Border Governance in Mozambique: The Intersection of International Border Controls, Regional Integration and Cross-border Regions Fulgêncio Lucas Muti Seda i Contents ii This dissertation is part of the research programme of CERES, Research School for Resource Studies for Development The research was funded by the Netherlands Programme for Institutional Strengthening of Post-secondary Education and Training Capacity (NPT): Project ‘Consolidation of Good Governance and Public Administration in Mozambique’ (GGPA II), Project Number NPT/MOZ/285 © Fulgêncio Lucas Muti Seda 2015 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the author. ISBN 978-90-6490-000-6 Contents iii Border Governance in Mozambique: The Intersection of International Border Controls, Regional Integration and Cross-border Regions Grensbewaking in Mozambique: Het snijvlak van internationale grenscontroles, regionale integratie en de grensregio’s Thesis to obtain the degree of Doctor from the Erasmus University Rotterdam by command of the rector magnificus Professor dr H.A.P. Pols and in accordance with the decision of the Doctorate Board The public defence shall be held on 30 November 2015 at 16.00 hrs by Fulgêncio Lucas Muti Seda born in Chimoio City, Mozambique Contents iv Doctoral Committee Promotor Prof.dr. M.A.R.M. Salih Co-promotores Dr. H. Hintjens Dr T. Truong Other members Emeritus Prof.dr. R.J. Southall, University of the Witwatersrand Prof.dr. D. Gasper Prof.dr. L.J. de Haan Contents v Contents List of Tables, Figures, Maps and Appendices x Acronyms xi Acknowledgements xiv Abstract xvi Samenvatting xviii INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 The research problem 1 1.2 Contextualising border and its meanings in Mozambique 3 1.3 Border governance in a dynamic context 6 1.3.1 Border governance under the Westphalian regime of sovereignty 7 1.3.2 Globalisation and the crisis of Westphalian borders 9 1.3.3 Securitisation and the crisis of people’s movement across borders 10 1.4 Selection of research sites: different modes of border governance 14 1.5 Research objectives and questions 20 1.5.1 Objectives 20 1.5.2 Research question 21 1.6 The research methodology 22 1.6.1 Interviews, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), and limitations 23 1.6.2 Data analysis 25 1.7 Significance of the study 25 1.8 Structure of the thesis 26 Notes 28 Contents vi POST-COLD WAR SECURITY THREATS AND BORDER CONTROL RECONFIGURATIONS 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 From a focus on national sovereignty to the construction of transnational security threats 32 2.3 Securitisation and externalisation of border control strategies by Western countries 34 2.3.1 US Homeland security 34 2.3.2 Securitisation at EU external borders 36 2.4 Securitisation of borders and the right to migration 39 2.5 The security-economy dilemma of securitised borders 41 2.6 Conclusion 42 Notes 43 THE POLITICAL CONTEXT OF INTRA-SOUTHERN AFRICAN MIGRATION: REFLECTIONS ON POST-WAR MOZAMBIQUE AND POST-APARTHEID SOUTH AFRICA 46 3.1 Introduction 46 3.2 Transnational and international patterns of migration in post-war Mozambique 47 3.3 Preparation for border control responses 49 3.5 The Mozambique Border Police border controls priority 52 3.6 Post-apartheid South African migration management 58 3.6.1 Legacies of the past 59 3.6.2 Migration policy reforms 60 3.6.3 Integration of immigrants: a losing battle 61 3.7 Prospect of intra-Southern African migration: a response to anti- immigration policies 66 3. 8 Conclusion 71 Notes 72 RESSANO GARCIA: INTERNATIONALISED, SECURITISED BORDER CONTROLS 75 4.1 Introduction 75 4.2 Ressano Garcia and the dynamics of border control 76 4.3 Securitisation and human security perspective of borders 78 Contents vii 4.4 Context and case study 80 4.4.1 Ressano Garcia border: historical overview 81 4.4.2 Immigration control 83 4.4.3 Patrol operations 85 4.4.4 Community perceptions 88 4.5 Cross-border cooperation: lessons from the case study 92 4.6 Conclusion 94 Notes 95 MACHIPANDA REGION: BLURRED BOUNDARIES OF A BORDER ECONOMY 98 5.1 Introduction 98 5.2 Contextualising migration flows across the Mozambique-Zimbabwe border 99 5.2.1 Political and economic factors underlying border crossing 100 5.2.2 Socio-cultural factors 103 5.3 Patrol operations 104 5.3.1 Border police operations 104 5.3.2 Customs operations 106 5.3.3 Immigration control at Machipanda border post 108 5.4 Life experience in the Machipanda border region 112 5.5 Reflections on the Machipanda-Mutare border region as an economic transition zone 115 5.6 Conclusion 118 Notes 119 MANDIMBA REGION: RETHINKING LAND-RELATED CROSS-BORDER GOVERNANCE 124 6.1 Introduction 124 6.2 Return of refugees from Malawi and a new landscape of border in Niassa Province 125 6.3 Border patrol operations 133 6.4 Customs operations 135 6.5 Immigration control: Mandimba border post 136 6.6 Life experiences in Mandimba border region 138 6.7 Rethinking the Mandimba-Mangochi border as a co-managed border zone 143 Contents viii 6.7.1 Context of co-management and few examples 143 6.7.2 Co-management of natural resources in the Southern African region 144 6.7.3 Challenges for co-management of the Mandimba-Mangochi border region 147 6.8 Conclusion 150 Notes 151 INTERNATIONALISED BORDER GOVERNANCE: MOZAMBIQUE’S SEA BORDERS AND AIRPORTS 155 7.1 Introduction 155 7.2 Externalisation of international security standards of border control: the role of international institutions 156 7.2.1 The International Civil Aviation Organisation and the technologies of border governance 159 7.3 ICAO’s security standards and their impact on Mozambican border control reforms 163 7.3.1 Security standards for air border control 163 7.3.2 Security reforms for sea border control 165 7.3.3 Reforms in the Immigration Department 169 7.3.4 Security reforms in the Mozambique Revenue Department 174 7.4 Securitisation and overlapping of regimes of border control 176 7.5 Conclusion 177 Notes 178 RETHINKING CROSS-BORDER REGIONS IN MOZAMBIQUE IN THE CONTEXT OF SADC INTEGRATION 184 8.1 Introduction 184 8.2 Interrogating SADC’s rationale for a security community 185 8.3 Economic integration and security cooperation 188 8.4 Efforts towards regional security cooperation 190 8.5 Border control regimes in SADC 194 8.6 Rethinking border governance from within: local communities and border officials 196 8.7 Mozambique development strategies: a challenge to (re) conceptualising development in cross-border regions 202 Contents ix 8.8 Conclusion 206 Notes 207 SUMMARY AND RESEARCH AGENDA FOR THE FUTURE 211 9.1 Introduction 211 9.2 Empirical findings 212 9.3 Theoretical implications and future research 214 9.3.1 Hybrid identities in cross-border regions 215 9.3.2 Social integration of foreigners 216 9.3.3 Human security, development and border governance 217 9.3. 4 Implications of this study for policy makers 217 References 219 Curriculum Vitae 240 List of Tables, Figures, Maps and Appendices Tables 1.1 Summary of convergent factors in the three border regions 18 3.1 Categories used by the MBP to classify immigrants crossing Mozambique borders 53 3.2 Key interaction factors shaping intra-Southern African migration 67 7.1 Sea divided into various legal zones 166 8.1 Analysis of human security and state security based on three border communities in Mozambique 205 Figure 8.1 Barricades at the Ressano Garcia border gate 202 Maps 1.1 The selected border regions for data collection 15 3.1 Illegal immigration routes across Mozambique by land and sea borders 55 4.1 Ressano Garcia border region 81 5.1 Mozambique-Zimbabwe and the Beira corridor linking the Machipanda border to Port Beira. 100 5.2 Machipanda border in Manica Province in central Mozambique 108 6.1 Mozambique-Malawi border 126 126 6.2 Mandimba-Mangochi border 137 x Acronyms xi Acronyms AEC – African Economic Community AIM – The Mozambique Information Agency AU – African Union AUBP – African Union Border Programme AVSEC – Aviation Safety and Security measures CAR – Central African Republic CDA – Critical Discourse Analysis COMAF – Commission for the Sea and Borders COMESA – Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa CPLP – Community of Portuguese Language Countries CPM – Mozambique Police Board CS – Copenhagen School DA – Discourse Analysis DRC – Democratic Republic of Congo EAC – Eastern African Community ECOWAS – Economic Community of West African States ECSC – European Coal and Steel Community ENP – European Neighbourhood Policy EU – European Union FADM – Mozambique Armed Defence Forces FGDs – Focus Group Discussions FLM – Forças de Libertação de Moçambique (Mozambique Liberation Forces) FRELIMO – Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (Mozambique Liberation Front) FRONTEX – Frontières Extérieures (External Borders) Acronyms xii FTA – Free Trade Area GATT – General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GPA – General Peace Agreement HSS – Homeland Security Strategy ICAO – International Civil Aviation Organisation IACM – National Institute of Civil Aviation of Mozambique IDENT – Automated Biometric Identification System IGAD – Intergovernmental Authority on Development ILO – International Organisation for Labour IMAF –.Institute of the sea and borders INTERPOL – The International Criminal Police Organisation IOM – International Organisation for Migration IRP – Interior Repatriation Programme ISPS – International Ship and Port Facility Security LAM – Mozambique Airlines MBP – Mozambique Border Police MDP