land certain by neighbouring areas can affect and be affected way,this layer.In boundary internal the called that is discontinuity of layer a forming downwind, buffering Water groundwater Shallow Soil moisture storage Open use Techniques in and wells infiltration ponds trenches, Infiltration fog collection plugging and terraces, gully spreaders, flood water stone bunds, Eyebrows, and micro-dams Surface ponds moisture on soil Effect season inthe later soil moisture - contribute to Delayed effect moisture impact onsoil significant and Direct seepage dependent on fringe effects Limited - temperature effect onsoil moderation Some delayed balanced more temperature Soil Not significant temperature on soil Effect 10 a specificlandscape. the for intervention watermanagement determine and land best to important is context local a in works turn in this howmicroclimate, and the affect measures different how are Understanding proposed. clusters’ ‘intervention three following, the In effects onlocalagricultureandthelandscape. have will component one Changing another. each various The microclimate components are inextricably linked to again. availability water influence positively turn in vegetationgrowth,and facilitate water availability can lead to cooler temperatures, larger localand regional transformation. Increased landscape, where small changes come together for practices can have a cascading effect on the management water and land of introduction The change. climate of, larger use the beneficial make and hence the ability of an area to cope with, and even extremes that canaffectthemicroclimate and interventions several are temperature There 2015). (Gliessman variability to towards vulnerable aimed is creating more resilient agriculturethat is less management Microclimate availability aswell. but moisture due togentler microclimates more andhighernitrogen of because only not jumped productivity Agricultural intensity. vegetation and availability moisture in tables, groundwater increase shallow an seen have Rwanda and Ethiopia Partscaused change. India,China,Thailand, of areas have improvementswatershed density high where of examples numerous are There al. 2011). et Steenbergen (Van change level landscape systemic the creates at that measures of sum not change; intensive critical a having but interventions, forisolated making call a is It others. the Not sosignificant moisture air increased white frost, dewmore and to theground- Significant closer dewmore and air moisture higher rainfall, Significant -more humidity onair Effect Not significant effect Some cooling evaporation surface of Cooling effect temperature temperature onair Effect pressure and henceair in temperature local difference None Not significant Limited speed and direction onwind Effect

causing Managing the Microclimate fogscape (Salbitano, 2010), being Cluster 1: water buffering The availability of moisture is a key microclimate and peaks temperature out evens it as determinant, depths. different at soil the and air the in both lows, it Hence, is important to better retain at water the landscape level by applying water harvesting, Figure 15 Fog collectors in Llomas de Meija collectors Figure 15 Fog Bresci 1997) (Source: 11 feet in the morning.” feet Farmer in the Raya valley, Tigray 2016 valley, in the Raya Farmer but now the moisture is conserved the moisture in but now Figure 14 Fog collectors (Source: climatetechwiki. (Source: collectors Figure 14 Fog 2016) org Fogscapes Fogscapes can be found along a number of coastlines in Africa, Chile, Dominican Peru, Republic United and States, Spain Morocco, (Canary South Islands). In various semi-arid inland locations, in such Ethiopia, as Guatemala, Yemen and Tanzania, they can also be found. Their impact is significant. dynamics on local climate The project results showed that standard reforestation interventions had unsatisfactory results without the without results unsatisfactory had interventions reforestation standard that showed results project The supplemental the irrigation provided by fog collectors. At the same in time, places where the collectors were present, trees were able to 1998). of years artificialfog collection (Semenzato, after two ecosystems, sustain themselves and supported smaller vegetation and local In recent decades, fogscapes have been subject to In deforestation. the general late a 1990s, research launched was project with degradation the aim to rehabilitate the area caused by an increase in of Llomas de Meija in Peru with artificialfog collectors. These collectors consist of a metal frame, and with a synthetic mesh, replicating the effect ofare covered leaf surfaces. an ecosystem that relies on the interplays between fog, vegetation and soils. and resource biodiversity bring for benefitsconsiderable microclimatic to arid in drylands, Fog terms of the represents a vital presence of soil Local moisture tree from and species the vegetation. have capacity to advantage take moisture Fog leaves. their on fog condensating and intercepting by sea, the from fluxes fog advection the arid landscape. the surrounding moisture for then becomes available The drylands of the Atacama Desert represent an example of a Box 4: Fog collection and regreening 4: Fog in Llomas de Meija, Peru Box “Ten years ago, the moisture quickly evaporated, ago, years “Ten the soil for a longer time and the dew can wet a longer time and the dew your the soil for Figure 13: Water buffering measures in Tigray, Ethiopia (Source: MetaMeta 2016) (Source: Ethiopia buffering measures in Tigray, Figure 13: Water Practical Note #27 uiiy We ue fr riain i wl have will similar effectsassoilmoisturestorage. it irrigation, for used When humidity. air increases and temperature air local lowersthe When not used directly for irrigation, surface water water harvesting that techniques use open storage. the air temperature. The same is accomplished with lowers turn in humidity,which local the increase to There isincreased moisture for evapotranspiration frost. night as such extremes,temperature against protects It surface. the above directly air, the in cool and this mitigates day in temperatures during the night, both in the soil and the areas, water during arid temperatures In availablewarm profile. soil the the increases storage Water that focusesmoisture harvesting onsoil can have differenteffectsonthemicroclimate. landscape, water the different types of harvesting the for availability water overall the increase to forand groundwater theyWhile recharge. aim all are distinguished be water can harvesting for soil moisture, that for open storage types three The and thishasdifferenteffectsonthemicroclimate. differ,can harvesting water of type and purpose The 1991). (Critchley use productive its for runoff Water harvesting is basically the collection of water Table 5: Agroforestryobjectives andexamples (Source: Mbow etal.2014) ih tmeaue do, loig o a second crop orboostingthestandingcrop. a for allowing drop, temperatures night rises back to the root zone later in the season when areas, water that is stored as shallow groundwater that takes place over time. Particularly in semi-arid the of rise capillary is phenomenon related landscape. fertility A overall the to add and nitrogen give a boost to the ability soil of bacteria to fixate frost.Moreover,night availabilitywill moisture soil will influence dew and a reduced risk of formation availability moisture Increased measures. control and drainage erosion and diversion, floodwater but due to the conservation measuresonourfarm, duetotheconservation but incoming radiation water,of andreduced Increase availability Increase soilfertility Objective “The rainfall pattern has considerably decreased, “The rainfallhasconsiderably pattern soil moisture has increased in my land as well as soil moisturehasincreasedinmy landaswell Farmer intheRaya valley, Tigray2016 production” Parkia biglobosa) indica, plants (e.g., Azadirachta Andansoniadigitata Shade treestoreduceevaporation andfacilitategrowth shade-tolerant of agriculture(moistureretention) Conservation Erosion control (e.g. Acaciasenegal, Anacardiumoccidentale ) Windbreak trees(e.g. indica) Azadirachta /nutrientfixing trees(e.g.Soil structure Faidherba albida Example 12 aaeet Sitr 01, n cn e done be can and 2011), radiation (Stigter management microclimate of of factor important an is a Manipulation wind and of system. sustainability the cropping favour that conditions can create or maintain microclimaticfarmers Through appropriate design and management, Cluster 2:re-greening approaches, such as agroforestry and re-greening. not done in isolation,but rather combines different isoften hence harvesting Water profile. soil the by and improvesavailablenutrients that both activity possible made increased moisture, and increased biological agroforestry from shade added percolation, infiltration, improved through microclimate soilmoisturerecharge, canaidfurther cannot be seeninisolation,asa changed The effects of water harvesting on the microclimate harvest that water andreducerunoff. measures conservation water and soil implement and design groundwater to critical is of dynamics understanding Good storage. improving moisture soil as and way similar a in microclimate plants the aiding action, also capillary can groundwater Recharged drought through to the soil during times of return hill. the of springsat the bottom thedevelopmentsupport of could watershed upper the in levels groundwater period, compared to soil moisture storage. Higher longer recharge a over available groundwater water make to for harvesting Water to someone who has not eaten. Theproduction has hasnoteaten. to someonewho as different as someone who has eaten compared as differenthaseaten assomeonewho measures and share the benefits of the watershed the measures andsharethebenefitsof “We withthefarmers aremakinganassociation increased andthesoilnow canholdmoisturefor “Definitely, thereisadifference theseyears. Itis from tomanagethere-greening thewatershed, around a week inthehotsun.”around aweek Farmer intheRaya valley, Tigray2016 together.” Magnifera indicaand ) Managing the Microclimate 13 Definition of a wide trees with Rows and companion crop spacing, between in alleyways growing the rows The use of forest for timber, timber, The use of for forest fodder and land firewood, reclamation Trees and shrubs and are used as Trees windbreaks and shelterbelts A combination of and forestry grazing Perennials that require shade, that require shade, Perennials such are as coffee plants trees by covered Category Alley cropping Alley Woodlots Silvo-pasture Silvo-pasture systems Protective systems Protective Multistrata systems Multistrata Table 6: Agroforestry categories Table Practical Note #27 1988) Table 7: Windbreakyieldincrease(Source: Kort of climaticresponses(Chenetal.1999). of set different a with created is environment new a they decay. By altering the structure of the canopy, organic matteras sourceof being animportant provide soil cover and modify the soil environment, that habitats leaves shed and life provide animal of array an leaves for (Gliessman and relations Branches moisture 2015). soil and cycling nutrient structure, soil affects Re-greening winds. dust forests inanopenlandscape cancreatelocal of movement the small among others. The presence of particles and winds of and direction speed the layers, different at temperature air isradiated. Itaffects the circulation of much how and area an in absorbed is heat much how of affects type vegetation moisture, the soil in Like vegetation. changes to sensitive highly are air radiation, temperature at thesurface and soil temperature solar like variables Microclimate landscape. a in trees of number the byincreasing Crop Spring wheat Corn Rye Winter wheat Rice Barley Clover Millet Alfalfa moisture islostfasterwhogetearly inthefields “The sun duration and mountain shades have an andmountainshadeshave “The sunduration competition for water andsunlightwhencrops needitmost. of beneficial agroforestry is the Faidherbia albida tree that sheds its leaves in the rainy season, reducing negativenaturallocal on resources,effect regions.examplestrategiesdifferent famous and in A differ or beneficial a agroforestryhas whether on consensus no is There 2015). al. et Ong 2009; al. et (Lott available be not otherwise would that crops to available moisture soil makes crops. further lifting seasonal Hydraulic than groundwater deeper use they as reservoirs, water different into tap also could trees However,more yields. improving than rather reducing use, water increased the by negated be could capture runoff and shade increased windbreak, a of effects positive The regions. semi-arid and competition. The use soil of nutrients and waterresource competes with those of used forpossibility cropping,the especially is in arid agriculture in forests and trees of introduction the to related discussion A competition Box andresource 5:Agroforestry effect on the evaporation of soilmoisture. Soil effect ontheevaporationof Farmer intheRaya valley, Tigray2016 sunlight.” Compared tonobarriers) Compared (%) Yield increase 8 12 19 23 24 25 25 44 99 14 quality vary with specific location (Gliessman location specific with of vary conditions quality the system, temperature, moisture, light, wind and atmospheric cropping a Within 6 shows agroforestry anumberof examples. Tablesystems. and severaltypes in subdivided be crops,combination of treesand pasture. Thesecan agro-silvo-pastoral,and the pastoral to according silvo- agro-silvo-cultural, types: three in classified interactions (Nair 1985). Agroforestry is commonly perennials to benefit from ecological and economic the addition or trees retention and of other woody deals with farm and livestock management through more microclimate the management. areas of It researched to of one need is Agroforestry that integrated. be processes microclimate many of section cross the at are Farms 2015). (Gliessman agriculture to the ecological foundationsharm of are also thosethat do the least climate change of face the in resilient are that Agro-ecosystems that growthat cooler. intherevegetated area,itismuch windbreak (Source: Gliesssman 2015) distance fromFigure 16:Soybean yieldat “There is a temperature difference.“There isatemperature Duetothetrees It alsomakes ushappybearound thegreener Farmer intheRaya valley, Tigray2016 area.” Managing the Microclimate Figure 17: Biotic pump (Source: Figure 17: Biotic pump (Source: Sheil 2014) Advantages Advantages of agroforestry are increased moisture retention, soil reduced water loss from increased and transpiration, crop and evaporation soil biomass root fall, oflitter addition The fertility. soil health overall the increases nutrient capture and of the soil that crops can make use of al. (Lasco et 2014). Agroforestry can against also climate variability and extremes. Through be a buffer the overall areas and shelter, shaded providing climate variability is reduced, such as plantations (Lin 2007). in coffee 15 Forest has a lower albedo so more energy remains in the canopy for thermic Moisture in for rise. remains in the canopy albedo so more energy has a lower Forest the air will rise higher and this creates more rainfall. Grassland has a high albedo so little energy is left for thermic is left for rise; has a high albedo so little energy Grassland - - - Local rainfall, even a little, can trigger more rainfall. This is known as the threshold effect. Once it as the threshold effect. This is known more rainfall. can trigger a little, even Local rainfall, starts it continues to rain; to rain, it can locally, If local and regional rainfall. is generated rain There is balance and tension between elsewhere; come down and more air temperature being a lower sometimes opposite effects, has two Evaporation effect. With cooling, edge can create the so-called monsoon air temperature The lower humidity. into the air; moisture sucked and less less, gets gradient the temperature of causes thermic whichThe albedo effect of rise, can be a result when the air vegetation rainfall is moist: - As the question of scale suggests, the impact of forests on water availability not only relates to the water water the to relates only not availability water on forests of impact the suggests, scale of question the As importantan have forests that state studies Recent up. ends water the where to also but use, forests that role in inducing than rainfall. Other formation. cloud Increased helps also trees relative by aerosols humidity of release The and events. precipitation of lower likelihood temperatures contribute to a higher precipitation, fog and dew capture is forests enhanced as provide surfaces by they and cooling, which (Bruijnzeelet al. 2012). 2001; 2004; Ellison availability further aids local water An ongoing area of research is the effect of This can be divided in a smaller scale on rainfall. forests focused ‘demand’ school and a regional and interception scale increase trees focused view, their In ‘supply’ availability. schoolwater for compete forests that school proposes way of thinking. The demand The runoff. supply and school reduce downstream evapotranspiration on the other hand, states that the biotic the to contributes evapotranspiration local where scale, larger a at seen be must offorests impact This pump school and intensity. cycle increases water argues that precipitation both recycling raises the as the transportation of as well et al. 2012). moist air inland (Ellison oflikelihood events, rainfall local Box 6: Forests and local rainfall 6: Forests Box • • • • Box 7: Understanding local rainfall Box Agroforestry Agroforestry has the microclimate, different depending on characteristics implications the type for of and the agroforestry system. 2015). Conditions above the canopy, in the interior, interior, the in canopy, the above Conditions 2015). at the soil surface and below the soil into the root suchtransect and vertical a greatly, vary can zone microclimatic the called is system cropping the within profile. Conditions in thevarious zones should not This could happen the crops. for cause problems when warm wind run through the system while the soil is very cold, causing plant desiccation as the roots are unable to absorb water fast enough to offset the loss. Practical Note #27 Changes in the soil temperature can be induced outweighs any negative effects. fertility soil enhanced and microclimate improved the environments, semi-arid and arid in that point the raise (2009) However,al. 2015). et al. Lott et (Ong it promote than rather growth, plant inhibit shading are that reduced solar radiation might from consequences negative Possible 2007). Lin as coffee and heat, cocoa such (Lasco et al. 2014; temperature canbenefitcrops moisture thataresensitive to air reduced Furthermore, soil rate. lower a at radiation, lost is incoming reducing By moisture lossfrom evaporation andtranspiration. temperature,has adirecteffectonsoil and too Shade effects. shelter from radiation benefiting while much, incoming influence not partial to a canopy or production, coffee with like crops, the above canopy full a be can This land. the of both soil and crops, depending on the composition treesprovides ashading effect to The presence of Shade effects (Source: Britannica2014) differentFigure 19:Patch dynamicsat scales 16 Agroforestry Centre2016) effects, oncorridors (Source: USDA National edge microclimatic Figure 18:Theprincipleof ul ae u fo dee i te ol otherwise soil, the in deeper from up water pull they as drought of times during water to additional access provide may roots tree stages, later However, at crops. with water for compete trees agro-forestry is scheme started and newly newplanted a when especially yields, reduced see may scarce is water where Areas windbreaks. in trees used from use water increased the is measures, agroforestry other with as consideration, major A topsoilduetoerosion. damage and lossof leaf crop as such wind, from impacts kinetic is reduced effect positive further A efficiency. use water evapotranspiration rates fromand crops bothsoil andcanincrease reduces humidity increased away. transported and Reducedwind exposure to applies. Humidity is higher as well, as it is no longerlonger no The wind from effect cooling the crops. as higher, reaching before temperature behind speed the shelterbelt is usually slightly wind the lowering greatly patterns, wind prevailing from field a protect windbreak as used are that Trees Windbreaks radiation (Chenetal.1999). understory and moderate incoming and outgoing levels of the buffer to canopies of ability the moisture. Removal of overstory vegetation destroys to retain and helpsthesoil thesoil, surface of the at gain solar reduces canopy the from Shade canopy. the under conditions temperature modify canopy (overstory) that covers other plants greatly 2015). Trees andothertallplantsthatcreatea (Gliessman conservation moisture and germination to thesoil,seed related to organic matter content of method well-recognised one do so, andbringsadditional positive effects is a crop Growing soil. cover the of surface the covering by Managing the Microclimate cooling than the underlying soil dew formation this would turns out not to assist be the case (Li in 2002). The explanation for this was sought in the relationships between soil properties and water adsorption. Similarly, positive properties of mulch soil for dew formation at night were offset by 2002; (Li day the during losses evaporative higher Graf et al. 2008). The deposit of dew also servecan as an impeding factor, on leaves droplets (Agam fungi and bacteria of growth the facilitating & Berliner 2006). Cluster 3: land use planning Microclimate dynamics are directly vegetation, including components, all landscape related to corridors – streams, roads and powerlines – and transition zones between patches, such as edges between forests and openings (Chen et al. 1999). Microclimatic variance is especially dramatic transitional zones in (also called ecotones) between adjacent ecosystems. Due to increased land use fragmentation, such edge biotic changesclimatic and seen have be can environments where major portiona become in of Changes landscapes. physical and biotic environments affect ecological regeneration, plant as varied as processes dispersal of seeds, nutrient cycling and interactions. wildlife such change, as temperature Microclimate increases, caused by intensive land use may change have greater impacts regional scales at than modifications predicted from both local and the greenhouse effect (Chen et importantin different features that recognise to al. 1999). It is the landscape – within patches, between patches, – have the landscape across ecotones, through patterns Microclimatic across distinct microclimates. the landscape are highly specific to an ecosystem, due to differences provide insights can use structure. Microclimatic in topography and land 17 The effect of soil type and the presence of mulch on dew formation While it was has assumed that mulching several with faster complexities. Canopy Canopy interception of surface compaction precipitation and improves infiltration reduces by the soil. Similarly, roots and in and reduced evaporation the trees, surrounding biological activity infiltration, and texture soil improves areas shaded especially in arid and semi-arid regions. crops Cover that are planted in plants are called living mulch. Mulching between creates active crop a buffer between the soil a means of providing reducing soil evaporation and solar radiation, through reduced temperatures as well as reduced the changemulch can Suchliving wind. to exposure ofalbedo the temperature raise and the soil surface of the air immediately above the crop (Gliessman 2015). For dry mulch, straw from wheat, oats and barley are commonly used, while water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and duckweed .) spp (Lemna greater is a effect also useful. The combined are amount of soil moisture. Plant-derived mulch will eventually become part of the soil, adding to its organic matter content. Another possibility is to let no-tillage a using by mulcha accumulatenaturally, system. Crop residues are and temperature soil modifies that layer a forming left on the surface, moisture loss. prevents Soils unreachable to crops. In of an windbreak extensive effects review benefits ofsummarised the positive windbreaks on on crops, crops Kort (see table 7). (1988) Gliessman (2015) describes a study that shows yield increases from 5 and 3 between to are benefits maximum The 50 percent. reported benefits with crop, the from heights tree 6 An windbreak. the from away heights tree 10 to up example of the distance effects to the windbreak is given in figure 16.Reduced yields close to the windbreak are probably the result of excessive shading or resource competition. Figure 20: Re-greening efforts in the hills of Tigray, Ethiopia (Source: MetaMeta 2016) Ethiopia (Source: of in the hills efforts Figure 20: Re-greening Tigray, Practical Note #27 nitain proain n tasot can make transport and percolation infiltration, and semi-arid areas. Furthermore, increased water arid in especially nutrients, valuable and soils top canreducelocalerosionReduced of surface runoff activity benefit. also lands Adjacent 2012). biological al. et (Balana from an by structure increased soil is improved capacity holding water its and systems, root and trees by protected erosion is it reduced as from benefits Soils flora fauna. for native and added competition reduced the of with benefit agroforestry, like area are of closure effects The well. as areas surrounding the in microclimate local the to benefits has lands forested existing of protection and promotion The andreforestation closure Area in bothwildlifeandecosystemconservation. environmentthe structural can thus be a useful tool altering by microclimate the manipulating Hence, 1999). al. et (Chen birds and reptiles amphibians, butterflies, as varied as fauna of influences distribution the Microclimate landscape. a for option other explain to ecological processes and developing management trying when information vital “Due to the intervention, the day temperature and thedaytemperature “Due totheintervention, For us, good willhave we that thisisanindication night temperature is warmer and fluctuates less. andfluctuates iswarmer night temperature Farmer intheRaya valley, Tigray2016 summer rainfall.” 18 rather than to simply assess the importance of of importance the scale. microclimate independentlyateach assess simply to than rather scales and consider cumulative effects,multiple at characteristics microclimaticexamine to need a is There considered. carefully be to needs scales different at out works this how However, 1999). al. et (Chen small-scale the at locations diverse in microclimatemanagement similar be will measures of human knowledge and experience. The impact of competently by combining insights from many fields done be only can This 2015). (Gliessman another one affect, and with, relate motion perpetual in howsystems on focuses which meta-systematics, of and supportive ecosystems. This relates to the study require a sound understanding of natural processes and sustainabledevelopment aretopicsthat Landscape restoration, microclimate management cycle. biological activity and intensifying the hydrological encouraging extremes, climate mitigating through microclimate the with changes reforestationexclosures, As rise. capillary through drought, of times soil moisturetobecome available for localusein “The acacia trees that were regenerated duetothe regenerated were “The acaciatreesthat intervention areeffectiveintervention moistureand toconserve act asawindbreakandlivingfence. They work assoilerosion prevention.” Farmer intheRaya valley, Tigray2016 Managing the Microclimate edition. & Taylor Francis rd Edition. Boulder: University of rd 19 Irrigation water management: Training Manual No.1 – The climate. near the ground Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Effects ofEffects climate change diseases. on plant DSIR Plant Division On the forest cover-water yield debate: to supply-side demand- from cover-water On the forest . CTA Terres et Vie; et Terres agriculture in Africa. CTA and multistorey Trees Dew formation water and Dew a adsorption in semi-arid environments; vapor A Manual for the Design and Construction ofA Manual for Harvesting Schemes Water for Programa ancestral para el tiempo actual. una tecnología Suka Programa Suka Kollus; The importance of soil organic matter; key to drought-resistant soil and sustained to drought-resistant key of The importance matter; soil organic Agroecology; the ecology ofecology the Agroecology; systems. sustainable food 3 Land Use and Water of Hydrology Water Use and Land montane cloudReassessment. tropical A forests: Hydrological functions ofHydrological the Agriculture, Not trees? seeing the soil for forests: tropical Waru waru (or raised-bed) agriculture is a technology developed over centuries in the centuries waru over (or raised-bed) agriculture is a technologyWaru developed Ecological Climatology; Concepts and Applications. 3 Chichester, UK: Chichester, global environment. the makes vegetation Vegetation-climate interaction; how . 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Annual Review Resilience of and Stability Ecologyof and Systematics, Desertification control through floodwater harvesting: the current state of know-how.of The state current the harvesting: floodwater through control Desertification Environmental sciences:astudent’s companion.SAGE PublicationsLtd . Agricultural andForest Meteorology. Vol. 92,issue4:251-265; . Cambridge: Climatology FloridaStateUniversity;Dryland Trees and shrubs of the Sahel; their characteristics anduses. Verlag theSahel;theircharacteristics Margraf; Josef Trees andshrubs of . Bulletin de Bulletin La mitigación de heladas en los camellonesdelaltiplanoandino. Resilience, vulnerability, the A cross-cutting themeof andadaptation: Mulching Mulching as a means of exploiting dew for arid agriculture? 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Tree-crop The Project “Fog as a new water as a new the sustainablefor resource “Fog The Project Drought decreases soil enzyme activity in a Mediterranean Quercus ilex L. ilex decreases soil enzyme activity in a Mediterranean Quercus Drought Optimizing soil moisture plant the for production: significance of. soil porosity Resilience Thinking: Sustaining ecosystems and people in a changingResilience world. . Springer; Applied agrometeorology Observation and simulation of. in rural and urban environments dew Progress in Physical Dynamics and evolution ofDynamics and evolution tree populations soil-vegetation and relationships in Fogscapes: Washington/Covelo/London: Island Press. Washington/Covelo/London: Walker, Walker, B. & D. Salt (2006) ew as an adaptationDew measure to meet (2014) Fadel El M. & Alameddine I. Najm, Abou M. M., Tomaszkiewicz, agricultural and reforestation water demand in a changing climate. Agricultural and Forest vol. Meteorology 16 (2014): 11625; Stigter, K. (ed.) 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This note has been prepared by David Ismangil, Daniel Wiegant, Eyasu Hagos, Frank van Steenbergen, Matthijs Kool, Francesco Sambalino, Giulio Castelli, Elena Bresci and Finhas Hagos.

This study was conducted by MetaMeta Research and is based on a quick-win project under the CGIAR Water, Land and Ecosystems Programme.

For more information: www.spate-irrigation.org. Practical Note #27 Practical

December 2016