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Enslaved African Muslims in American Literature Western University Scholarship@Western Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository 6-23-2017 12:00 AM Islam's Low Mutterings at High Tide: Enslaved African Muslims in American Literature Zeinab McHeimech The University of Western Ontario Supervisor Dr. Thy Phu The University of Western Ontario Joint Supervisor Dr. Julia Emberley The University of Western Ontario Graduate Program in English A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the equirr ements for the degree in Doctor of Philosophy © Zeinab McHeimech 2017 Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd Part of the American Literature Commons, and the Literature in English, North America, Ethnic and Cultural Minority Commons Recommended Citation McHeimech, Zeinab, "Islam's Low Mutterings at High Tide: Enslaved African Muslims in American Literature" (2017). Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository. 4705. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/4705 This Dissertation/Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by Scholarship@Western. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository by an authorized administrator of Scholarship@Western. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Abstract This dissertation traces the underexplored figure of the African Muslim slave in American literature and proposes a new way to examine Islam in American cultural texts. It introduces a methodology for reading the traces of Islam called Allahgraphy: a method of interpretation that is attentive to Islamic studies and rhetorical techniques and that takes the surface as a profound source of meaning. This interpretative practice draws on postsecular theory, Islamic epistemology, and “post-critique” scholarship. Because of this confluence of diverse theories and epistemologies, Allahgraphy blurs religious and secular categories by deploying religious concepts for literary exegesis. Through an Allahgraphic reading, the dissertation examines modes of Islamic expression in a wide range of American works spanning the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. To unravel the diverse Muslim voices embedded within the American literary tradition, the dissertation proceeds chronologically through specific periods in African American culture and history, moving from slavery to post-Reconstruction to the post-civil rights era. The first two chapters focus on the nineteenth century and examine the works of ʿUmar ibn Sayyid, Bilali Muhammad, and Joel Chandler Harris. In these chapters, Allahgraphy is used to consider the material inscription of the source texts, specifically the African- Arabic manuscripts. The second half of the dissertation examines Islamic expressions in twentieth-century American texts. Through an analysis of works by Malcolm X and Toni Morrison, these two chapters explore the multiple sensory registers of Allahgraphy. The dissertation concludes by considering the appearance of the African Muslim slave in the diary of the Guantánamo prisoner, Mohamedou Ould Slahi. Ultimately, the dissertation aims to widen literary approaches to Islam in American works and to demonstrate the continuity of Muslim voices in the American literary works. In doing so, it delineates a long tradition of black Muslim Americans’ responses to Islamophobia. Keywords African Muslim Slave; Transatlantic Slave Trade; African-Arabic Writings; Autobiography; Slave Narrative; Islamic Epistemology; Incomprehension; Zāhirite Tradition; Ḥuzn; Melancholy; Allahgraphy; Postsecularism; Prayer; Post-Critique; ʿUmar i ibn Sayyid; Bilali Muhammad; Joel Chandler Harris; Malcolm X; Toni Morrison; Mohamedou Ould Slahi; The Ben Ali Diary; Song of Solomon; The Autobiography of Malcolm X; The Story of Aaron; Aaron in the Wildwoods; The Guantánamo Diary; Islamophobia. ii Acknowledgments This dissertation would not have been possible without the support and wisdom of many individuals. I am indebted to my supervisors Julia Emberley and Thy Phu for their generosity of scholarship, knowledge, and patience. Julia’s enthusiasm, critical insights, and helpful advice contributed to the completion of my project. And no words of thanks can express my gratitude to Thy, who has been an indefatigable reader, an exceptional mentor, and an inspiring scholar. Her keen insights, generous guidance, and unwavering support have truly been a gift. I would also like to thank my examiners, Jacob Rama Berman, Henri Boyi, Miranda Green-Barteet, and Bryce Traister, for their incisive questions and thoughtful comments. I owe a special thanks to Bryce for introducing me to postsecularism and for his insightful advice and unfaltering support over the years. At Western, I was surrounded by professors and staff who have contributed to this project in one way or another. I am thankful for Pauline Wakeham’s encouragement and sense of humour, for Kate Stanley’s warmth and critical mentorship, for Tunji Osinubi’s incisive feedback, and for Randa Farah’s kindness and sincere hospitality. My gratitude also goes to the English Department’s support staff, especially to Leanne Trask, Vivian Foglton, and Beth McIntosh, for their hard work and for ensuring the department is always running smoothly. I extend my thanks to the members of the Americanist Research Group at Western University for their invaluable feedback, particularly Mike Sloane, Taylor Kraayenbrink, Kate Stanley, Riley McDonald, David Huebert, Josh Schuster, Stephen Adams, Miranda Green-Barteet, and Rasmus Simonsen. Warm thanks are due to the members of the Middle Eastern and North African Literature Reading Group, especially Randa Farah and Abdulla Majeed for reminding me of alhanin ila alwatan. At Western and beyond, I have been surrounded by the brightest and most supportive colleagues and friends. For their intellectual and emotional support, I am grateful to Khameiel Al-tamimi, Emily Sugerman, Fatima Ibrahim, Anne Young, Manar Jammal, Leif Schenstead-Harris, Andrew Papaspyrou, Suhailla Abouhassan, Naveera iii Ahmed, Kamran Ahmed, Mailys Krier, Mohammad Sharifi, Andrew Wenaus, Shazia Sadaf, Cameron Riddell, Martina Koegeler, George Ramos, Marie Comisso, and Matt and Paola. I’m especially grateful to Khameiel, Anne, and Emily, for listening to me when the cloud of doubt was heavy. I was also fortunate to discover a mentor in Ricia Chansky, editor of a/b: Auto/Biographical Studies. I have been inspired by Ricia’s generosity of scholarship and unwavering vision of a transnational community of life writing scholars. I would also like to thank my high school history teacher, David Wishart, for igniting in me a passion for pursuing fragments and traces. Funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Ontario Graduate Scholarship made my participation in several international conferences and research trips possible. I would also like to acknowledge the generous donors of the McIntosh Prize. I extend my thanks to the librarians and archivists at the University of Georgia’s Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library and at the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. My family has been an endless source of inspiration, and I am forever grateful for having them in my life. For their patience, warmth, and encouragement, I owe a special thanks to Wafica, Ahmad, Fatima, Hassan, Hussein, Mohammed, Rita, and Wafic. The bountiful energy and boundless imagination of my nieces, Raneem and Maryam, and my cousins, Fatima and Hussein, helped sustain the spirit of my project. Finally, in the words of Malcolm X, “One day, may we all meet together in the light of understanding [Insh’Allah].” iv Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................ i Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ v List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii Introduction: Reading Islam in American Literary Works ................................................. 1 Islam on the Surface ..................................................................................................... 11 Postsecular Allahgraphy............................................................................................... 19 Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................... 30 Allahgraphy and the Politics of Submission in ʿUmar ibn Sayyid’s Slave Autobiography ............................................................................................................. 30 Navigating the Surface ................................................................................................. 36 Tajwīd and Diacritics ................................................................................................... 42 Holy Movements: ʿUmar’s Transnational Walking ..................................................... 53 Submission to Allah ..................................................................................................... 57 Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................... 65 Comprehension and the Muslim Slave in Bilali Muhammad’s Diary and Joel Chandler Harris’s Stories ............................................................................................
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