SPC CPS SECRETARIAT OF THE PACIFIC COMMUNITY SECRÉTARIAT GÉNÉRAL DE LA COMMUNAUTÉ DU PACIFIQUE © SPC, 2011 – Cover design: Muriel Borderie –SPC Publications Section : Hugues Lemonnier Muriel –SPC Publications – Photo design: Borderie © SPC, 2011 – Cover
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories:
CONTACT DETAILS Secretariat of the Pacific Community Status and trends in 2010
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Email: [email protected] Website: www.spc.int Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010
Compiled for SPC Aquaculture Section by Jacques Patrois
Secretariat of the Pacific Community Noumea, New Caledonia, 2011 © Copyright Secretariat of the Pacific Community, 2011
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Secretariat of the Pacific Community Cataloguing-in-publication data Patrois, Jacques Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: status and trends in 2010 / compiled for SPC aquaculture section by Jacques Patrois
1. Shrimp culture — Oceania. 2. Shrimp fisheries — Oceania. 3. Aquaculture — management — Oceania.
I. Patrois, Jacques II. Title III. Secretariat of the Pacific Community
639.543 AACR2
ISBN: 978-982-00-0491-7
Design and layout: Muriel Borderie – SPC Publications Section Prepared for publication at the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Noumea, New Caledonia, 2011
2 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Contents
Executive summary...... 4
1. Shrimp aquaculture in the world: trends and challenges...... 5
2. Review of the cultured shrimp industry in Pacific Island countries and territories... 7
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands ...... 9
Vanuatu...... 13
Fiji ...... 15
French Polynesia...... 21
Guam...... 26
Papua New Guinea...... 30
New Caledonia...... 33
3. Analytical review of country reports...... 40
4. Challenges and possible alternatives ...... 46
5. Reference List...... 54
6. Annexes...... 57
Annex 1: Saipan Aquaculture Farm, CNMI...... 57
Annex 2: Teouma prawns Limited (Efate)-Vanuatu...... 61
Annex 3: Denarau project, Nadi, Fiji...... 63
Annex 4: Wong’s farm project, Yako, Fiji...... 64
Annex 5: Vatoa village project, Nausori, Fiji...... 66
Annex 6: Guam Aquaculture Development and Training Center (GADTC also known as Fadian Hatchery), Guam...... 68
Annex 7: Aquaculture farm facilities in New Caledonia...... 70
Annex 8: Resource persons ...... 75
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 3 Executive summary
Each year the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) Aquaculture Section conducts a thorough review of one selected aquaculture sector of relevance to the Pacific region. Past reviews have included Kappaphycus seaweed, tilapia fish, marine ornamentals and marine finfish. Marine shrimp farming was the activity chosen for review in 2010. In a world where shrimp aquaculture is developing at an extraordinary rate, mainly in the countries of Asia and Latin America, it seemed appropriate to assess the impact of this expansion on the Pacific region, especially in the Pacific Island countries and territories (PICTs). The first stage involved identifying the various shrimp farming projects in progress and preparing a programme of site visits, which then made it possible to meet most private and institutional stakeholders in the countries producing shrimps from aquaculture.
The information gathered revealed a high degree of diversity in the conduct of this activity, often determined by economic, human, geographical or political factors. It emerged, however, that the concerns of the various stakeholders were often similar and linked to the island setting: distance from world trading routes, small local markets with strong competition from imported products, and difficulties with access to appropriate know-how and equipment. Paradoxically, all the countries are aware that, even if one of the benefits of being an island is a well-protected health status due to isolation from the major diseases affecting shrimp aquaculture, it is not easy to capitalise on or protect that status.
In a second stage, an analytical review of the various factors and problems that can affect the development of shrimp culture was carried out bearing that each country has its own priorities and constraints.
Technical and biological challenges and possible alternatives are then discussed to broaden the perspective and offer general considerations of interest to stakeholders interested in aquaculture, with special emphasis on marine shrimps.
Without claiming to offer ready-made solutions for developing marine shrimp aquaculture in PICTs, this technical report should be considered a starting point for a better understanding of the potential opportunities and benefits of developing this activity. There are certainly many obstacles, but these should not discourage private or institutional initiatives, because opportunities do exist and the benefits can be social as well as economic and technical.
The opinions expressed in this report, although based on site visits and discussion with resource persons, cannot be taken as commitments from the various people consulted and are the author’s sole responsibility.
4 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 1. Shrimp aquaculture in the world: trends and challenges
For many years, capture fisheries supplied most of the shrimps consumed worldwide. Not until the 1980s did farmed shrimps begin to appear in significant quantities on the markets as a result of the development of industrial techniques that made it possible to produce post-larvae in hatcheries and rear them in ponds. Fishing effort intensified simultaneously but catches peaked a few years ago and aquaculture now accounts for over 50% of world shrimp production, estimated in 2008 at 6.5 million tonnes.
Mi lli on MT
7 52 %
6 fisher ies aquacul ture 5 4 28 % 3 26 % 2 1 0
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
Figure 1. World shrimp production with the relative contributions of aquaculture and the capture fishery Source: FAO (2010)
While wild-caught shrimps belong to more than a dozen different species, aquaculture output is dominated by two species, Penaeus monodon and Litopenaeus vannamei, native to Asia and the Pacific coast of Latin America respectively .
Figure 2. World shrimp aquaculture production by species (estimate for 2009) Sources: FAO (2010) and GOAL (Anderson and Li 2010)
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 5 The main trend is the increasing proportion accounted for by L. vannamei, particularly since 2001, when this species was introduced into Asia. Production of P. monodon and other species is in decline because the advantages of farmed L. vannamei over other potential cultured species are enormous: ff the availability of domesticated stocks free of known diseases (referred to as ‘specific pathogen free’ or SPF), used to produce high-quality post-larvae; ff the development by each country or by large firms of stocks is suited to local farming conditions; ff the possibility of developing strains selected for their fast growth, resistance to certain diseases, high density, low salinity tolerance, and many other parameters; ff domestication programmes for other species (Fenneropenaeus indicus, P. monodon, Fenneropaeus chinensis, Litopenaeus stylirostris) are in progress, but have not yet had an impact on world production.
One of the consequences of the predominance of L. vannamei is the general spread of intensive farming techniques, leading to increased profitability and better management of aquaculture facilities, while enabling the control and indeed avoidance of viral diseases when adequate bio-security measures are implemented.
Despite the importance gained by L. vannamei and the large quantities of shrimps of this species finding their way to market, the experience acquired by the producing countries now makes it possible to produce good quality shrimps that sell at the same prices as P. monodon, which traditionally fetched higher prices. However the current trend is for prices to fall for all species; they stabilised in 2010 at around USD 10 per kilo for shrimps weighing 33–38 grams and USD 5 for shrimps weighing 18 grams (http://www.urnerbarry.com ).
In recent years, shrimps have clearly become a widely available commodity, sold at reasonable prices and in different forms (chilled ‘green’, with or without the head, cooked, breaded, etc.) making it possible to market them worldwide.
The main challenges facing shrimp aquaculture worldwide are not only economic but also biological and environmental. According to recent research by the Global Outlook for Aquaculture Leadership (www.gaalliance.org/GOAL/), the following should be noted, in decreasing order of importance: ff price variability on international markets; ff problems with viral and bacterial diseases; ff the cost of feed, principally fish meal, which is one of the staples for shrimp aquaculture; ff environmental constraints, including farm water quality and the impact of farm waste; ff access to stocks of disease-free broodstock; ff the quality and availability of appropriate feed; ff problems with the quality of marketed shrimps (bacteriology, presence of banned substances, traceability, etc.) ff rising energy costs.
A final remark relates to the importance of national markets for domestic shrimp production. Whereas in previous years most of the output was destined for export to the main overseas markets (USA, Europe, Japan), the current trend is for increased output in the producing countries themselves, due to the improvement in those countries’ standard of living. An example is China, which exported only 0.2 million tonnes in 2009 of the total output of 1.3 million tonnes, a figure similar to that recorded in 2003, when production was only 0.8 million tonnes.
6 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 2. Review of the cultured shrimp industry in Pacific Island countries and territories
The island countries and territories of the Pacific vary greatly in size and lie at varying distances from the major continental land masses in the ocean vastness. Despite the existence of ports and airports, this isolation is still very real, because many countries are outside the main trading routes and activity tends to be restricted in frequency and scale, dependent as it is on population size (often small) and economic activity (negligible in some cases).
In his review of aquaculture in the Pacific region, Ben Ponia (Ponia 2010) casts a historical eye over this activity and showed clearly that, prior to the 1980s and 1990s, many aquaculture projects had been started but that most of them were incompatible with local socio-economic conditions. The resulting failures left behind totally unsuitable production facilities and ineffective government organisations. Only the territories of French Polynesia and New Caledonia met success with mother-of-pearl culture and shrimp farming respectively. Even if in the case of pearl culture, the production started with a low tech industry, it is only after significant investment in technology and research, as well as project funding and marketing, that both productions achieved success. From the 2000s aquaculture again attracted interest, but this time with more realistic expectations and the benefit of learning from past failures.
Against this background, some countries may be in a more favourable situation than others to commence an aquaculture development programme, particularly one involving marine shrimps. A number of favourable factors that are frequently referred to individually or in relation to one another are as follows: ff a local or visitor population with high purchasing power; ff consumer habits associated with the presence of wild shrimp stocks; ff significant development potential due to a favourable climate and the availability of enough space for pond building without competing with agricultural or urban development; ff the availability of expertise (from universities, research and development agencies, national technical departments or private companies wishing to develop this activity locally); ff a marine environment that is protected from the major epizootic diseases affecting farms in other countries; ff the existence of domesticated strains of penaeid shrimps.
The economic factors that can affect project feasibility are usually addressed in a second stage of assessment, mostly by political leaders, who introduce considerations such as jobs for rural communities, the diversification of family or community activities to obtain extra income, and import substitution. Generally speaking, marine shrimp production, contrary to fish farming, is not considered a food source for the poorest communities. In the Pacific region, the socio-economic dimensions of the farm culture activity were not considered, mainly because of lack of available data on it and the fact that it is done on such a small scale, except in New Caledonia.
Although New Caledonia remains, in regional terms, the giant of cultured shrimp production in the Pacific, its total output remains modest (2400 tonnes in 2005 and only 1500 tonnes in 2009) and accounts for only 0.045% of world production. The other marine shrimp producing countries in the region together account only for barely 100 tonnes.
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 7 Of the 22 PICTs that are members of SPC, only seven were involved in marine shrimp culture in 2010: ff Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI); ff Fiji Islands ff Guam ff New Caledonia ff Papua New Guinea ff French Polynesia ff Vanuatu.
Figure 3. Map of Pacific Island countries and territories Source: Secretariat of the Pacific Community
Visits to all these countries (except Papua New Guinea) enabled the writer to assess progress on the various shrimp farming projects under way and try to appreciate the problems and expectations of the professionals and government technical departments involved. They are in direct touch with their countries’ economic realities and the difficulties they face in supporting shrimp aquaculture as one of a range of aquaculture activities.
The shrimp farming industry is more fully documented in some countries than in others. In countries where it is well documented it is a better-structured activity, from the point of view both of the professionals and of government services than in those where it is not well documented. In most countries, shrimp consumption could not be estimated because such specific custom data were not available. The official sanitary status of some countries regarding shrimp diseases was also difficult to assess, even though they are part of the Office International des Epizooties (OIE, World Organisation for Animal Health) and are supposed to provide updated information on marine diseases. The latest available information was collected when possible during the survey and completes what can be found on the OIE – WAHID database (OIE 2011).
8 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
Background information
The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) comprises 14 islands lying north of Guam, the biggest of which are Saipan (with the capital, Garapan), Rota and Tinian.
Population: approximately 80,000.
Tourism: some 400,000 visitors annually, mainly from the USA and Asia (Japan, China, Korea, Philippines, etc.).
The economy, previously based on the textile industry and tourism, is seeking to diversify and aquaculture has been identified as a promising alternative.
The Northern Marianas College-Cooperative Research Extension and Education Service (NMC-CREES) was designated in Public Law 15–43 of 2007 as the competent authority over aquaculture. A new aquaculture development plan for the 2011–2015 period has just been produced (NMC–CREES 2010). Tilapia and marine shrimps are among the target species.
Figure 4. CNMI map
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 9 The favourable factors for shrimp farming are identified as: ff the high local demand for seafood ff the high potential demand from Asian tourists ff the excellent quality sea water ff the apparent absence of shrimp diseases ff the tropical climate ff easy access to the latest farming techniques through the close relationship between the Commonwealth and the USA and its development agencies ff excellent airline services to Asia and America for export ff strong political support for developing aquaculture.
A brief history of shrimp farming in CNMI
2002 First shrimp farming trials with L. vannamei at NMC-CREES
2004 Saipan Aquaculture, a private venture located inland, began to rear L. vannamei using recirculation systems
2009 First broodstock exports of SPF L. vannamei by Saipan Aquaculture to Asia
2010 First polyculture trials of tilapia/L. vannamei conducted by NMC-CREES in a closed circuit system
2010 Establishment of the Commonwealth Aquaculture Producers’ Association (CAPA)
The status of the shrimp sector in CNMI in 2010
ff One intensive farm (see Annex 1): • Concrete tanks, 25 to 650 sq. m. in volume • A small hatchery (10 cu. m.) on site • Brackish well-water • Annual production of some 25 MT for local consumption and a few thousand SPF broodstock for export. ff Three small aquaculture farms (one each on Saipan, Tinian and Rota) occasionally rear shrimps using closed circuit systems when post-larvae are available. The output is negligible. ff NMC-CREES conducts many development activities to stimulate the aquaculture sector, many involving shrimp ventures, and is also the aquatic quarantine facility for imports of larvae or broodstock (not shrimps); ff Broad collaboration exists with universities, research bodies and international organisations: Oceanic Institute (Hawaii), University of Arizona, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC), and the Center for Tropical and Subtropical Aquaculture (CTSA in Hawaii).
Species cultured: L. vannamei. The SPF post-larvae are supplied to small farms by the hatchery of the University of Guam (Guam Aquaculture Development and Training Center-GADTC- also called Fadian Hatchery). The intensive farm produces its own post-larvae from broodstock initially imported from GADTC and also from Thailand.
10 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 The aquaculture development plan and the needs and issues assessment (NMC–CREES 2010)
Round-table sessions on issues and prospects were held on the three main islands with leaders, agriculture farmers, aquaculture practitioners, industry representatives, and technical and education services. The main hindrances to aquaculture development were also reviewed by the many participants.
With specific reference to shrimps, a number of constructive suggestions were put forward: ff In the short term: • identify a financial adviser to facilitate access to the various resources available; • set up a technical committee to confirm project feasibility and compliance with prevailing legislation, particularly environment legislation; • create a directory of the main suppliers of aquaculture equipment, globally and locally; • produce a list of private or government organisations in the Pacific region offering training opportunities. ff After two years : • establish within CNMI a diagnostic capability for aquatic diseases and set up an aquatic quarantine station; • increase shrimp production capacity to replace some or all imports; • introduce a quality standard labelling system and the requisite quality control system; • begin a domestication programme in CNMI. ff After five years: • place a ban on the importation of raw shrimps and crustaceans (fresh or frozen) for bio-security reasons and promote local production; • establish CNMI as an internationally recognised producer of SPF broodstock; • create genuine local expertise in shrimp culture in an island environment and disseminate it in the Pacific; • promote an exclusive, high quality product.
Challenges
The same round table sessions were also used as an opportunity to discuss the general obstacles to the development of aquaculture and ways of overcoming them. In order of importance (percentage of responses), these are listed below. ff Production costs: Reduce production costs and improve access to resources (land, sea and fresh water, larvae, etc.); ff Access to capital: Improve access to capital and increase support arrangements; ff Access to markets: Develop access to domestic and overseas markets; ff Technical assistance: Develop access to technical assistance; ff Licensing: Streamline the process for aquaculture; ff Socio-economic aspects: Create cooperatives at community level, micro-projects, etc.; ff Security: Minimise biosecurity risks.
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 11 Support
The participants identified various ways of supporting the development of aquaculture in CNMI: ff The construction of a multi-purpose hatchery for the production of larvae and juvenile molluscs, fish and echinoderms for potential aquaculturalists; ff Training and recruitment of aquaculture specialists both for the hatchery and for providing technical support to farmers; ff Strengthening of the bio-security aspect with a specialist veterinarian who would supervise the animal health aspects and the establishment of a quarantine facility and associated diagnostic facilities.
All the above can be coordinated by NMC–CREES.
12 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Vanuatu
Background information
Vanuatu comprises 83 islands, the largest of which are Efate (with the capital, Port Vila), Espiritu Santo, Tanna, Ambrym, Pentecost and Malakula.
Population: approximately 250,000, mostly living in rural areas.
Tourism: approximately 150,000 visitors annually, mainly from Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia and Asia.
Agriculture, the exporting of associated products, tourism and financial services are the foundations of Vanuatu’s economy.
The Vanuatu Fisheries Department coordinates the development of aquaculture in Vanuatu. An aquaculture development plan for the 2008–2013 period (VDF 2008) lists the main species identified and the resources needed in terms of infrastructure, research and development, protection of the environment, bio-security, training, and human resources. Marine shrimp farming has been identified as one of the priorities for both local consumption and export.
0Kilometres 200
Torres Islands
Banks Islands 14° S —
Espiritu Maewo Sant o Ambae Luganville Malo Pentecost 16° S — Ambrym Malakula
Epi Shepherd Group
Efate Port Vila 18° S —
Erromang o
Tanna
Vanuatu 20° S — Aneityum
166° E 168° E 170° E — — —
Figure 5. The islands of Vanuatu
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 13 The favourable factors for shrimp farming are identified as: ff a potentially high demand from tourists ff the excellent sea water quality ff the apparent absence of shrimp diseases ff the tropical climate ff the presence of wild penaeid shrimps with potential for aquaculture (P. monodon, F. merguiensis) ff regular airline services to Fiji, Australia and New Zealand ff the political will to develop aquaculture.
A brief history of shrimp farming in Vanuatu
While a number of aquaculture species underwent experimental rearing in the 1980s without a great deal of success, shrimp farming began in 2005 with the establishment of a ten-hectare farm, which was still operating in 2010, Teouma prawns Ltd. Located near the capital Port Vila on the island of Efate, it is still the only marine shrimp farming operation in the country (see Annex 2).
Figure 6. Location of the Teouma Farm shrimp operation, near Vila (Google map)
The status of the shrimp sector in Vanuatu in 2010
Marketing The main concern of the sole current producer is apparently more economic than technical in nature. Although the farm had initially targeted annual production of 60 to 80 MT with potential exports to the Fiji and New Zealand tourism markets, the expansion in world shrimp production has flooded markets with frozen shrimps and occupied markets initially targeted by the Vanuatu producer, including the domestic Vanuatu market.
Interruptions in the supply of the initially cultured L. stylirostris post-larvae had an impact on supply to the local market, which turned to international markets for the same or even lower prices in order to offset the unavailability of locally produced shrimps. Regaining access to these markets is proving difficult, as production costs remain high (energy, feed, staff, post-larvae, etc.).
Bio-security Imports of post-larvae, even if the production sources are certified disease-free, can raise long-term issues, because supplying countries are not free of serious diseases. This comment applies to shrimps but also to other species.
The importing of frozen raw shrimps from countries where serious diseases occur is a major and uncontrolled potential source of disease. A lack of local resources and knowledge on aquatic animal diseases is clearly a weak point in Vanuatu’s aquaculture development scheme.
14 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Fiji
Background information
Fiji comprises 330 islands, the two largest being Vanua Levu and Viti Levu, where the capital, Suva, is. Population: approximately 900,000 with an urban segment estimated at 40%.
Tourism: approximately 620,000 visitors annually, mainly from Australia, New Zealand and Asia. Sugar cane, sugar exports and tourism form the country’s economic foundation.
The Fisheries Department, which is part of the Ministry of Primary Industries, has an Aquaculture Extension branch that is directly responsible for the development of aquaculture in the rural areas but also supports private enterprise. Despite the many aquaculture projects that have emerged over nearly 30 years involving a number of different marine, brackish-water and freshwater species, the socio-economic impact of aquaculture is still fairly insignificant. The pearl oyster, Euchema seaweed, tilapia and freshwater shrimps are the only species that have met some success (FAO 2009).
Marine shrimp farming has stalled and there are no operational commercial projects at present. — — — 178° E 180° Rotuma 178° W 12° 30 S — 0 Kilometres 100 177° E — Fiji Islands Cikobia
16° S — Ringgold Isles Labasa VANU A LEVU Rabi Taveuni Yasawa Yadua Qamea YASAWA Savusavu GROUP Nacula Nabouwalu Naitauba Naviti BLIGH WATER Vanua Balavu Waya Kanacea Koro NORTHERN Makogai Mago LAU GROUP Lautoka Ovalau Cicia Tuvuca VITI LEVU Nadi Nairai Vanuaso Nayau 18° S —
SUVA Gau KORO SEA Lakeba Beqa
Vatulele Mo ce Moala SOUTHERN Vuaqava LAU GROUP Ono Totoya Kabara Kadavu Fulaga Matuku Ogea Levu
Vatoa 20° S —
Ono I Lau
Tuvana I Colo Tuvana I Ra
Figure 7. Fiji
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 15 The favourable factors for shrimp farming are identified as: ff a high potential demand from the tourism industry; ff the presence of wild penaeid shrimps with aquaculture potential (P. monodon, F. merguiensis, P. latisulcatus, Metapenaeus ensis, and M. canaliculatus) (Choy 1983; Pickering and Forbes 2002), which are fished in a very limited artisanal way and sold to hotels as well as at local markets;
Figure 8. M. canaliculatus and P. monodon at Nausori market Figure 9. Fisher in the mangrove © M. Huber
ff the excellent quality of the sea water ff the tropical climate ff regular airline services to Asia, Australia, New Zealand and the United States ff the political will to develop aquaculture ff local know-how based on past experience and available from the Institute of Marine Resources of the University of the South Pacific (USP).
A brief history of shrimp farming in Fiji
A number of semi-industrial farms started operations but for various reasons none of these projects is currently operational. The only active artisanal projects are some small ones that were started recently.
1973 Establishment of the farm in Raviravi, Ba. This was initially a joint project between the Fisheries Department and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and then handled by various owners and managers. After beginning with rabbit fish, milkfish (Chanos chanos) and mullet farming, various exotic shrimp species were trialled (F. merguiensis in 1974, F. indicus in 1983 and L. stylirostris in 1984–1985), with the only local species being P. monodon , although there were also some imports, from Australia in particular. The farm is no longer operational, even after having tried farming various fish species.
1990–1992 Two adjacent farms were built with earthen ponds. They ceased activity either because of post- larvae supply problems or post-larvae quality issues (health problems, gill-associated virus [GAV]). These farms were culturing P. monodon (imported from Australia in 1990) (Eldredge 1994) and L. stylirostris (imported from Hawaii in 1999 and Brunei in 2003).
16 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 2000–2002 Construction of the Fisheries Department hatchery at Galoa (Annex 3). This hatchery is still operating but its facilities are ageing and it is excessively dependent on the availability of wild broodstock of P. monodon and F. merguiensis. Despite many trials, no broodstock for these two species or of L. stylirostris has been established, mainly because of a general lack of resources.
2001 Construction of a small penaeid shrimp hatchery at the USP Marine Studies Programme. Unfortunately, in 2004, it had to be converted into a larval rearing unit for Macrobrachium rosenbergii and M. lar because the results were unpredictable and the very irregular quality of wild broodstock of P. monodon was not conducive to sustainable activity.
2002 Construction of a farm with four lined circular ponds. The L. stylirostris post-larvae were imported from Brunei. This farm stopped operating for reasons which are not clear, but which seem to be human rather than technical.
2007–2010 Three small artisanal farms were built (Annexes 4, 5 & 6). Their specific feature was that they were tide-dependent for pond water renewal. They rear P. monodon and F. merguiensis depending on the availability of post-larvae from the Galoa hatchery.
2010 First experimental rearing trials in cages carried out by USP using wild P. monodon.
Figure 10. Location (Google Map) of the current shrimp farming projects (yellow), past projects (red) and hatcheries (green)
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 17 The status of the shrimp sector in Fiji in 2010
Past experience and failures have shown how difficult it is to develop the shrimp farming sector in a country, even though it seems to offer many positive features. Analyses by industry, government and the scientific community vary in the importance each attaches to the difficulties to overcome, but all share the same concerns:
i. Secure reliable supplies of post-larvae (all species are concerned) in terms of quantity and quality.
Farmers are currently dependent on imports from overseas and the output of post-larvae from the government hatchery. These two options have their limitations, as described below.
a) Imports, biological hazards and bio-security risks
As soon as shrimp farming commenced, a range of species from Tahiti, New Caledonia, Australia and Asia were imported without taking the necessary health precautions or assessing the biological risks. The idea was to establish local broodstock sources to avoid subsequent importation of post- larvae. It is probable that some diseases were imported but with no significant repercussions on farmed animals, especially with the strain of L. stylirostris as a healthy carrier of the infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis (IHHN) virus (Weppe, Bonami, Lightner et al. 1992). The case of F. merguiensis should, however, be noted, as it escaped from the ponds, established itself in the natural environment and is now considered an indigenous species (Gundermann and Popper 1975, 1977; Choy 1983; Eldredge 1994).
More recent importations are L. stylirostris from Brunei and P. monodon from Australia.
The Brunei stock is considered free of notifiable diseases (OIE 2010) but the company concerned did not provide any information on the protocols used to protect the health status of its broodstock supplies. Bondad-Reantaso, Lovell and Arthur et al. (2005), in a document on the risks associated with the importation of Brunei post-larvae or broodstock, address the hazards associated with such a practice, which assume added importance in Fiji because the country has no quarantine facilities and the local diagnostic resources were only recently set up in the laboratory of the USP Institute of Marine Resources. Fortunately, testing of some batches proved negative for IHHNV.
The importation of P. monodon post-larvae from Australia was stopped after a series of tests (Spann, Cowley, Walker et al. 1997) showed that the majority of hatchery larvae output from that country carried yellowhead virus (YHV) and GAV, and that mortality due to GAV had affected one of the Fiji farms. For the moment, there is no alternative because stocks of disease-free animals (SPF) are not commercially available and these viruses continue to affect Australian farms (Munro, Callinan and Owens 2011). A study by Waqairatu and Pickering (2005) using Real Time Polymerase Chain Reaction and histology confirms the presence in Fijian populations of P. monodon of different viruses (Hepatopancreatic Parvovirus or HPV, Monodonbaculovirus or MBV, Mourilyan Virus or MoV, Gill Associated Virus or GAV and IHHNV) but the absence of TSV (Taura Syndrome Virus), YHV (Yellow Head Virus) and WSSV (White Spot Syndrome Virus).
Bondad-Reantaso et al. (2005) proposed an accreditation system between one or two SPF post- larvae suppliers and the Fiji animal health authorities with support from the USP diagnostic laboratory in order to simplify importations from these approved hatcheries. This would even make it possible to import, in addition to L. stylirostris (Hawaii), another species such as L. vannamei, for which a number of recognised suppliers exist (Hawaii and Thailand).
18 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 b. Production of post-larvae
As the USP hatchery is now dedicated to freshwater shrimp culture, the only remaining hatchery for producing post-larvae is the Fisheries Department facility at Galoa, near Suva. The quantities produced in recent years from wild broodstock or animals harvested in the grow-out ponds amount to only a few tens of thousands, which explains why the farmers had to close down their activities. Larvae imports were under close surveillance and the health guarantees from the suppliers were considered inadequate. The various attempts by the hatchery to put in captive broodstock from local or imported species have so far proved inconclusive.
The reasons for these failures and poor results are mainly linked to the lack of resources allocated to this hatchery, whose equipment and buildings are obsolete, while recurrent funding available is highly inadequate. These unfavourable working conditions, were they to last, would never allow progress in establishing captive broodstock or making larval breeding systems more reliable.
a. Maturation room b. 1 m3 larval rearing tanks c. 5 m3 larval rearing tanks
Figure 11. Galoa hatchery
Only a complete rehabilitation of the current facilities, using the new techniques that have been successfully introduced in other countries, could enable this hatchery to hope to achieve the objectives set by political and economic decision-makers in Fiji in terms of shrimp culture development. Such a rehabilitation process would need to be accompanied by genuine financial support and technical expertise, at least for an initial period.
Another solution could be the advent of an investor seeking to make his or her production secure by setting up a hatchery that could be sized, with financial incentives, to provide post-larvae to other projects in addition to his or her own. This prospect has been raised by a number of professionals who think success could be achieved with the work ethic and motivation found in a private enterprise but not in government departments.
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 19 b. Bio-security and importations of frozen products
Shrimp consumption is estimated at some 600 tonnes annually, mostly from imports of frozen raw shrimps. The development of a shrimp farming activity for import substitution purposes is one of the government’s goals. In the meantime, importation of raw shrimps is a source of major risk. Former producers pointed to their production costs, which were uncompetitive and made it difficult to sell their fresh product. The most serious risk, however, is health-related, because most imported raw shrimps carry many diseases that would be highly contagious in the event of an accidental transfer into the natural environment (shell peelings thrown into the sea for example). The introduction of such diseases could have a definite impact (Bondad-Reantaso et al. 2005) on wild shrimp populations, stocks of captive broodstock and farms.
c. Other considerations
Apart from the post-larvae supply problems and issues of bio-security, the professionals believe that the other constraints are secondary, even if they are substantial. They include the quality of feed (currently imported but could be produced locally if the demand existed), the relative reliability and cost of the power supply, and some outdated husbandry techniques.
The objective of meeting local demand without targeting exports is also well perceived and seems realistic and capable of motivating investors as long as the post-larvae supply issue can be resolved in one way or another.
The dangers of the introduction of pathogens by routes other than the importation of frozen or live animals, for example in vessel ballast water, are acknowledged, but difficult to counter without proper inspection systems. A biosecurity bill, Biosecurity Promulgation 2008, was enacted but the various local agencies concerned are understaffed and underequipped and their roles are not clearly defined (SPC 2010).
20 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 French Polynesia
Background information
French Polynesia comprises 121 islands forming five groups; the biggest island, Tahiti, has the capital, Papeete.
Population: approximately 260,000, mostly living in the Windward or Leeward groups. Tahiti is home to more than half the total population.
Tourism: approximately 130,000 visitors, mainly from Europe, the USA, Australia, New Zealand and Asia. Pearl culture and tourism are the country’s economic foundations.
The Fishery Service (Piha rava’i; http://www.peche.pf/) is very active in aquaculture (in addition to pearl culture) and works in close cooperation with the various research agencies operating in French Polynesia, including the Ifremer Research Centre and the Ecole pratique des Hautes Etudes, as well as the University of French Polynesia.
Hatutu Eiao MARQUESAS ISLANDS
French Polynesia Nuku Hiva Uahuka Uapou Hiva'oa Tahuata Motane 10° S — 0 Kilometres 500 Fatu Hiva
TUAMOTU ARCHIPELAGO
Tepoto Matahiva Manihi SOCIETY ISLANDS Ahe Takaroa Napuka Takapoto Rangiroa Pukapuka Tikehau Apataki Bellingshausen Arutua Aratika Kaukura Kauehi Takume Fangatau Taiaro Makatea Toau Raraka Raroia Fakahina Tupai Niau Katiu Taenga Fenua Ura MAUPITI BORA BORA Fakarava Makemo Tahaa Huahine Hiti Nihiru Mopelia Raiatea Faaite Tepoko Rekareka Tahanea Marutea Tetiaroa Motutunga Moorea Tekokota Tauere Tatakoto Anaa Haraiki Maiao Hikueru Reitoru Amanu Marokau TAHITI Mehetia Ravahere Hao Pukarua Akiaki Reao Nengonengo Vahitahi Manuhangi Paraoa Nukutavake Vairaatea Pinaki Ahunui Hereheretue 20° S — Anuanuraro Anuanurunga Nukutepipi Tureia Tenararo Vahanga Tenarunga Tematangi Maturei Vavao Marutea Maria Mururoa Maria Rurutu Fangataufa Rimatara Morane Mangareva Tubua'i Temoe Raivavae
AUSTRAL ISLANDS GAMBIER ISLANDS
Rapa 140° W 150° W Marotiri — —
Figure 12. French Polynesia
Although aquaculture (apart from pearl culture) represents as yet only a restricted number of projects in progress or taking shape, the Territory is aware of the potential it represents and is investing in new infrastructure and training so as to have the support arrangements it needs for its development policy. The shrimp sector remains a priority, even if it is still not very extensively developed.
Production amounts to approximately 50 tonnes a year and no new farms have been built since 1987.
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 21 Figure 13. Location (Google map) of shrimp farms (yellow), hatchery (green), cage project awaiting new start and Ifremer Research Centre and Aquaculture Technical Centre (blue)
The favourable factors for shrimp farming are identified as: ff the strong demand on the local market, estimated at some 600 MT; ff the excellent quality of the sea water; ff the favourable health status with no viral or infectious diseases listed by the OIE; ff the tropical climate; ff regular airline services to Asia, Australia, New Zealand and the USA; ff political support for the development of aquaculture; ff local expertise based on past and present experience within the Fishery Service and the Ifremer Research Centre; ff a domesticated strain of L. stylirostris (Weppe et al. 1992); ff an excellent research, development and diagnostic capacity; ff developing biosecurity awareness.
22 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 A brief history of shrimp farming in French Polynesia
1972 Opening of the Ifremer Research Centre at Vairao, Tahiti;
1975–1979 Establishment of captive stocks of F. merguiensis, P. monodon, L. vannamei and L. stylirostris by the Ifremer Research Centre (Aquacop 1977, 1979);
1979 Construction of the first semi-intensive shrimp farm at Opunohou, Moorea Island (two hectares);
1986–1987 Creation of two private one-hectare intensive farms at Tautira and Teahupoo, Tahiti;
1990 Territorial Hatchery opened at Taravao, Tahiti; and first brackish water marine shrimp farming trials by Aquapac;
2006 First cage culture trials by the Fishery Service and the Ifremer Research Centre;
2009 Construction of the Centre Technique Aquacole Polynésien (CTAP [Polynesian Aquaculture Technical Centre] also named VAIA) with a new shrimp hatchery to take over from the former Territorial Hatchery. It also includes a finfish hatchery. The facilities should be operational by mid 2011;
2010 Introduction of regulations banning the importation of frozen raw shrimps to protect the health status of the shrimp farming industry;
2010 A shrimp culture workshop at Tahiti Aquaculture 2010 concludes that cage and biofloc super- intensive cultures are the best alternative to enhance local shrimp production (http://www.tahitifaahotu.pf/index.php/actualites/manifestations/140-bilan-des-journees- qcrevetticulture-2011q).
The status of the shrimp sector in French Polynesia in 2010
Currently only a single species of shrimp is farmed, L. stylirostris. Despite the presence of the Ifremer Research Centre, which supports the Fisheries Service, the hoped-for development of the shrimp production industry has not happened and the Territory’s financial and human commitment to assisting, organising and stimulating existing farms and starting new ones has not always borne fruit. Improvements are expected with the opening of the CTAP (VAIA) which, in addition to supplying high quality post-larvae, will offer training and technical assistance to farmers and also set up a central purchasing facility for all aquaculture ventures (shrimps, finfish and other species).
Is a setting which would appear favourable on initial assessment, and pending positive outcomes from the measures introduced by the government concerning production, why has this industry not developed more favourably up to now? Two reasons are described below.
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 23 i. Competition from imported products
This is the main reason given by the current producers; prices for fresh local shrimps are up to twice those for raw shrimp imports. This situation is thought to prevent current producers from expanding their output and launching new projects. The ban on the imports of frozen shrimps for bio-security reasons should therefore act as a stimulant to local production and an incentive to new investors. In fact, as most imported frozen shrimps came from countries where many diseases occur, only cooked shrimps will be imported in future. If consumers take a liking to this new product, however, the positive impact on local production will be insignificant. A promotion drive would then be necessary to promote local shrimps, create a brand image and offer various size ranges that would make it possible to boost sales.
ii. Farming techniques
Farming techniques have changed little since the construction of the farms and same is true of the infrastructure. This lack of progress should certainly be ascribed to economic factors, but it is very counter-productive. It ‘freezes’ farming techniques and farmers have to sort out problems on a day-to- day basis rather than investing in innovation and improving production facilities.
The lack of available space for establishing semi-intensive traditional farms based on earthen ponds was identified a long time ago and intensive farming techniques were introduced in 1987 on the only intensive farm on Tahiti.
Figure 14. The intensive Sopomer farm, Tautira peninsula, Tahiti
Current production of some 15 tonnes a year from this one-hectare farm (earth-bottom ponds with concrete walls) may appear to be satisfactory, but is limited by the pumping capacity, the type of bottom, oxygenation and high summer temperatures, among other factors (Rispal pers. comm.).
The Opunohou farm, with its two hectares of earthen ponds, produces eight to fifteen tonnes annually, depending on the shrimp size ranges concerned.
Figure 15. Opunohou farm, island of Mooréa
24 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 The Opunohou farm suffers from the same problems of inadequate pumping capacity, oxygenation, pond bottom quality and high summer temperatures, not to mention concerns due to human or avian predation and marketing (Queinnec pers. comm.). Improvements in farming techniques and pumping equipment will have a positive effect on the farm’s production capacity.
The former Aquapac freshwater shrimp farm, which has since been converted into a desalinated water shrimp and fish farming facility, has difficulty in producing 20–25 tonnes from six hectares (out of ten) of earthen ponds. Here again the problem lies with water supply, oxygenation and ageing farming facilities.
Solutions exist to mitigate these problems and improve the current infrastructure, but the issue arises as to whether it is really worth investing in these improvements rather than in new, modern facilities designed to avoid current problems, adapt to market demand and marketing requirements, and permit increased output.
Cage grow-out trials have already been conducted on Bora Bora, but have been hampered by legal issues, among other things. In order to give this technique a fresh test, new experiments jointly conducted by the Ifremer Research Centre and the Fisheries Service are under way. The results are encouraging but have not yet gone beyond the experimental phase.
If the country wants to produce more shrimps in order to partly or totally replace imports, they will need to deal with new entrepreneurs who will implement new, environmentally friendly techniques and optimise the available space and production costs. Trials recently conducted in Thailand with L. stylirostris show the potential for properly managed intensive techniques using healthy animals (Wyban 2010, 2011). iii. Production costs and marketing
As in all PICTs, energy costs are high and all equipment and feed have to be imported. The initiative by CTAP to set up a central purchasing facility is promising, but should be accompanied by an effort on the part of the farmers to optimise production costs in husbandry techniques and marketing.
Until recently, farmers were still spending a lot of their time on finding outlets for their products, which were often sold in small quantities. What they are lacking is a recognisable brand image, as well as the support of the Syndicat des Aquaculteurs de Polynésie Française and the Coopérative des Aquaculteurs de Polynésie Française, who they could approach for that purpose. iv. Health status
Shrimp samples from all the farms were first analysed in 2008 by OIE reference laboratory of D. Lightner. No OIE-listed pathogens were detected. Further analyses were conducted in 2009 and 2010 with the same results. These results tend to confirm that the L. stylirostris strain, which used to be an IHHN virus carrier, is now free of it (Goguenheim et al. 2010).
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 25 Guam
Background information
Guam is the biggest island in the Marianas group. Situated at the southern end of this archipelago, its status is a United States Territory.
Population: approximately 180,000.
Tourism: 1,300,000 tourists mainly from Japan and Asia.
The economy is mainly based on the presence of the military, related activities and tourism.
The University of Guam (UOG) is deeply involved in aquaculture development programmes in partnership with many local government, federal and regional agencies (Brown, Hawes, Gourley et al. 2010). At the present time there are ventures farming tilapia, shrimps, milkfish (Chanos chanos) and catfish, with total local production amounting to some 150 tonnes. Most facilities take the form of earthen ponds but there are also above-ground ponds and tanks built from concrete or other materials.
Shrimps and tilapia are the priorities but no shrimp farms have been built recently. — 144°45' E
01Kilometres 0
Guam Ritidian Point
Yigo
Tumon Bay — 13° 30' N Dededo 13° 30' N — Tamuning AGANA Barrigada Piti M/T/M Ordot-Chalan Pago Port d’Apra Apra Harbour Mangilao Pago Bay Mt Tenjo Yona 313m
Agat Fena Lake Talofofo Talofofo Bay Santa Rita
Cetti Bay
Umatac Inarajan —13° 15' N Merizo 13° 15' N —
Ajayan Bay Cocos
144°45' E —
Figure 16. Guam
26 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 The favourable factors for shrimp farming are identified as: ff the level of consumption of seafood by the population (over 30 kg per year per person); ff a high potential demand from the tourism sector; ff the excellent quality of the sea water; ff the tropical climate; ff regular airline services to Asia, the Pacific region and the USA for export; ff relevant experience within UOG in the culture area and excellent research and experimental capacities; ff the close relationship with the research agencies working on shrimps; ff the presence on Guam of SPF stocks of the shrimp L. vannamei; ff the local skill base and good technical knowledge.
A brief history of shrimp farming in Guam
Figure 17. location of shrimp farm on Guam (Google map)
1972 UOG and the Guam Department of Agriculture (Aquatic and Wildlife Resources Division) began working on species with the potential for aquaculture.
Early 1980s Importation of P. monodon post-larvae for private farms using earthen ponds. The emergence of disease and the lack of broodstock brought these trials to an early close;
1981 Construction of the Guam Aquaculture Development and Training Center (GADTC) by a private company wanting to develop larval rearing techniques for China, Sri Lanka and Brunei, where the parent company, Trafalgar Housing Ltd., had interests;
1983 As a result of financial difficulties, GADTC was transferred to the Guam Department of Commerce. A stock of L. stylirostris was imported and, after the establishment of broodstock batches and the introduction of suitable larval breeding techniques, many farms began producing this shrimp;
1983–95 Establishment of several farms producing Tilapia, Chanos chanos and catfish in addition to the shrimp activity;
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 27 1995–1996 The stocks of L. stylirostris were affected by the IHHN virus and destroyed. They were replaced by L. vannamei;
2001 Management of the GADTC (Annex 6) was handed to UOG.
Figure 18. a. Agfayan inc. b. Ahayan Way Farm
c. Wang’s Enterprise d. A pond at Wang’s Enterprise
The status of the shrimp sector in Guam in 2010
Although the shrimp industry is still in its infancy on Guam (approximately ten tonnes a year), development potential exists because of the presence of a local SPF stock and the use of intensive techniques. Many obstacles remain, however.
i. Competition from imported products
There is little incentive for local consumers to purchase fresh products because of the abundance of imported frozen shrimps sold at much lower prices. The competition is exacerbated by the fact that the recent economic crisis has had repercussions on local consumption trends. Even if certain hotels seek to purchase fresh shrimps, the locally produced commodity does not have a brand image to identify it and promote its consumption.
28 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 ii. Production costs
All the current farms are small, use earthen ponds and are situated near a river mouth. They have high fixed overheads for power, feed and labour. As shrimp sales are slow, the farms culture species other than shrimps to diversify their supply and meet customer expectations responsively. The use of intensified systems in earthen ponds or cement/liner systems has still not been adopted, probably because of the high investments and running costs and an as yet unestablished market. iii. Supply of post-larvae
L. vannamei post-larvae can be purchased from GADTC when available, but this hatchery focuses mainly on the genetic improvement of this species, and its ageing facilities, despite the current partial renovation project, are not suited for regular production of large quantities of post-larvae. Farmers obtain their supplies from hatcheries in Thailand and Taiwan to cover most of their needs, with all the risks of introducing disease that are associated with such practices. It is clear that Guam should set up a proper bio-secure hatchery, making it possible to supply post-larvae on a larger scale and thus stimulate the shrimp-farming sector. iv. Biosecurity
The common practice of importing shrimp post-larvae from Asia is a permanent pathogen introduction hazard. This risk is aggravated by the fact that other importations are occurring to supply the same farmers with juvenile fish (mostly Chanos chanos from the Philippines but also tilapias). Although these imports require certificates of origin; health certificates, declaring the animals to be healthy and disease- free; and the application of visual inspection procedures, no testing is done on these imported animals by the relevant department, which in any event does not have the appropriate laboratory facilities and certainly no aquatic quarantine station.
The post-larvae imported by neighbouring CNMI are in the same situation, but the intensive farm itself conducts regular inspection procedures in order to protect its output, and especially its SPF broodstock export activity.
A recent study (Gong and Brown 2010), covering all the shrimp culture facilities in Guam and CNMI, reported the presence of IHHNV at two farms. UOG has recently equipped itself with a molecular biology laboratory for its own needs and to carry out the diagnostic testing previously conducted by external laboratories. An animal health watch programme was recently introduced by UOG, based on the surveillance of an aquaculture plant on Guam and another in CNMI.
As in most countries (apart from Australia, New Caledonia and French Polynesia in the Pacific region), the importation of frozen shrimps is not covered by any system of inspection or restriction; the risk of importing a disease is therefore still real and the need to raise awareness in the health and veterinary inspection services about these risks is particularly vital. v. Environmental regulations
A number of government and federal agencies are concerned and, in the same way as in the USA, the constraints imposed on future aquaculture operations are numerous. They relate both to access to water resources (salt and fresh water), the use of highly regulated zones (swamplands, coastlines, etc.), effluent control (any direct pumping is banned), a ban on digging ponds, seepage from which could contaminate groundwater, and a host of other rules (Brown et al. 2010) that can be considered as hindering the develop- ment of aquaculture, but also as an opportunity to use innovative solutions with little environmental impact.
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 29 Papua New Guinea
Background information
Papua New Guinea, capital Port Moresby, occupies the eastern half of the island of New Guinea (Indonesian Irian Jaya forms the western half) and comprises more than 600 islands of which the largest are New Britain and Bougainville.
PNG has a population, mainly rural, of approximately 6,900,000.
Tourism: approximately 90,000 tourists, mainly from Australia and Asia.
The economy is based on subsistence agriculture, oil and forestry resource development, and gold and copper mining. Among its many responsibilities, the National Fisheries Authority (NFA) and its Fisheries Management Business Group pursue the goal of developing expertise and conducting research for the purpose of marine resource management and expanding regional and international collaboration (FAO 2010). Aquaculture is therefore part of their mandate and SPC has already approached Papua New Guinea to discuss cooperation arrangements (Ponia 2009) in sectors where an aquaculture activity already exists: tilapia, pearl oyster, trochus, algae, shrimps, barramundi and sea cucumber.
Various freshwater species were farmed in the 1950s but only from 2002, with the introduction of GIFT tilapia, did rural aquaculture really begin to develop.
Marine aquaculture is still fairly underdeveloped and there is only one shrimp farm in operation. — — — 145° E 150° E 155° E
— 0° 0° — Papua Ne w G uinea
0 Kilometres 300 Mussau ADMIR ALTY Saint Matthias Group IS L AN Wuvulu DS Manus Lorengau Rambutyo New Hanover Vanimo B I S M Kavieng A R C K TABAR GROUP A R C Lihir H I A P Wewak E L TANGA GROUP
SI A St G Ge or O ge 's NE Rabaul Feni Is C h a NEW IRELAND
DO n
n
Kar Kar e l IN D a — 5° S m 5° S — Madang p ie Buka r Wabag Long S Umboi Mt Hagen V tr Kimbe itiaz Straita BOUGAINVILLE Kundiawa it NE W B R ITAIN Arawa NEW GUINEA Mendi Goroka Mt Bangeta 4121 Lae HUON GULF Mt Kumbak 3278 SOLOMON Kerema ISLANDS
Kiriwina GULF OF PAPUA Popondetta MARSHALL BENNETT ISLANDS Daru Goodenough Woodlark Fergusson PORT MORESBY D'ENTRECASTEAUX ISLANDS TORRES STRAIT — 10° S Kupiano Normanby 10° S— Alotau
LO Misima UIS IAD E A R C H Rossel AUSTRALIA IPE Tagula LA GO 145° E 150° E 155° E — — — Figure 19. Papua New Guinea
30 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 The favourable factors for shrimp farming are identified as: ff a multitude of potential sites with good quality sea water; ff the presence of numerous indigenous shrimp species with aquaculture potential, mainly F. merguiensis and P. monodon, which account for a small fishery; ff the tropical climate; ff the commitment by NFA to supporting aquaculture production projects, especially large-scale ventures.
A brief history of shrimp farming in Papua New Guinea
With NFA support, the shrimp farm run by Carpenter’s Company, a logging firm, began operations in 2007– 2008 near Rabaul, New Britain.
The species cultured is P. monodon, present locally.
On the same site are to be found six one-hectare earthen ponds, a hatchery and a packing and freezing plant (meeting international standards – NFA audit). The close proximity of an airstrip allows shrimp exports to the capital, Port Moresby or to neighbouring countries such as Fiji.
The announced production is around five tonnes per hectare per production cycle with a capacity of 80 tonnes a year. Although the larval rearing facilities do not apparently raise any particular issues (Indonesian technique with probiotics), obtaining wild broodstock supplies is highly problematic. The hatchery, which thought it would be able to rely on locally caught broodstock, did not initially invest in captive broodstock production facilities. It now has to go for its broodstock supplies to trawlers fishing near Port Moresby and even to the waters of the Gulf of Carpentaria, with high mortality rates occurring due to transport, capture and stress. The most recent reports from this farm (Pickering, pers. comm.) indicate difficulties with management and post-larvae supply. This suggests that the farm will not achieve the goals it set.
Figure 20. Aerial view (Google Map) of the Carpenters shrimp farm and associated structures, Rabaul, PNG
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 31 The status of the shrimp sector in Papua New Guinea in 2010
Although no visit was made and no resource person from Papua New Guinea could be contacted, certain issues can nevertheless be addressed.
i. Post-larvae supply
The presence of wild broodstock used to produce post-larvae again shows its limitations in terms of access to the resource, in the same way as in Fiji for example. Even if it is worthwhile for supplying a hatchery during an initial stage or to re-introduce animals into existing stocks, investments in a captive broodstock rearing facility would appear essential if the goal is to put together a commercial production activity.
ii. Biosecurity
No research has been done concerning the presence of pathogens affecting marine shrimps in Papua New Guinea. The proximity of Australia, however, and Indonesia, a major producer of cultured shrimps, suggests that great care is needed. While farming is bound to develop, proper farm bio-security measures must be adopted and broodstock kept under close surveillance to prevent diseases taking hold. At a regional bio-security meeting (SPC 2010), it was mentioned that the NFA had inspected some shrimps exported from wild fisheries and the farm without detecting YHV or white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), but that certain wild shrimp specimens had tested positive for the IHHN virus. Unfortunately, the NFA, which is responsible for health certification, is under-resourced and although Papua New Guinea is a member of the OIE, the information collection network is unstructured and much improvement is needed. With the presence in its waters of valuable shrimps species which could be used as a possible source of future broodstock for domestication programmes, it should be emphasised that biosecurity enforcement measures must be taken to protect this resource.
32 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 New Caledonia
Background information
New Caledonia, capital Noumea, is situated in southern Melanesia and, in addition to Grande Terre, the main island, comprises the Isle of Pines, the Loyalty Islands and the Belep group.
Population: approximately 250,000, almost two-thirds of whom live in the urban areas.
Tourism: approximately 100 000 tourists, mainly from Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Asia.
The economy is mainly based on the nickel industry, service industries and agricultural production. After mining products (90% of exports in value), shrimps remain the second biggest export (2%) (IEOM 2010). — — — — — — 158° E 160° E 162° E 164° E 166° E 168° E New C aledonia — 18° S 18° S —
0 Kilometres 200
Chester eld Reefs — 20° S 20° S —
L O Ouvéa Y A L T Y Touho I S L A Lifou N D Tiga S
Maré
— 22° S 22° S —
NOUMÉA
158° E 160° E 162° E 164° E 166° E 168° E — — — — — — Figure 21. New Caledonia
Provincial, government and state services are closely involved in providing support for the development of aquaculture, especially shrimp culture, which, apart from the value it represents as an export commodity, has created several hundred jobs in rural areas. Major tax incentives are being introduced (tax relief, subsidies) for the construction of new farms or new facilities and for upgrading existing infrastructure (hatcheries in particular).
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 33 Figure 22. Location of shrimp farms (yellow), hatcheries (green) and Ifremer Research Centre (blue) in New Caledonia (Google map)
The shrimp sector in New Caledonia is well organised and includes: ff two feed producers which produce specific shrimp feed, mostly from imported ingredients; ff four private hatcheries producing some 150 million post-larvae for the 17 farms operating (approx. 670 hectares under production); ff two shrimp packing plants.
Many aquaculture projects are in progress, rearing other marine species like sea cucumber (two facilities under construction), fish (a private hatchery for rabbit fish in the Southern Province and a marine aquaculture development laboratory in the Northern Province), scallops, algae, lobster and mud crab (Marty 2010).
The favourable factors for shrimp farming are identified as: ff the existence of many favourable coastal and mangrove sites; ff an extensive and protected lagoon; ff the presence of commercially valuable local species (P. monodon, F.merguiensis) and a domesticated strain of L. stylirostris; ff strict health surveillance by the veterinary services; ff a ban on importing frozen raw shrimps for animal health reasons; ff a population with high purchasing power and a constant rise in local demand for shrimps (estimated at over 700 tonnes); ff very strong support from the government; ff well organised professionals (e.g. Groupement des Fermes Aquacoles [Shrimp Farmers’ Association] ) with very good technical skills; ff an excellent technical and scientific environment (Ifremer Research Centre, University, IRD, Institut Pasteur, etc.); ff a vertically integrated country-wide production chain; ff a brand image for New Caledonian shrimps based on the scarcity of species L. stylirostris and very strict technical specifications as regards both farming and packing.
34 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 A brief history of shrimp farming in New Caledonia
Aquaculture was first launched in New Caledonia in 1970, when an aquaculture station was set up in Saint- Vincent bay in response to an initiative by the member governments of the South Pacific Commission (now Secretariat of the Pacific Community, SPC) and with support from the FAO. The research activities of this station managed by Ifremer and the ‘Centre Ifremer du Pacifique’ of French Polynesia made it possible to develop rearing techniques for various local and exotic shrimp species and to assemble captive broodstock for larval rearing and grow-out. These techniques were then gradually transferred to the private sector. Species L. stylirostris is currently farmed in New Caledonia and has been for some 40 generations.
1979–1981 Importations from Panama and Mexico, via Tahiti, L. stylirostris post-larvae;
1981 First artisanal grow-out farm: Ferme Chevallier;
1983 First industrial grow-out farm: Sodacal;
1984 First industrial feed output by SICA;
1988 First private hatchery (Sodacal) and first exports (73 tonnes) with packing facility built in Nouméa;
1993 Emergence of first disease issues due to Vibrio penaeicida (Mermoud, Costa, Goarant et al. 1998);
1997 Production reaches 1100 tonnes and three hatcheries supply 160 million post-larvae to the ten farms in operation (435 hectares of ponds);
1998 Emergence of a second disease problem involving Vibrio nigripulchritudo (Goarant, Herlin, Domalain et al. 2006);
2005 Importation of an SPF strain of L. stylirostris to improve the genetic viability of the strain present in New Caledonia (Ifremer 2006; Patrois et al. 2007a);
2008–2010 Drop in production in relation with hatcheries (lack of post-larvae) and pathogens (Vibrios).
The status of the shrimp farming sector in New Caledonia in 2010
The shrimp sector expanded regularly after its inception (despite the Vibrio disease issues) through the construction of new farms and new hatcheries. The best output figures were recorded in 2004 (2200 tonnes), 2005 (2400 tonnes) and 2006 (2400 tonnes), but they have fallen steadily since.
This drop in production was aggravated by the world context of a major surge in shrimp production in competition with the local output on world markets.
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 35 yield post-larvae 170 4
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1 120
110 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Figure 23. Evolution of yields and production of postlarvae of the shrimp industry in New Caledonia (Ifremer 2011)
Yields are also down (Figure 21), reflecting production problems influenced by the fall in post-larvae production but possibly also other technical or disease-related problems in farm management.
This situation is a clear reflection of the sector’s weaknesses as it faces up to new hazards that can adversely affect various production stages. It maintains a relatively traditional approach in terms of the techniques it uses and must evolve swiftly to cope with the rise in production costs. It must also find new techniques to make production reliable and adapt to the constraints of international markets.
i. Production of post-larvae
The main problem is the seasonality of larval production, between August/September and January, bearing in mind the quantities of larvae needed for seeding all the ponds in New Caledonia. The production cycles have to be synchronised for that purpose, often to the detriment of agreed protocols, especially when farming is problematic, production goals are not met and extra quantities have to be produced over the ensuing cycles.
Despite efforts to make output reliable, the hatcheries occasionally encounter production problems due to mortality during larval rearing phases. The protocols have recently changed a little to include the use of antibiotics to stabilise the bacterial flora in the farms. In order to avoid the inevitable emergence of antibiotic resistance, many trials are being conducted in order to promote protocols using probiotics and better health management on farms (water treatment, diversified feeds, disinfection of nauplii and live prey, general cleanliness, compliance with protocols, bacterial surveillance, quality of fallowing, etc.). Improvements are occurring, but many unknown factors need to be clarified to be able to achieve a genuine improvement in the reliability of larval production facilities.
The quality of spawning has also been used to explain some of the problems met in larval rearing, with cool season spawning showing better quality than results obtained in the hot season. In order
36 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 to deal with a recurrent problem, the hatcheries are investing in new maturation (thermoregulation and recirculation) and broodstock production systems. The broodstock in New Caledonia has always been produced in a traditional way, in earthen ponds and at low densities, to stimulate growth. The environmental hazards are, however, high in the event of high temperatures or heavy rainfall. Solutions are at present tending towards the preparation of shaded farms with tanks or raceways fitted with liners and the introduction of thermo-regulated buffer zones receiving broodstock undergoing maturation.
Trials using thermo-regulated bioflocs are also in progress. These techniques also provide better bio- security as these farms are smaller and easier to protect from external factors and possible disease vectors. Three hatcheries out of four are also physically separated (buildings isolated), with larval rearing set apart from the shrimp maturation and spawning areas.
While almost all the hatcheries in the world depend on natural fertilisation processes in the maturation tanks and only very occasionally resort to artificial insemination, (genetic improvement programme), the latter technique is the rule in New Caledonia. This practice requires the handling of large quantities of broodstock and the rearing of large numbers of animals, with the males being used only once. Natural fertilisation trials would seem to open the way to the use of this technique which, however, demands a radical change in the protocols currently in use. If this technique could be adopted, the quantity of broodstock to be produced could be reduced significantly and thus push post-larvae production costs down (Kawahigashi, pers. comm.).
The use of individual spawning tanks is also widespread in order to optimise larvae production, since the number of nauplii obtained per female is significantly higher when spawned separately than when a number of females are placed in the same spawning tank. This practice however requires extra work with spawning tank preparation, larvae harvesting and subsequent tank cleaning. The development of more effective techniques should gradually be achieved with the use of spawning tanks capable of accommodating a number of females. ii. Rearing techniques (Della Patrona and Brun 2008)
The use of large ponds should provide a guarantee of environmental stability as the water masses are large and their inertia provides some stability to the physico-chemical parameters. However, as soon as one of the parameters reaches a critical value, the action that can be taken to remedy this takes some time to have an impact, leaving the shrimps in a state of stress for periods of varying length. The problems encountered by farmers are mainly sub-optimal oxygen levels and the accumulation of anoxic waste in areas of varying size in the ponds, restricting the size of the areas favourable to the presence of shrimps. These problems take on an even more critical nature when the biomasses under culture quickly reach high levels because stocking densities are high (20 to 40/sq. m.) and the quantities of feed distributed daily are often above 500 kg. The disequilibria in environmental quality that may then occur are partly responsible for mortality events because they are conducive to the multiplication of the Vibrio pathogens at a time when the shrimps are not in their best physiological condition (Lemonnier, Courties, Mugnier et al. 2010).
Probiotics are not used to improve farm water quality and pond bottom characteristics, although this is a frequent and even systematic practice in almost all shrimp-producing countries.
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 37 The practice of drying out the ponds is very important for pond upkeep because they must be left to drain completely and be cleaned between each rearing cycle. The dry-out cannot unfortunately always be done optimally, which is an obstacle to the mineralisation of the accumulated waste, the sanitising of the soil by sunshine and the success of future rearing cycles. When there is not much waste, it is left in the pond and can be mineralised by a series of ploughing exercises; if there is major waste build-up, a range of mechanical means (such as snow ploughs) is available to clear the pond-bottoms.
iii. Diseases
There are Vibrios whose impact varies depending on weather conditions (El Niño, La Niña) and the technical management regimes in use. In addition, the risk of seeing new diseases emerge cannot be ruled out (Le Roux, Labreuche, Davis et al. 2011); The hope, however, is that the hybrids obtained using the New Caledonian strain of L. stylirostris together with the one imported from Hawaii, have shown better resistance to the Vibrios. These results, which it has not been possible to confirm at the production scale because of the multiplication of the IHHN virus, did, however, show that the expansion in the gene pool can produce higher yields without needing extensive genetic improvement programmes (Goyard, Goarant, Ansquer et al. 2007, 2008a,b).
Viral diseases occur, and although the New Caledonian strain of L. stylirostris has tolerance to the IHHNV present in New Caledonia, the mortality events due to the multiplication of this virus (in the presence of the SPF strain introduced to increase the genetic variability of the New Caledonian strain) clearly show the limits of that tolerance.
The introduction of new viral diseases cannot be ruled out any longer, despite the strict quarantine inspection system set up by the animal health authorities. Regular harvests of wild and cultured shrimps are taken on all farms, (animal health surveillance plan in cooperation with OIE) and testing is done with the support of Ifremer, when mortality events occur in farms and hatcheries. There are, however, no aquatic quarantine facilities in New Caledonia and new diseases could easily be introduced with imports of aquatic animals other than shrimps.
iv. Biosecurity
The occurrence of pathogens in New Caledonia (Vibrio penaeicida, V. nigripulchritudo, IHHNV), even if it does have repercussions on output, is an evil with which farmers have learnt to live, since there are no easy solutions to hand. As it is impossible to eliminate all pathogens, the measures that can be taken should be designed to reduce their impact. The application of Best Aquaculture Practices is recommended by many organisations1 and bio-security is an integral part of the recommended measures. Until recently, bio-security amounted to restricting access to the hatcheries and applying a minimum set of prophylactic measures. Recent progress has been to use only broodstock with IHHNV loads <103 copies/µg DNA for larval production (Herlin 2010). Many improvements are, however, still needed in farm and hatchery operations and in the shrimp sector in general: ff avoid exchanges of living material between hatcheries and farms; ff ensure strict application of disinfection protocols and bio-security measures in hatcheries; ff improve the treatment of the water used in the hatcheries; ff improve the quality of the fallowing practices in hatcheries; ff raise staff awareness of health hazards (hatcheries and farms);
1 http://www.gaalliance.org, http://www.enaca.org/shrimp, http://www.fao.org/fishery.en
38 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 ff install bio-secure SPF broodstock farming facilities in order to produce healthy post-larvae more likely to achieve good grow-out results and to protect the New Caledonian strain from possible disease attacks that could wipe it out (Patrois, Goyard Peignon et al. 2007b); ff instal aquatic quarantine facilities. v. Feeds
Manufactured locally by two units, feeds contain good quality ingredients that meet the needs of shrimps at their various stages of growth. The New Caledonian shrimp quality label is partly based on this feed, which contains no additives or substances banned by importing countries; neither does it contain land animal meal. This quality comes with a price tag, however, which accounts for a high proportion of shrimp production costs, particularly with the increase in raw material prices, (including fishmeal).
Feeds do not as yet contain probiotics, which improve the health of the stock and their resistance to pathogen attacks, although some promising results have been obtained (Castex, Chim, Pham et al. 2008). vi. Marketing
Marketing is the final link in the shrimp production chain. The difficulties to be overcome are numerous, both locally and internationally: ff uncertainty over the quantities that will be produced, although commitments have had to be given in advance to overseas importers; ff competition with the local market when the quantities produced are small; ff the seasonality of production, mainly due to the occurrence of mortality during the cool season and the difficulties with producing post-larvae in the hot season; ff variability in the quality and size of shrimps produced; ff the closure of certain markets for health reasons (Australia, French Polynesia); ff the depreciation in the US dollar exchange rate, making certain markets unprofitable (USA); ff the emergence of new competitors on niche markets (France) ff potential competition from new L. stylirostris producers in Asian countries.
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 39 3. Analytical review of country reports
The situation regarding shrimp farming in each country or territory is unique but, by reviewing all the information collected and by addressing a number of common themes, a better approach can emerge and some relevant alternatives can be considered for the future of shrimp aquaculture in PICTs.
Beginning with a brief appraisal of the ways in which the various countries meet their domestic shrimp demand, a key question is whether there are particular problems or factors which they face?
Supply and demand
Most PICTs
CNMI, Guam SPF breeders export
CNMI, Guam French Polynesia Local demand International demand New Caledonia
Vanuatu, Fiji
Fiji, PNG
Local prawn availability No prawns available locally PNG
Solomon Islands
Fisheries Local prawn farms Exotic prawn farms No farms
Importation Importation Imports only Export
Figure 24. Meeting shrimp demand in the Pacific region
Figure 24 shows how PICTs have positioned themselves to meet shrimp demand in their countries (including tourism) and on the international market, as well as the strategies adopted. Salient points are listed below. ff Only New Caledonia is managing to exceed domestic demand and be a net exporter; the other countries are all net importers of shrimps. ff Although the presence of indigenous shrimp species should be a favourable factor for the development of aquaculture, it has apparently not been a determining one so far, even if it does stimulate the emergence of projects. ff The use of exotic species, regardless of the presence or absence of indigenous species, seems to be more promising, because it prompts countries to establish captive broodstock units and to choose species that are well suited to local farming conditions while offering economically viable growth performances.
40 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 ff Except for New Caledonia, the countries that farm shrimps have not yet managed to develop a full production chain and these countries must resort to importing shrimps to meet demand on the local market. ff Local market preferences have not been addressed because they would require specific market research studies to be carried out. It can, however, be estimated that the Asian and Indian communities prefer small shrimps whereas the European groups are more accustomed to the larger specimens. ff Only CNMI and Guam exploit insularity and the animal health conditions conducive to the production and export of SPF broodstock.
Farming systems
Traditionally, shrimp farming was carried out in ponds of varying size and almost every PICT project until the 2000s used this pond-based approach. The fact then was that the development of shrimp aquaculture was highly dependent on the availability of suitable land (not in competition with agriculture and with soil of an acceptable quality for pond construction) of sufficient area to construct those ponds.
This kind of farming can be suitable in some configurations, such as that of New Caledonia where there are extensive salt flats behind the mangrove areas and there is legislation permitting the use of these zones under a concession system. There are now, however, other farming techniques which make it possible to overcome constraints of land or water.
Various kinds of farm in the Pacific region, operating or with suspended operation, now reflect a broad range of farming systems. a) Small traditional earthen ponds (≤ 2 hectares), in which water renewal is tidal (Fiji). This kind of traditional pond is used in rural areas as a source of extra income from occasional sales on the local market. The initial investment and recurrent running costs are low. Although relatively inefficient and suffering from mortality hazards during the farming process, this kind of system is suitable for communities or individuals wishing to produce shrimps for their own needs. Shrimps are considered to be self-caught seafood and do not really compete with imported products; b) Small traditional earthen ponds (< 2 hectares) in which water renewal is provided by pumping systems and by gravity when a river catchment is used to farm pawns in desalinated water (French Polynesia, Guam). The use of supplementary oxygenation, where it exists, is not intensive and densities do not exceed 30 animals/sq. m. Pumping is often inadequate and/or water quality is very variable. In addition, pond wall and bottom maintenance is difficult because there is always percolation, making it impossible to dry out the bottoms properly, while the use of large pumping stations is costly at the scale of these small farms. These farms aim to provide fresh products to the local market and their output (regular sales of several dozen or indeed hundreds of kg) come into competition with imported products. Diversification is almost always the rule (fish and shrimps in the same pond or in different ponds). The main worry on these farms is the lack of cash flow which would enable them to carry out improvement work on their facilities. c) Small square earthen ponds (≤ 1 hectare), in which water renewal is provided by a pumping station (Papua New Guinea). These units are suitable for intensified farming because of their shape, which permits good water circulation under the influence of the aerators used. The densities cannot be too high (<100/m²), because the number of aerators becomes significant and causes pond wall and pond bottom erosion. These farms are unsuitable for the use of recirculation systems. Pond wall and bottom upkeep problems are constantly occurring because of water movement and the build-up of waste. Large
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 41 quantities of animals are produced and if there is no local outlet nearby, a packing/freezing unit is also essential.
d) Large earthen ponds (≥ 1 hectare) supplied by pumping stations (New Caledonia, Vanuatu). Supplementary aeration is used when the densities are higher than 20–25 animals/sq. m. Most ponds of this type are found in New Caledonia. They require appropriately sized pumping stations to perform major water renewal processes. The shape of the ponds is not always optimal for good water circulation, and their large size is often a handicap to achieving effective aeration. Pond wall and bottom maintenance requires suitable specific machinery and the removal of waste accumulated on the bottom can sometimes be a problem. Harvests tend to be partial harvests, representing approximately 4 tonnes (in New Caledonia), processed in packing plants for sale in fresh or frozen form (local and export markets), or on the farm where smaller quantities are concerned.
e) Ponds with concrete liners. The dimensions are <1 hectare and aeration is systematically used because stocking densities are high (>50 animals/sq. m). The shape of the pond is designed to permit good water circulation and effective oxygenation. Three different approaches can be identified:
i. CNMI: the ponds, made entirely from cement, offer benefits because they are relatively easy to clean (no organisms like barnacles settle on the walls if the water is filtered) and there is no percolation between ponds or into the soil, which enables rapid filling to optimise pond use and avoid a possible impact on the subsoil. The recirculation system installed means that sea water consumption can be minimised and that a filtration system can be added, as can any other kind of treatment for improving water quality and removing waste on a continuous basis as it settles on the bottom (see Annex 1 for more details). The shrimps are marketed fresh on the local market.
ii. French Polynesia: the walls are made of concrete and the bottom is earthen. The risks of percolation between adjacent ponds can make it difficult to properly sanitise the pond between successive breeding cycles. Also, the lack of seawater filtration is conducive to the propagation of barnacles, which become strong competitors for natural production and oxygen and are waste producers. Pond bottoms are also major oxygen consumers and aeration should be sized to maintain concentrations > 3 ppm. The problems with the high temperatures observed in the hot season should also be dealt with because they diminish the quantity of available oxygen, and they also have an impact on the animals, with species L. stylirostris being much less tolerant than L. vannamei to high temperatures. The use of cool, fresh water can improve the situation by bringing the temperature down very slightly (if flow is sufficient) and by increasing the solubility of the oxygen in the water.
iii. Fiji: the lined ponds (on an abandoned farm) are a good alternative, making it possible, at low cost, to add the benefits of a hard bottom, easy to clean and avoiding percolation into the underlying soil, with good hydrodynamics, making the aerators more effective and waste removal possible, either during daily operations, or on a continuous basis if a recirculation system can be installed. Another advantage is that of being able to dig sufficiently deep ponds, approximately two metres in depth, which reduces water temperature and optimises the operation of aeration systems. The circular shape is usually preferable to rectangular forms but many farms in the world use square ponds with rounded corners.
f) Cages located in the lagoon and in the areas bordering mangroves. This technique it is still experimental (Fiji, French Polynesia) but, were it to develop further, the locations would need to be carefully chosen to avoid disfiguring tourism sites and pouring significant amounts of pollution into the surrounding water (small units with a few cages should be favoured).
42 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Broodstock
Supplies of post-larvae, spat or fingerlings are the foundation for all aquaculture activity. With shrimps, it can be observed that countries that have succeeded in domesticating broodstock (French Polynesia, Guam, CNMI and New Caledonia) possess a decisive advantage over countries that depend on imported post- larvae (Vanuatu, Fiji) or the availability of wild broodstock (Fiji, Papua New Guinea). The health status of captive broodstock can be kept under surveillance, the post-larvae produced are traceable and crossbreeding operations can be performed in order to restrict the emergence of inbreeding, have animals suitable for the local environment and possibly even conduct genetic improvement programmes. It also makes it possible to consider the creation of SPF post-larvae producing stocks, which are disease-free and offer better survival and growth potential and possibly better capitalisation on labour through exports of animals to other countries.
An objective assessment reveals that the creation of captive broodstock resources requires suitable know-how and facilities in order to offset the climatic extremes (especially high temperature and drops in salinity) and to offer the animals the most favourable conditions for finishing their growth and for the quality of future spawning events. Many trials have been carried out in Fiji on local and imported species but without success. The state of the farms, the lack of environmental quality control, the mediocre quality of the feed used and the lack of close surveillance would appear to be the leading causes of these failures.
The broodstock of L. stylirostris in New Caledonia are cultured at low densities (<1/sq. m.) in earthen ponds and the high summer temperatures are almost always the source of the poor results obtained from reproduction processes during this period. Rearing trials at higher densities (15-20/m²) under controlled conditions in bioflocs are currently under way and the promising results confirm that this technique, which is already in use in French Polynesia (Goguenheim and Chim 2009; Goguenheim, Cuzon, Flohr et al. 2010) for the same species, should be suitable for general introduction in New Caledonia. Trials on the use of refrigerated nurseries and shaded broodstock ponds are also in progress in New Caledonia.
The techniques used in Guam and CNMI for stocks of L. vannamei involve the use of cement ponds, shade (depending on temperature), densities of between 30 and 50 animals/sq. m. and a biofloc-type environment dominated by algae. Many variations on this theme exist in Asia and Latin America, with circular tanks made of fibreglass or fitted with liners, as well as raceways with biological filters and recirculation systems (Kawahigashi 2010).
Figure 25. a. Biofloc broodstock culture of b. Biofloc broodstock culture of L. vannamei in L. vannamei in Thailand © vannamei 101 Brazil © vannamei 101
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 43 Generally speaking, the intensive biofloc culturing techniques and controlled conditions for broodstock are not yet adequately applied but should come into general use for reasons both of efficiency and predation control, as well as bio-security. The investments required are not substantial and the technique requires a level of know-how that can be acquired fairly quickly.
The establishment of captive broodstock resources from the local shrimp populations is also set to be developed in order to obtain species suited to the local climatic context and easy access to genetic resources, which is more difficult and hazardous for exotic imported species.
Hatcheries (maturation and larval breeding)
Downstream from the broodstock production stage sits the hatchery, whose total production will primarily be dependent on the regular availability of nauplii, hence the special importance to be attached to this stage. Techniques making it possible to induce maturation and then spawning are well known, but there are a lot of imponderables and poor results can often be attributed to poor quality broodstock.
Larval hatchery techniques are relatively standard, whether or not probiotics or antibiotics are used, but always at densities of at least 150 larvae/litre, with water renewal being done on the basis of the age or state of the larvae. Each hatchery develops its own protocols to suit its own specific facilities.
The maturation, spawning and larval rearing facilities can be quite simple and just take the form of a few tanks when post-larvae needs are limited to a few hundred thousand per month. Industrial hatcheries, such as those in New Caledonia, are much more substantial and are able to produce several million post-larvae for each production cycle. Whereas, traditionally, the maturation, spawning and larval rearing areas were placed together in the same building, the current trend is to separate them into different buildings. This arrangement offers an opportunity to clean and sanitise the facilities separately and avoid the possible propagation of diseases. Another innovation is the installation of the circulation systems in the maturation facility in order to optimise heating (females) and cooling (males).
Environment and effluents
The impact that farms may have on the environment has become a subject of increasing concern in all countries practising shrimp farming on an industrial scale. The best known and most widely reported impact is clearly the destruction of mangrove areas to build shrimp farms. Although the development of shrimp aquaculture in the Pacific region is as yet relatively restricted, this concern has nevertheless been taken into account in every country building farms along the coastline. Even in New Caledonia, where almost 800 hectares of ponds have been put in, surveys reveal that barely five hectares of mangrove have been destroyed, mainly in the process of digging channels to supply water to the farms’ pumping stations (http://www.zoneco.nc/). In New Caledonia, at least, it is mandatory to carry out preliminary impact studies before building a farm; these studies take into consideration the living environment, the mangrove environment and the terrestrial environment in order to prevent the destruction of specific and rare biotopes (http://www.juridoc.gouv.nc/JuriDoc/). Research has commenced in New Caledonia, mainly as part of the ZONECO programme (Virly, Buisson, Lemonnier et al. 2005) to assess the lasting impact of farm operations on coastal waters. In Guam and CNMI, many environmental constraints have also been identified concerning the installation of aquaculture facilities and their operation (Brown, Haws, Gourley et al. 2010). Similar legislation may exist in other countries, but we were not able to obtain any information about it when preparing this study.
44 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Biosecurity
Although island contexts were for a long time synonymous with protection against invasive species and diseases, this very favourable status is increasingly under threat with the development of trade and tourism. We have already seen that an exotic species of shrimp (F. merguiensis) has been capable of establishing itself in Fiji, while in New Caledonia a virus (IHHN) has taken hold, with the same one settling in Guam and CNMI but less visibly so. This virus, which was also present in French Polynesia, seems to have disappeared from that country. Positive health status is therefore a precious asset that island countries should protect as best they can in a proactive manner (Subasinghe et Bondad-Reantoso 2006). The dangers associated with live shrimp imports are very real (examples from Fiji, Guam and New Caledonia) and it is clear the action taken concerning these imports is often inadequate, either because human and technical resources are lacking or because of unclear definitions of responsibility. In the same vein, stress should be laid on the pathogen introduction risk posed by frozen raw shrimp imports. These are also under-estimated, although research (Flegel 2009) shows that the dangers are real. Only New Caledonia and French Polynesia have banned such introductions in a completely legal manner because the World Trade Organization, in conjunction with OIE, authorises these kinds of decisions, which aim to protect local production facilities, not from competition but from diseases which could affect the health of animals, plants and humans. A prior risk assessment is, however, required and must comply with international standards. Some guidance relating to these formalities is available at the following Internet addresses:
http://www.oie.int./eng/normes/fcode/A_summary.htm http://www.biodiv.org/biosafety/protocol.asp http://www.ices.dk/reports/general/2003/Codemarineintroductions2003pdf
Bio-security principles should also be applied within aquaculture enterprises but in fact only the CNMI farm and the UOG laboratory apply such measures strictly, with careful self-inspection, in terms both of staff and of operations.
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 45 4. Challenges and possible alternatives
All these farms and farming techniques offer advantages and drawbacks related to the climatic, geographical, socio-cultural and economic conditions prevailing in the country concerned.
Countries that have not yet developed local technical capacities in aquaculture may be tempted by novel projects, but must ask themselves if they will be capable of operating these facilities in a situation where know-how or logistical support may be inadequate.
Countries that already have aquaculture experience must be capable of evolving and adopting new techniques to develop their production in order to totally or partly replace imports. These changes are often costly and require a process of adaptation that may prove difficult for technical staff accustomed to working under different protocols and considerations.
Bio-security
The importance of aquatic bio-security is often underestimated. The enforcement of existing legislation and compliance with international rules are limited, mainly for economic reasons but also because of a lack of sufficiently trained human resources and insufficient (or inefficient) information at the different levels of decision of the aquaculture industry (government, industry and farms).
Further efforts are needed to increase extension actions and raise awareness.
One question that arises is whether the implementation of bio-security principles is a realistic prospect.
The greatest challenge lies in the fact that responsibilities for bio-security are often spread over a large number of institutional players. Ensuring that inspection is performed and that adequate action is taken requires the existence of clear organisational guidelines defining cooperation areas between relevant ministries and departments, with goals, priorities and tasks being clearly set on the basis of available dedicated staff and financial resources. This may prove difficult and indeed impossible in small countries that do not have the financial and human resources to meet all the requirements of bio-security. Such a situation, however, should not conceal the real hazards that exist for local fauna and flora. Awareness of this situation should prompt governments to reconsider bio-security issues and give them greater importance than they have to date.
This same lack of awareness exists within aquaculture activities. All too often, farmers do not realise that their activity can have severe consequences on the health of the environment they operate in. While this is understandable as regards workers without special training or briefing, it is inexcusable for responsible and educated managers.
46 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 The geographic dispersal of projects and the diversity of stakeholders within the aquaculture sector is also a source of potential bio-security problems. For example, feed manufacturers should be aware that some ingredients are potential disease vectors and that the aquaculturalist who imports aquatic species should also be aware that they may carry pathogens that could affect other farms. There are many examples of this happening.
Information and training are more effective than regulations in ensuring that bio-security is given adequate consideration at every level in the aquaculture sector.
Aquaculture farms ff Application of a code of good farm management: bio-security should become a way of designing and managing farms because biological hazards often originate in poor management methods: poor pond preparation before seeding, filling too fast, larvae unacclimatised at the time of seeding, poor management in the initial days of rearing, etc. ff Information for workers and farmers on risky practices: provision of a booklet describing good practice can be a positive contribution if the content suits the situation on each farm, irrespective of size. At training sessions, some approaches are important: • give priority in selection to people showing a real desire to learn; • attempt to create a feeling of pride at doing a good job; • train staff to understand potential sources of risk; • give preference to suggestions to improve a protocol so that staff take ownership of the bio-security dimension; • ensure staff apply the rules that they have been taught; • inform staff freely on events having a direct or indirect relationship with farm operations; it is preferable to provide factual information on what is happening at a neighbouring farm rather than wait for information to arrive as rumour.
The rules adopted by some agencies are definitely too rigid, but they are a good source of inspiration for those who want to improve bio-security in aquaculture.
The industry in the broadest sense All companies active in aquaculture, i.e. farmers but also service companies and suppliers, need to realise that the success of their own activity is directly related to that of the others. The creation of information and mutual assistance networks is important in order to implement good bio-security policy, the idea being that it is always easier to do things in a group rather than on your own. These networks can organise bio-security prevention campaigns, stimulate the implementation of research and training programmes, seek funding for technical assistance, etc. In other words, they can perform vertical integration of aquaculture in which the success of each stakeholder depends on the success of the others.
The authorities and their technical and financial departments Governments also need to be kept informed of the importance of bio-security at the national level. They must show aquaculture stakeholders that they support and encourage initiatives designed to improve bio- security: tax incentives to adapt their facilities to new bio-security standards, construction of a specialised laboratory for diagnosis of aquatic animal diseases (but also terrestrial flora and fauna) with staff capable of doing on-site monitoring work and assessing hazardous situations, as well as legal action to limit and effectively control the importation of animal and plant products representing a health risk to the country.
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 47 Broodstock security and bio-security
Securing the availability and the quality of the breeders used to supply post-larvae to the farms is the first step of any aquaculture venture, including shrimps. Reliance on the availability of local wild shrimps or imported breeders or post-larvae can only be a transitional measure before the establishment of captive broodstocks. Besides securing a year round availability of breeders, other positive points of such broodstocks are the opportunity to implement bio- security measures (disease free shrimps) and start a domestication process.
The protection of broodstock from inclement weather and climate variations and the securing of good quality broodstock for post-larvae production is the first stage, which itself requires facilities and techniques attuned to the species concerned. Feed requirements, temperature conditions, stocking densities and other parameters are in fact specific to each species. A P. monodon broodstock will therefore not be cultured in the same way as L. stylirostris, or F. merguiensis and some species are more demanding than others.
The creation of captive broodstock is a task that can take a number of years and is a high-level investment at national level designed to enable the establishment of a shrimp-farming activity. Choices as to who should pay for infrastructure, who should manage facilities and how post-larvae are distributed or sold are of course political in nature. One country may wish to favour small-scale producers while another may wish to support private initiatives. All forms of organisation can be considered and will depend on political will, but also available resources. It is easy to understand that this work will cost money, take time and require the presence of competent staff. In order to productively manage these forms of capital, it would appear preferable to avoid bio-security incidents, which are more health-related than technical. The appearance of pathogens (from any one of multiple causes) within the established stocks can lead to their disappearance and place any aquaculture activity in great difficulty. This is the reason for bio-security at facilities being paramount: strict access rules, disinfection, and inspection protocols for the various inputs (water, air, feed, new animals, predators, potential pathogen carriers, used equipment, etc.).
One alternative to be considered here is a conservatory, where shrimps can be bred in secure conditions (Patrois et al. 2007 b.). A number of options are possible in terms of introducing animals into these bio- secure facilities as Figure 26 shows.
48 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Local species including Imported SPF Imported non SPF previously imported exotic species species species
Option 1 Option 2.1 Option 2.2 Option 2.3
Secondary quarantine Conservatory (for breeding and rearing Primary/tertiary quarantine (for breeding and rearing broodstock and diagnostics) (Diagnostics/rearing) broodstock and diagnostics)
Figure 26. Different scenarios for developing a shrimp conservatory
Option 1 Maintain current health status
This option is the simplest because the animals entering the conservatory are potential carriers of viruses or vibrios existing in the natural environment. The conservatory then becomes more a reserve stock of shrimps with uncertain health status. It is then (possibly wrongly) assumed that the shrimps carry only local pathogens. The aim of the conservatory is to prevent the intrusion of new pathogens after the initial stocking operation. Any fresh introduction of animals into the conservatory, however, again raises the risk of new pathogen introduction. This option seems unrealistic in comparison with the efforts and cost of the conservatory.
Option 2.1 Establishment and/or maintenance of SPF health status for local strains
This is an ambitious option because, prior to the conservatory, there is a preliminary stage, the acquisition of SPF status. This can be granted only in primary quarantine type facilities (for diagnosis) and secondary ones (reproduction). This ‘surplus’ over the first option is justified by the health security requirements around the entry of new shrimps into the conservatory. These strains must be checked to ensure that they are free of the viruses present locally and do not carry endemic Vibrios.
SPF health status acquisition is clearly incompatible with Option 1.
Option 2.2 Importation of new strains or species with SPF health status
This option is additional to Option 2.1. It would use the primary quarantine system set up in Option 2.1 to track imported species or strains with certified SPF status for several generations before they enter the conservatory.
Option 2.2 is compatible with Option 2.1 but not with Option 1.
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 49 Option 2.3 Importation of animals with indeterminate health status
This option should be considered, especially for the importation of wild animals with high genetic variability, screened in advance at their point of capture but still potentially carriers of undetected pathogens. It would use primary quarantine, then secondary quarantine before the animals enter the conservatory. A system such as this was recently used for Fenneropenaeus chinensis (Pantoja, Song, Xia et al. 2005; Henning, Arce, Moss et al. 2005)
It is clear that Option 1 is rigid, very limited and not totally bio-secure and that only options 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 are really worth considering because of the presence of quarantine units allowing operators to restrict entry into the conservatory to shrimps that have been tested to remove specimens carrying known and diagnosable pathogens. Many publications contain information on the techniques that make it possible to create pathogen-free populations and operate closed-circuit bio-secure broodstock farming systems (Lightner, 2003; Lightner, Redman, Arce et al. 2009; Weirich, Segars, Bruce et al. 2003).
The establishment of a conservatory permits various scenarios to be chosen depending on the objectives pursued and/or financial resources available.
Post -larvae SPF shrimp for occasional breeders for renewal of export hatcheries Conservatory e x p o rt broodstocks
Broodstock/nauplii for production
Post-larvae/nauplii for regular renewal of hatcheries broodstocks
Broodstock Hatcheries ponds
Figure 27. Four types of operation for shrimp conservatory
Type 1 Decentralised operations: maintenance of health status
The conservatory plays only its role as a conservatory, and the animals produced are in principle not used by the hatcheries, which manage their own stock. Transfers from the conservatory to the hatcheries take place only if there is a problem (insufficient stocks, problems leading to the complete emptying of a hatchery and its ponds and broodstock, appearance of a new pathogen). The conservatory becomes a sanctuary.
50 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Type 2 Intermediate operation: supply of nauplii or post-larvae
The conservatory supplies the various hatcheries with batches of nauplii or post-larvae corresponding to the broodstock batches that they will exploit 8 to 12 months later. Each hatchery can choose between rearing these larvae in the conventional way (losing the initial health status) or rearing them until the broodstock stage, with suitable grow-out techniques for maintaining the health status.
Type 3 Totally centralised operation: provision of broodstock/nauplii
The common structure produces broodstock under an appropriate management plan, with several stocks being managed separately but simultaneously. The hatcheries use the broodstock batches to produce animals for production purposes. The conservatory could also supply nauplii to the hatcheries in order to fill their production tanks. The health status of the animals supplied will vary in relation to the efforts that the hatcheries put in independently of one another. The hatcheries do not maintain their own broodstock.
This centralised form of operation is unrealistic, because the quantities of animals to be dealt with are substantial and can raise transport issues, while requiring large-scale facilities. This solution should, however, be mentioned because it is technically feasible and could meet the needs of a shrimp sector.
Type 4 Further capitalisation on the SPF health status of conservatory stock can be considered in the form of exports of broodstock.
The environment and aquaculture
Marine or brackish water shrimp aquaculture not only impacts the environment for the construction of the rearing facilities but also the coastal waters because of the wastes resulting from shrimp metabolism. Preliminary impact studies should try to evaluate the importance of such contamination and propose alternative solutions to avoid or minimise these adverse conditions. Adequate legislation may be needed to support such a process, along with incentives and adequate information on the issues of marine environmental preservation.
Little attention has been paid to the impact of aquaculture facilities on the environment or the monitoring of that impact, although it can easily be assumed that waste from farms or cages, with its rich organic matter and particle content, could have a lasting impact, especially on coastal and lagoon environments. This topic will surely assume increasing importance if PICTs seek to develop aquaculture (including shrimp farming) while also wanting to protect the quality and health of their coastal waters for leisure activities and their general reputation. An example is New Caledonia, whose lagoon areas were listed by UNESCO as World Heritage properties in 2008 (http://whc.unesco.org:fr/list/1115). The fact that no regulatory measures have yet been taken in most PICTs shows the extent to which the significance of these aquaculture impacts has been underestimated. The arguments that are usually put forward to explain this lack of interest always refer to the small volume of waste in comparison with the huge area covered by coastal and lagoon waters, and the presence of currents which clean and dilute waste or mangrove swamps that have a filtering function. We can only hope that these short-term views will soon be replaced by binding measures.
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 51 Solutions do exist, at least for shrimp farms. They would involve building sedimentation ponds and effluent treatment ponds to process water before it is released into the environment or, possibly, re-used in farm ponds. The use of smaller ponds, with higher densities and water circulation systems, would appear to be the most promising option and the example of the farm in CNMI (Annex 1) demonstrates the technical feasibility of this kind of facility, which can of course be improved and optimised.
Research has been carried out in Australia to test the impact of cages on benthic bacterial communities of the mangrove and inshore zones (Castine, Bourne, Trott et al. 2009). Major changes to the composition of bacterial populations have been observed, but their impact on the flora and fauna and on the fate of organic waste have yet to be studied.
Rearing techniques and species for farming
The adoption of new techniques would seem to be inevitable, because PICTs often possess only limited areas for the construction of aquaculture facilities. Even when larger areas are available, the establishment of small farming units, i.e. ponds less than one hectare in area, would appear to be the preferred solution, both from the point of view of day-to-day management and in terms of pond preparation, with a view to the optimum use of human and technical resources. The surveillance of these facilities is also easier, not only in terms of predation but also of the implementation of bio-security rules. This does not mean that very small and very large farms have no future, because they may be required by specific socio-cultural or economic situations. In any event, establishing reliable post-larvae production must be the priority, because it is crucial to the emergence and viability of any project.
Without wishing to go to extremes (Lawrence 2010), a certain degree of intensification should be aimed for, at least within the companies targeting commercial production. Many handbooks describe this kind of earthen pond or liner system and the factors to be taken into consideration during the project design stage (Hutchinson et al. 2004; DPIF, 2006; Wirth, Dugger and Creswell. 2005). The example of CNMI (Annex 1) is very interesting because all the ingredients required for a modern farm, but without enormous infrastructure, come together: respect for the environment, extreme bio-security, intensive systems with water recirculation and treatment, on-site SPF broodstock production for export, and a small independent hatchery. Many variations on this theme can be imagined with the use of lined nurseries and raceways, with the system needing to be designed for local climatic conditions (occurrence of a cooler season or no such occurrence) in order to protect farms from conditions unfavourable to shrimp growth.
The next issue is the choice of species to farm. For countries without wild shrimp or imported exotic shrimp stocks, the decision will be easy: there are numerous suppliers of SPF L. vannamei making imports possible while restricting health risks (especially if adequate bio-security measures are taken); in addition, this species is relatively hardy (salinity from 0 to 40 ppm, tolerates high temperatures, has protein intake requirements substantially lower than L. stylirostris or P. monodon, etc.), lends itself well to the creation of captive broodstock and makes it possible to conduct intensive farming under relatively simple conditions. Growth rates are higher, with the weight reached in 3 to 4 months being in the range of 20 to 25 grams. As this species is extensively cultured in the world, expertise is available and abundant technical documentation provides easy access to relevant information.
52 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 The problem is, of course, different in countries that have natural resources (Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, etc.) or imported resources (New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Guam and CNMI). ff Guam and CNMI have SPF stocks of L. vannamei with good genetic variability, a breeding programme and cooperation with private enterprises and universities. The choice of continuing with this species therefore appears to be logical. ff For French Polynesia, which has a stock of L. stylirostris in the process of achieving SPF status, the choice also seems easy, but the low genetic variability of the strain may cause problems in the longer term. ff The problem is different for New Caledonia, which has a stock of non-SPF L. stylirostris also showing low genetic variability. The first stage seems to have to be the creation of SPF stocks. The use of local species does not seem to be on the agenda, but does nevertheless represent niche market potential. ff For Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu and Solomon Islands, which also have local species but no established captive broodstock resources, the development of a shrimp farming activity could follow several directions: • establishment of captive stocks of local species; • where it exists, continuation of post-larvae importations from other countries; • establishment of captive broodstock resources from imported specimens. In this case, the choice of species should be restricted to L. vannamei, again because of the ease of establishing captive stocks and good farm productivity.
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 53 5. Reference List
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56 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 6. Annexes
Annex 1: Saipan Aquaculture Farm, CNMI
Figure 28. Saipan Syaqua Aquaculture logo
Production is based on the shrimp species L. vannamei and is mainly dedicated to satisfying the local demand. A new activity was recently developed: the production of SPF broodstock for export to countries like Indonesia, Vietnam and even China.
Located inland, the facilities of this company have been expanding during the last three years. From the initial three round concrete tanks, there is now a complete intensive farm set up with covered and uncovered grow-out concrete tanks and ponds and a small maturation-larval rearing room. A further extension is forecasted on a different site and a new hatchery is being built on site (2011) to meet an increasing demand. ff Animals
Two different stocks of SPF (Specific Pathogen Free) L vannamei are currently used: • one stock from the University Guam. This stock is for production purposes and the larvae are produced on site from breeders reared at lower densities than for grow-out. • one stock from Sygen Thaïland. This stock is for the production of breeders for exportation. The larvae are not produced locally but imported at regular intervals (~ every three months) according to the projected demand. ff Biosecurity
• shrimp compound is clearly defined by fences and gates; • strict visitor policy; • production personnel trained in biosecurity, and specific rules strictly enforced (downtime, shower, changing of clothes and footwear, etc.); • water intake is from wells located inland; • incoming seawater brought by trucks is treated before use; • being the associate of a larger shrimp company in Asia, all imported breeders or post-larvae come from reliable sources where SPF animals (free of OIE listed pathogens) are regularly sampled and diagnosed; • on site sampling and diagnostics in a recognised laboratory are regularly performed on reared animals; • introduced animals are quarantined until results from samples are received and confirm their disease free status
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 57 ff Ponds
Since no earth ponds, even lined, are permitted in CNMI in order to protect the environment, the only option was to build concrete tanks and ponds. The setup for grow-out is based on modules, consisting in three ponds of increasing volume corresponding to the different phases of the grow-out.
Figure 29. General setup of the farm
Three of these modules are covered when the others are either under a shade cloth or under direct sun light.
Figure 30 a. Covered modules b. Modules that can be covered c. Uncovered large modules by shade cloth
Water depth is around 70 cm.
Water circulation and aeration in the ponds is achieved by paddle wheels and air injectors (Aire O² ®). In tanks, airlifts around the perimeter are used, complemented by paddle wheels as necessary. An oxygen generator has been successfully tried to optimise aeration and its use should be generalised.
58 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 The presence of a wall in the middle of the tanks improves the water circulation and the accumulation of waste for an easier regular cleaning by flushing. ff Water and water management
Sea water is pumped from two different wells at depths > 200 feet. Salinity is stable around 18 ppm.
For breeders and during the last growth stage before maturation, salinity is raised to 32–35 ppm by adding full strength sea water brought in by truck. Before use, it is filtered and UV-treated. Daily water recirculation is around 10–20%.
The breeders tanks and experimental super intensive modules (under covered area) are recirculated (settling area and a biological filter).
For exterior (with or without shading) grow-out modules, the water is recirculated (around 20%/day). New water is added to compensate for the water lost during the daily flushes of accumulated waste. Effluents from all tanks and ponds are discharged after settling in the city sewage network. ff Grow-out strategy
Favourable climate conditions allow a year-round production with grow-out periods around 3–4 months, according to the size at harvest (16 to 24 grams).
The original grow-out strategy was based on three phases with decreasing densities and intermediate transfers. • 1000 shrimps/m²: Pl 10–12 to 2 grams • 400–600 shrimps/m²: 2–10 grams • 400 shrimps/m²: 10 grams to harvest
To avoid mortalities at transfer, a two-phase strategy is being implemented (mainly in large outdoor ponds).
For breeders rearing, densities are much lower, with the final phase at 40–50 shrimps/m².
Feeding rations are adjusted by consumption control on feeding trays.
Figure 31 a. Shrimps on feeding trays b. Maturation tanks
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 59 ff Maturation and larval rearing
The water temperature is not regulated.
Salinity is adjusted around 35 ppm.
Males and females are kept in separate tanks. They are fed dry pellets (INVE Breed/S®), blood worms and squid.
Female breeders are eye-ablated and kept in a separate tank. Ripe, ready-to-spawn females are transferred to the males’ tank for natural copulation. ‘Copulated’ females are then transferred to spawning tanks.
Sea water for larval rearing is filtered and UV-treated, and thiosulphate is added to eliminate chlorine residues from the cleaning of the tanks. Initial larval density: 150/litre. Feeding regime: Chaetoceros, Inve® micropellets, Artemia and probiotics.
60 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Annex 2: Teouma prawns Limited (Efate)-Vanuatu
Private farm producing some 25 tonnes/yr of fresh shrimps for the local market.
The first harvest was taken late in 2005. At present, 20 to 25 tonnes are produced annually. ff Facilities The farm initially consisted of a two-hectare earthen pond, six one-hectare earthen ponds and a number of small broodstock rearing ponds.
Figure32. Aerial view of the farm in 2006 before extension work and site of hatchery and pumping station © Teouma Farm Ltd
Three more two-hectare ponds were subsequently built, making a total potential production area of 14 hectares.
A hatchery was built on the shores of the neighbouring bay to supply the farm with post-larvae produced with the broodstock reared on the farm.
The pumping station is located close to the sea near the hatchery. It pumps water to the farm through a channel. Sea water salinity varies from 20 to 30 ‰ depending on rainfall because of the proximity of the Teouma river.
Figure 33. a. Two hectare ponds b.Water supply channel c. Fishing nets at pond outlet filled with water and aerators
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 61 d. Hatchery e. Larval rearing tanks f. The quarantine area in the hatchery
ff The farmed species Initial seedstocking was done with post-larvae of L. stylirostris from Brunei. Supply issues arose (quantities and deadlines not respected) and forced the manager to seek L. vannamei stocks from a more reliable supplier.
Some wild shrimps, mostly P. monodon, are found in the ponds at harvest time.
ff Biosecurity No particular on-farm measures except restrictions on visits.
For the post-larvae, which are imported from Asia, a quarantine area has been set up in the hatchery to confine the animals for two weeks in order to verify their survival rates. The certificate of origin and SPF status issued by the supplier is passed to the relevant authorities (Quarantine and Inspection Services), which issue the exit quarantine certificate if the animals show no particular signs of mortality. No testing is done by these departments for lack of local resources and expertise in aquatic animal pathology.
ff Production Farming is carried out at an average stocking density of 20/m² to favour the production of large-sized specimens. Growth is quite slow (22 grams after seven months) but survival rates remain good at between 50 and 60%.
After trying various imported feeds, a Chinese feed is being used at present; the conversion rates achieved are under two after seven months of growth.
In order to facilitate marketing, part-harvests are carried out so as to supply 300 to 400 kg weekly. Production could be higher but local demand is limited and some ponds are not under production.
ff Hatchery The hatchery has never worked properly, for two reasons: • the production of broodstock on site has never provided good quality specimens; • the purchase of imported post-larvae is economically preferable at the present time because the quantities needed are not very great and can be supplied on a regular basis by the new supplier.
ff Towards a diversification of activities In order to capitalise on existing infrastructure and diversify production so as to access new markets, consideration is being given to farming other species such as barramundi and mud crab.
62 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Annex 3: Denarau project, Nadi, Fiji
Project fomented by a church congregation and their preacher as an alternative to sugar cane and other crops.
The land belonging to the church is the contribution of the church to the project, the funding coming from a private investor.
Actual cost of the project : FJD 32,000
Five ponds (12 x 40 m) are already built with more programmed when the sugar cane is harvested.
Three ponds are stocked with tilapia provided by the Fisheries Department and the other two are ready to be stocked with P. merguiensis post-larvae from the Fisheries hatchery in Galoa.
The setup of the farm was achieved with the expertise of the Fisheries Department (Viliame Ratu Ciri). The water exchange system is based on tide levels. At high tide the water from the incoming channel enters a reservoir, then the distribution channel to be finally distributed to the ponds by gravity. A one-way valve maintains the water level in the distribution channel.
The two metre deep ponds had to be partially excavated so as to afford a sufficient depth for efficient water exchange.
The pond slope is estimated to be 1/1, possibly a little steep to prevent erosion. Grass will be planted on the exterior and top of dykes against erosion.
Figure 34. Incoming channel excavated at Figure 35. Reservoir and its incoming gate mangrove limit
Figure 36. Distribution channel Figure 37 .One of the ponds
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 63 Annex 4: Wong’s farm project, Yako, Fiji
Project of a private investor who owns a Chinese restaurant in Nadi and wanted a regular supply of fresh marine shrimps.
Manager : Stevens Wong, son of the restaurant owner.
Actual cost of the project: unknown
Setup of the farm: unknown
Two ponds (one three-acre pond and one two-acre pond) were excavated inland on the property next to the sea. The average depth is around 1 metre. There is no mangrove on the shore.
The ponds are connected by two apertures in the dyke separating them. Pond two does not have direct access to water renewal — only through these two apertures.
The water exchange system is based on tide levels. Generally, but not on a regular basis according to the manager, the water level in the ponds is lowered at the beginning of the incoming tide by taking away a few planks. When the water level gets to the low level of the ponds, the new water flows in, and the planks are put back when the ebbing tide starts. There are no screens at the inlet gate level. According to the manager, this is done on purpose to take advantage of incoming larvae or juveniles of shrimp, crabs and fish. They are said to represent a substantial part of the individuals in the ponds, especially when the post-larvae supply (Penaeus merguiensis and P. monodon) by the Galoa Fisheries hatchery is impossible.
Shrimps are fed irregularly.
Shrimp harvests are done weekly with a gill net set in the ponds to catch the largest individuals (20–25 grams). The catch is said to be 15–20 kg/week. Large fish (mainly mullet) and crabs are taken with another gill net of wider aperture.
The ponds are emptied and dried at least once a year.
Figure 38. Panorama of pond 1 from inlet gate, pond 2 in the background
64 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Figure 39. Water inlet at low tide Figure 40. Inlet gate at low tide, exterior
Figure 41. Inlet gate, interior Figure 42. Inlet gate and its planks
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 65 Annex 5: Vatoa village project, Nausori, Fiji
The project was initiated by the village community as a project to diversify its activities.
The land belongs to the village, which has entirely funded the project without any subsidies.
Actual cost of the project: FJD 7,000.
Two ponds (15 x 40 m) are already built with more programmed if the present trials come out well.
One pond was stocked with Penaeus merguiensis post-larvae and the other one with P. monodon post-larvae from the Fisheries hatchery in Galoa. The first crop (P. merguiensis) is programmed by the end of the year.
The set-up of the farm was achieved with the expertise of the Fisheries Department (Viliame Ratu Ciri).
The water exchange system is based on tide levels. At high tide the water from the incoming channel is stopped by a one-way gate and, when the level reaches the pond water level, enters the ponds. The system functions well only when the amplitude of the tides is important. A new and more functional incoming channel is planned if the project is extended.
Shrimps are fed daily with imported pellets on the six feeding trays installed in each pond.
The 1.5 metre-deep ponds had to be partially excavated so as to afford sufficient depth for efficient water exchange. The pond dyke’s slope is almost vertical but the clay nature of the soil seems to withstand erosion. Grass will be planted on exterior and top of dykes against erosion.
Figure 43. Welcome to Vatoa Figure 44. Incoming channel
66 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Figure 45. One-way gate Figure 46. Large mesh incoming Figure 47. Flow-in gate with filter in front of the gate its mesh to filter water
Figure 48. One of the six Figure 49. Channel for the Figure 50. The pleasure of feeding trays (per pond) effluents and its standing pipe seeing the shrimps grow
Figure 51. Panorama of the two ponds
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 67 Annex 6: Guam Aquaculture Development and Training Center (GADTC also known as Fadian Hatchery), Guam
This is the oldest aquaculture farm in the region. Located on the island’s southern coast, in the immediate vicinity of the sea and a fringing reef, it has worked with many aquatic species, including shrimp L. stylirostris, but now restricts itself to L. vannamei and hybrids of tilapia Oreochromis niloticus.
The five stocks of L. vannamei present on the site are certified free of WSSV, IHHNV, TSV, YHV and IMNV. These SPF stocks come from Panama, Mexico and Honduras and were domesticated before being imported into Guam, either by the Oceanic Institute in Hawaii, or by the Sygen company.
The various stocks are formed into families with cross-breeding plans designed to limit in-breeding. A marker-assisted breeding programme has been introduced and the families are tested in China for performance at the Guang Xi Institute of Fisheries, which works closely with the University of Guam (UOG). In this regard, the Western Pacific Tropical Research Center at UOG has just equipped a new laboratory with real-time PCR technology.
The future of the GADTC is uncertain, because its operational funding, including staff costs, is not permanent and hinders the major investments needed to rehabilitate the facility. The current work concerns only the hatchery, and other funding or financial arrangements will have to be found if GADTC wants to continue exporting SPF broodstock and continue with and build on its genetic improvement experimentation.
Figure 52. Entrance to GADTC Figure 53. Raceways for tilapia
68 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Figure 54. a. and b. Concrete ponds for rearing shrimp broodstock
Figure 55. Covered ponds for the last phase of Figure 56. The temporary hatchery shrimp broodstock rearing and maturation
Figure 57. The former hatchery and the new Figure 58. The shrimp nursery tanks structure in the background
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 69 Annex 7: Aquaculture farm facilities in New Caledonia
The ponds are all built to the rear of the mangrove zones on salt flats devoid of vegetation, unfit for agriculture because of their high salt content. The ponds were put in on soils naturally sloping towards the lagoon and the pond walls were built using the clay soil extracted when the water supply channels were excavated, when possible, or from surrounding land. No mangrove areas were destroyed during these construction operations.
Figure 59. Sea Farm Figure 60. The Ouano penaeid Figure 61. Sodacal © Y. harache
The earthen ponds range in size from three to eleven hectares and are continuously supplied with water by powerful pumping stations, enabling water renewal operations of up to 25–30%/day. These large ponds are seeded at densities ranging from 20–40 shrimps/sq. m. Aerators are installed when the instantaneous biomasses reached are higher than 200–250 grams/sq. m. and/or to maintain dissolved oxygen levels in the morning >3ppm. The farmers have to use water renewal processes and aeration to maintain pond water quality; the use of probiotics is as yet not very widespread. Feed is distributed by small boats which load the pellets from silos around the edges of the ponds.
Figure 62. Pumping station on Figure 63. Truck used for Figure 64. Aerators in service a 35-hectare farm (Sea Farm) carrying and seeding post-larvae at a pond (Montagnes on farms (FAO) Blanches) © J. Herlin
70 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Figure 65. Floating pumping station (Eori) Figure 66. Distribution of feed (FAO)
Figure 67. Loading feed from a Figure 68. Protection of banks Figure 69. Sampling silo (FAO) against erosion (Eori) (Saint-Vincent)
There are substantial quantities of shrimps in a pond, and the part-harvesting technique has been in use for some time. In agreement with the packing plants, some four tonnes are harvested every 4–5 hours (plant processing capacity), making it possible to offer daily harvest time slots to a number of farms. Harvesting is now a mechanised operation.
Figure 70. Part-harvest of a Figure 71. Manual shrimp Figure 72. Transferring pond using a conveyor belt grading (Sodacal) shrimps into tanks containing (Sodacal) ice (Sodacal)
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 71 Figure 73. Part-harvest using a pump (FAO) Figure 74. Freshly harvested L. stylirostris shrimps
The ponds are left to dry out between each production cycle, following the conventional practice. This drying-out time is used to remove the accumulated waste on the pond bottoms, plough over the bottom several times to break up the dry clods and facilitate soil mineralisation, and then to spread lime over the whole area.
Figure 75. Snow plough used to Figure 76. Mechanical shovel Figure 77. Lime treatment for clear the large ponds and their used to push waste to the edges pond bottoms after initial accumulated waste of a pond ploughing
Figure 78. Trench to drain Figure 79. Ploughing the soil Figure 80. Ploughed soil water infiltration and ensure good quality dry-out
72 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 The four hatcheries are located on the farm sites. They have a capacity of some 50 million post-larvae per year with production spread over several cycles of eight to twenty million each. Each hatchery has its own broodstock rearing ponds. The protocols used for maturation, spawning and larval rearing are adapted to suit each site and its facilities.
Figure 83. Aerial view of a Figure 81. Maturation building Figure 82. Broodstock pond hatchery and broodstock (Sodacal) protected by anti-bird netting ponds (Ecloserie du Nord) (Saint-Vincent) © Y. Harache
Figure 84. Individual Figure 85. Individual spawning Figure 86. Maturation room spawning units (écloserie units (Eori) with raceways operating in du Nord) recirculation mode (Sodacal)
Figure 87. Maturation room Figure 88. Traditional Figure 89. Concrete larval with concrete tanks (Eori) maturation room with fibreglass rearing tanks (Eori) tanks (Montagnés)
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 73 Figure 90. Partial view of Figure 91. Nurseries under Figure 92. Inside of a nursery a larval rearing room with construction for broodstock (Eori) fibreglass tanks (Montagnés) rearing (Eori)
Figure 93. Tagging broodstock with eyestalk Figure 94. Observation of a mature female rings
Figure 95. Eyestalk ablation
74 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 Annex 8: Resource persons
I wish to thank the following people, who kindly gave their time and shared their knowledge with me.
Gerald BILLINGS Fiji [email protected] Head of Aquaculture Fisheries Department, (679) 3361122 Section. Ministry of Ministry of Fisheries & Fisheries & Forests Forests, GPO Box 358, Suva, Fiji
John BROWN Guam [email protected] Professor University of Guam (671) 735 2145 College of Natural & Applied Sciences, WPTRC, GADTC UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam 96923, USA
William CAMARGO Fiji [email protected] Senior Lecturer University of the South (679) 323-2956 Aquaculture Pacific, Schools of Islands and Oceans, Division of Marine Studies, Private Mailbag, Suva, Fiji
Rommel CATALMA Mariana [email protected] Shrimp Production Saipan Aquaculture (670) 287 4985 Islands Manager PO Box 501808, Saipan, or 235 9455 MP9 6950
Simon ELLIS Federated [email protected] Director Marine and (691) 320 7948 States of environmental research Micronesia institute of pohnpei (MERIP) PoBox 1005, Pohnpei, FM 96941, Federated states of Micronesia
Sompert GERAVA Vanuatu [email protected] Head of Aquaculture, V.F.D. Private Mail Bag (678) 23119 Rena Vanuatu Fisheries 9045, Port Vila, Vanuatu
Jean GOGUENHEIM French [email protected] Ifremer/Extension IFREMER BP 7004 98719 (687) 54 60 78 Polynesia biologist for shrimp and Taravao, Tahiti, fish culture French Polynesia
Hui GONG Guam [email protected] Assistant Professor University of Guam (671) 735 2144 College of Natural & Applied Sciences, WPTRC, UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam 96923, USA
John KUHN New [email protected] Shrimp Farmer and FAMB BP 13 - 98820 (687) 47 90 Caledonia President of the Shrimp Pouembout, 02 or (687) 79 Farmers Association (GFA) New Caledonia 52 82
Claire MARTY New [email protected] Responsable filière Province Nord, DDEE, BP (687) 47 72 39 Caledonia aquaculture - Service 41 - 98860 Kone, milieux et ressources New Caledonia aquatiques - Direction du Développement économique et de l’environnement
Roy MASAMDU Fiji [email protected] Biosecurity & Trade Secretariat of the Pacific (679) 3370733 Facilitation Officer Community, Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji
Judi NIEVES Vanuatu [email protected] Farm Manager Teouma prawns Ltd (678) 27470 Ramses PO Box 1123, Port Vila, Vanuatu
Michael OGO Mariana [email protected] Aquaculture & Fisheries NMC-CREES P.O. Box (670) 234 5498 Islands Development Program/ 501250, Saipan, MP Ext. 1728 Aquaculture Extension 96950 Mariana Islands Agent
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 75 Timothy PICKERING Fiji [email protected] Inland Aquaculture Secretariat of the Pacific (679) 9247038 Officer, SPC Community, Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji
Anand PRASAD Fiji [email protected] Officer in charge - Fisheries Department, Aquaculture Brackish Ministry of Fisheries & water Activities Forests, GPO Box 358, Suva, Fiji
Yves QUEINNEC French [email protected] Shrimp Farmer SCA Sté d’Aquaculture (689) 56 34 55 Polynesia (Aquaculture Opunohu) d’Opunohu BP 1050 Papetoai – Moorea, French Polynesia
Georges REMOISSENET French [email protected] Responsable programme Service de la Pêche, BP 20 (689) 50 25 50 Polynesia aquaculture au Service de 98713 Papeete, Tahiti, ou 79 04 25 la Pêche French Polynesia
Thomas REQUILLART New [email protected] Responsable du Province Sud, Direction (687) 26 05 89 Caledonia département Aquaculture du Développement rural, ou (687) 76 et Pêche de la PS BP 2386 - 98 846 Nouméa 19 86 New Caledonia
Benjamin RISPAL French [email protected] Shrimp Production AQUAPAC BP 7020 (689) 26 88 89 / Polynesia Manager Taravao, Tahiti, 57 16 33 French Polynesia
Teva SIU French [email protected] General Manager AQUAPAC BP 7020 (689) 57 16 33 Polynesia Taravao, Tahiti, French Polynesia
James TILBURY Fiji [email protected] Former shrimp farm owner Pacific Prawns (679) 346 0825 PO Box 466 Navua-Fiji
76 Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories: Status and trends in 2010 SPC CPS SECRETARIAT OF THE PACIFIC COMMUNITY SECRÉTARIAT GÉNÉRAL DE LA COMMUNAUTÉ DU PACIFIQUE © SPC, 2011 – Cover design: Muriel Borderie –SPC Publications Section : Hugues Lemonnier Muriel –SPC Publications – Photo design: Borderie © SPC, 2011 – Cover
Shrimp farming in Pacific Island countries and territories:
CONTACT DETAILS Secretariat of the Pacific Community Status and trends in 2010
SPC Headquarters SPC Suva Regional Office SPC Pohnpei Regional Office SPC Solomon Islands BP D5, Private Mail Bag, PO Box Q, Country Office 98848 Noumea Cedex, Suva, Kolonia, Pohnpei, 96941 FM, PO Box 1468 New Caledonia Fiji Islands, Federated States of Honiara, Solomon Islands Telephone: +687 26 20 00 Telephone: +679 337 0733 Micronesia Telephone: + 677 25543 Fax: +687 26 38 18 Fax: +679 337 0021 Telephone: +691 3207 523 +677 25574 Fax: +691 3202 725 Fax: +677 25547
Email: [email protected] Website: www.spc.int