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Presentation of Data 121 GLOSSARY 1

GLOSSARY 1 TERMS USED IN GRAPHIC AND

Words in italics are separately defmed. alphabet length The space occupied by the 26 lowercase letters in a given and size, when they are set in a single line without spaces. alphanumerics Letters and numbers, as opposed to other kinds of symbol. artwork Text or presented in a form suitable for reproduction. In desktop , the artwork is usu• ally in the form of output from a laser . Thepartofalowercase letter, such as 'd' or'h', that rises above the x-height. asymmetrical layout A layout that has no central axis. Typically, both headings and text would be ranged left. back-edge In a bound , the edge of the page nearest to the binding. An imaginary horizontal line with which the bases of most lowercase letters (i.e. those without ) are aligned. baseline-to-baseline measurement The measurement (usually in points) from the baseline of one line of type to the baseline of the next. See also: linefeed. body size The term originates from metal type and it refers to the size of the 'body' on which each character is cast. The body size, usually measured in points, is the vertical di• mension of the surfaces carrying the characters. With digital type there is no physical body, so the term has little relevance. See also: size. brightness The subjective impression caused by the lumi• nance of an object. cap. height See: capital-letter height. capital-letter height The height of the capital letters in a given typeface and size, measured from the baseline to the capita/line. GLOSSARY 1 122 Computer Presentation of Data

capital line An imaginary line running along the tops of the capital letters in a line of type set in a given typeface and size. centred setting The setting of text such that each line is filled to the nearest whole word, with word and letter spacing held constant; the line is then centred between the left• hand and right-hand margins. chromatic aberration Blurring and depth effects in col• oured images, caused by the fact that different wave• lengths of light are bent by different amounts as they enter the eye. colour separation The process of photographing or elec• tronically scanning a coloured image to produce four separate images representing the red, green, blue and black components of the original. In printing, the four images are superimposed to recreate the original colours. The ink colours used are black and the process colours. See also: four-colour printing. complementary colour The complementary of a colour is produced when that colour is removed from white light. Ifblue is removed, the remaining wavelengths are mainly red and green, giving yellow as the complementary colour. Thus the complementary of a primary colour of light is in effect a mixture of the two remaining primaries. continuous tone Used to describe an image that contains a range of tonal values, such as a photograph. See also: halftone. copy-fitting Calculating how many lines your copy will occupy when set in a given typeface and type size, and to a given . An enclosed or partially enclosed space within a character. crop marks See: trim marks. cyan A mixture of blue and green, one of the three process colours in printing. The part of a lowercase letter, such as 'g' or 'y', that drops below the baseline. diazo A contact printing process in which ammonia is used as the developing agent in an ultraviolet light source. Commonly used to produce slides with white lettering on a blue ground. The process is unstable and slides are apt to fade. digital type Type that is held only in electronic fonn. A rather loosely-used tenn for non-alphanumeric typographic elements of various kinds. display sizes Type sizes of 18 points and upwards. Computer Presentation of Data 123 GLOSSARY 1

double-page spread A pair of facing . Two A4 pages will of course give an A3 spread. drop cap. Short for 'drop capital'. Often used at the begin• ning of a chapter or , this is a capital letter that extends below the baseline of the first line of type, and perhaps several subsequent lines. dry-transfer lettering One of the most usual ways of producing artwork for posters and slides before the ad• vent of graphics-driven . Lettering attached to a carrier sheet is transferred to the artwork by rubbing the back of the carrier. Letraset is the best-known brand. Dry• transfer lettering is expensive to buy and requires a certain amount of skill for good results. dummy A model or mock-up of a document, used as a guide for , imposition, folding and binding. electronic tyesetting Methods of in which the type is held in electronic (i.e. digital) fonn. The width of a lowercase letter 'm'. This is usually the same as the point size of the type. Thus an em in lOpttype will be 10 points wide. The em is used as a unit of measurement for horizontal space on a line. Indents, for example, are usually specified in ems. See also: em. The width of a lowercase 'n'. This is usually half the width of the em, i.e. half the point size of the type in question. Ens are used to specify small amounts of horizontal space, for example between an index entry and its associated page number. filmsetting See: . fixed space A unit of horizontal space, such as an em or an en, that remains unchanged duringjustification and hyphena• tion. folio Page number. Traditionally, a font is a set of letters, numerals, punc• tuation marks and other characters in the same typeface, type style and size. With metal type, the printer holds a separate font, or set of characters, for every combination of size and style likely to be needed in a given typeface. With digital type, however, a number of sizes and styles can be generated from the same 'font master' held in electronic fonn. In desktop publishing, the word 'font' is increasingly used to mean 'typeface' rather than a spe• cific combination of typeface, style and size. fore-edge In a document, the edge of the page farthest from the binding. fount An alternative spelling forjont. GLOSSARY 1 124 Computer Presentation of Data

four-colour printing Four colour separations are screen• printed on top of one another using the three process colours and black. Dots of different sizes and colours combine to recreate the colours of the original. See also: screen printing. galley proof A proof in which the text is not divided into pages. See also: page proof. generic coding The insertion of codes into electronic text to identify structural elements such as , listed points, headings at various levels, and so on. The codes are later converted to typesetting instructions. This pro• cedure allows output from relatively unsophisticated word-processing systems to be used for electronic type• setting.lt is not necessary with 'WYSIWYG' systems such as the Apple . Designing with type and 'pictures'. See also: graphics. graphics A loosely-used term, generally taken to mean illustrations or 'pictures' as opposed to text. A graphic may include lines, shadings, alphanumerics and other symbols. In computing, however, the term has a very spe• cific meaning (see Glossary 2). grey scale The range of tones between black and white. grid The grid defines the margins and text area on a page. The text area itself may be divided into two, three, four or more columns into which all text and illustrations must fit exactly. gutter The space between columns of text. Sometimes back• edge margins are referred to as 'gutter margins'. h & j Short for 'hyphenation and justification'. H & j routines are computer programs used to achieve a straight, or 'justified', right-hand . See also: hyphenation, justified setting. hairline rule A rule that is l/4 of a point in width. halftone A method of reproducing a continuous tone image such as a photograph. The image is photographed through a screen. Lighter areas are reproduced as smaller dots farther apart, while darker areas consist of larger dots closer together. See also: screen printing. hanging indent Where the first line of a paragraph is against the left-hand margin and subsequent lines in the para• graph are indented. house style A set of rules relating to typography and to linguistic matters such as spelling, abbreviation and . Normally all publications from the same Computer Presentation of Data 125 GLOSSARY 1

publisher or company would be expected to conform with these rules. hue That property of a colour which is determined by wavelength. · hyphenation The breaking of words at ends of lines in justified setting. Good hyphenation routines break words at legitimate points only. imposition The arrangement of a number of pages of camera• ready copy so that they can be printed together on one sheet of paper. The arrangement must be such that the pages will be in the correct sequence when the sheet is folded and trimmed. intensity See: tonal value. inter-letter spacing The space between letters making up a word. See also: , letterspacing, tracking. inter-line spacing The space between lines oftype, measured from the baseline of one line of text to the baseline of the next (usually specified in points, sometimes in millimetres). See also: linefeed. inter-word spacing The space between words. Usually an en, or one-third of an em. justification See: justified setting. justified setting The setting of text so that all lines are of exactly the same length, thus creating a straight right• hand margin as well as a straight left-hand margin. This is achieved by hyphenating words at ends of lines where necessary, and by varying inter-word spacing and inter• letter spacing. See also: hyphenation. kerning The adjustment of spacing between individual pairs ofletters so that the letters in a word appear evenly spaced. In automatic kerning systems, each letter pair is looked up in a table and the spacing adjusted according to the value specified. This requires a considerable amount of mem• ory, so many systems offer manual kerning only. Here the operator can move individual letters at will. This facility is especially useful for words set in capital letters and in display sizes. See also: letterspacing, tracking. landscape format A page fonnat in which the horizontal dimension is the longest. laser copier A high-quality xerographic copier using laser technology. Not to be confused with laser printers. See also: xerography. leader dots Rows of dots used to guide the eye across the page, typically between columns of infonnation. leader lines Hairline rules used to lead the eye from a label GLOSSARY1 126 Computer Presentation of Data

outside a drawing to a point within a drawing. Space added between lines oftype (usually specified in points). The tenn originates from metal type, where thin strips oflead can be inserted between lines, but it has no real meaning when applied to digital type and is best avoided. Some page make-up programs refer to 'leading' when they mean inter-line spacing or linefeed. letterspacing The addition of space between letters. Letter• spacing is sometimes used in headings, supposedly to give them more impact. It may also occur in justified setting if adjustments to the inter-word spacing alone would result in too much white space on a line. See also: kerning, tracking. line increment See: linefeed. line spacing See: inter-line spacing. linefeed The distance between the baseline of one line oftype and the baseline ofthe next. Linefeed is usually measured in points, but in some circumstances it may be more convenient to use millimetres. (With metal type, the linefeed is equal to the body size of the type plus any leading. Thus, lOpttypewithtwopointsofleadingwould have a 12pt linefeed.) lining numerals Numerals that are aligned top and bottom with the baseline and capital line, as opposed to non• lining numerals with ascenders and descenders. Also known as 'modem' numerals. litho See: offset . lowercase letters Small letters, as opposed to capital or uppercase letters. So called because of the position of the wooden 'cases' in which metal type is traditionally kept. luminance The amount of light reaching the eye from a surface. This is perceived as the brightness ofthe surface. magenta A mixture of blue and red, one of the process colours in printing. An imaginary line running along the top of the lowercase letters in a line of type set in a given face and size. measure The width of the in which lines of type are set, i.e. the line length. The measure may be specified in picas, inches or metric units. mechanical tint Patterns or shading used to fill areas in graphics. Obtainable in 'paint' and 'draw' programs, and in the fonn of dry-transfer sheets. modern numerals See: lining numerals. monochrome Usually used to refer to black-and-white Computer Presentation of Data 127 GLOSSARY 1

images, but any image with lettering or graphics in a single colour on a black or white background is a fonn of monochrome image. monoline Used to describe in which the strokes fonning the letters have a constant, or nearly constant, width. monospaced characters Characters that occupy the same amount ofhorizontal space on the line, regardless of their width. They are a hangover from the mechanical type• writer and are typical ofthe less expensive kinds ofimpact printer. See also: proportional spacing. non-lining numerals Numerals with ascenders and descenders (also known as 'old-style' numerals). offset lithography A printing process that is much used for output from desktop-publishing systems. The finished pages are photographed to create film negatives, and these in tum are used to create printing plates.lrlk adheres to the image areas and is repelled by non-image areas. The plate is attached to a cylinder, and the ink is transferred to the paper via an intennediate cylinder. old-style numerals See: non-lining numerals. opacity A characteristic of paper. The greater the opacity, the less show-through there will be. Heavier papers are not necessarily more opaque than lighter ones. orphan The first line of a paragraph, isolated at the bottom of a column or page. page grid See: grid. page proof A proof in which the text and any illustrations have been made up into pages. Page proofs show the lmal appearance of each page. See also: galley proof. parentheses Round brackets (as opposed to square brackets). photocopying A relatively cheap and readily available method of producing a few copies of a document. Xerog• raphy is the most commonly used process. photomechanical transfer (often abbreviated to PMT) A method of making high-quality photographic copies of artwork. The image is exposed onto light-sensitive paper to give a negative. A positive is then made by a contact printing process involving the chemical transfer of the image onto a second sheet of paper. phototypesetting A method of typesetting in which the characters are exposed onto photographic paper or film. The characters may be held in the fonn of a physical matrix of some kind, or they may be held in digital fonn. Digital characters may be 'painted' onto a CRT (cathode GLOSSARY1 128 Computer Presentation of Data

ray tube) which is then exposed onto the photographic material, or they may be written directly onto the photo• graphic material by a laser (laser typesetting). pi font A set of special characters such as mathematical symbols. pica A pica is equal to 12 points, or approximately one sixth of an inch. pica em A pica em is a 12pt em, i.e. the width of a lowercase 'm' in a 12pt type size. The pica em is a unit of horizontal spacing and it can be used with type of any size. When dealing with ems, it is important to be sure whether they are pica ems, or whether they relate to the size of type being set pitch The number of monospaced characters per horizontal inch. Used as a measure of character size.lmpact printers may offer 10 pitch, 12 pitch, 15 pitch and 17 pitch, but 10 and 12 pitch are the most common. platemaking The process of making printing plates for offset lithography by photographing artwork. PMT See: photomechanical transfer. point (often abbreviated to 'pt') A point is approximately equal to 1[12 of an inch (or 0.013837 of an inch, to be precise). The point is the basic unit in the system of measurement traditionally used by printers. point size The traditional way of specifying type sizes. The system originates from metal type, where each character is cast on a metal body. The measurement in points relates to the vertical dimension of the surfaces carrying the characters. As the point size is not a direct measurement of the characters themselves, the apparent size of charac• ters of the same point size varies from one typeface to another. Even though digital type has no physical 'body', the same system of measurement is still widely used. For some purposes, however, it is more convenient to meas• ure the capital-letter height or the x-height of the type in millimetres. portrait format A page fonnat in which the vertical dimen• sion is the longest. primary colour One of a set of three colours from which most other colours can be mixed. When coloured lights are mixed, the primaries are red, blue and green; when pigments are mixed the primaries are a bluish red (ma• genta), a bluish green (cyan), and yellow. See also: complementary colour. Computer Presentation of Data 129 GLOSSARY1

process camera A camera specifically designed for the various photographic processes involved in printing. process colours In printing, all colours can be reproduced by combinations of the three process colours, yellow, ·cyan and magenta, plus black. Each colour is printed from a separate plate. proportional spacing A system of spacing whereby the amount of space each character occupies on a line de• pends on the width of that character. Some impact print• ers offer a fonn of proportional spacing, but satisfactory proportional spacing can be achieved only with printers' typefaces and a laser printer or laser typesetter. See also: monospaced characters. pt Abbreviation for 'point'. ragged-left setting See: ranged-right setting. ragged-right setting See: ranged-left setting. ranged-left setting The setting of text such that all lines begin at the left-hand margin but do not necessarily end exactly at the right-hand margin. Each line is filled to the nearest whole word, with inter-word and inter-letter spacing held constant. Hyphenation is usually confined to exception• ally long words. See also: ranged-right setting. ranged-right setting The setting oftext such that all lines end exactly at the right-hand margin, but do not necessarily begin exactly at the left-hand margin. As with ranged-left setting, each line is filled to the nearest whole word, with inter-word and inter-letter spacing held constant, and hyphenation is usually confmed to exceptionally long words. See also: ranged-left setting. register marks These are crossed hairlines placed outside the print area and used to align colour separations. reproduction computer A plastic disc with a rotating scale, used to calculate new reproduction sizes (in inches or centimetres) when artwork is enlarged or reduced by a given percentage. reversed-out See: reversed type. reversed type White type on a black background, as opposed to the more usual black type on a white background. rivers White spaces running vertically through a passage of text. They occur when the inter-word spacing is too great in relation to the inter-line spacing. rub-down lettering See: dry-transfer lettering. sans Used to refer to typefaces without serifs. saturation The purity of a colour. A saturated colour is given by a narrow range of wavelengths of light, whereas an GLOSSARY 1 130 Computer Presentation of Data

unsaturated colour has various other wavelengths mixed in with the dominant wavelength. This is the equivalent of adding white. screen printing A printing process in which the image is photographed through a screen to break it up into tiny dots. The dots vary in size, becoming smaller in light areas and larger in dark areas, but all are so small that the overall appearance is of smooth tones. secondary colour See: complementary colour. serif Serifs are small finishing marks at the ends ofthe strokes making up a character. set solid The term arose in relation to metal type. When lines of type are butted together without any leading, the type is said to be 'set solid'. The same tenn is sometimes used to describe digital type where the linefeed is the same as the point size. set width With metal type, the width of the type body varies from one character to another. Character widths are specified by the unit system of measurement. The em is divided into units and each character is assigned a unit value, or set width. The concept of set width is also used in relation to digital type, even though there is no physical type body. show-through Dark shadows on the page, caused by type on the other side of the paper showing through. The greater the opacity ofthe paper, the less the show-through will be. The effects are minimised when the type areas on the two sides of each page are accurately backed-up. signature A section of a book, usually consisting of 8 or 16 pages. The first page of each section usually carries a small letter or number to ensure that the sections are bound together in the correct sequence. A smaller size of capital letters, often used when words embedded in a text passage need to be set in capitals. Small capitals help to preserve an even texture. spread See: double-page spread. sis An abbreviation used to indicate that a piece of artwork should be reproduced the same size. subscript A small character set below the baseline. Much used in chemistry. superscript A small character set above the baseline. Much used in mathamatics, and in text to indicate the presence of a note or bibliographical reference. symmetrical layout A that has a central axis. Headings are usually centred and the text justified. Computer Presentation of Data 131 GLOSSARY 1

tiling Printing a large image as a number of smaller segments or 'tiles'. For example, an A2 image could be created on a laser printer by dividing it into four A4 tiles. tonal value The lighmess or darkness of a colour. tracking The reduction of the space between letters by the same amount for every letter combination. See also: kerning. trim marks Marks used to indicate final page size. For example, if you are preparing a publication whose final page size will be smaller than A4, your laser printed A4 pages will need trim marks. These are placed one in each comer, outside the final page area. type body See: body size. type family The complete range of type styles available within a typeface. type size See: point size. type style A variant of a typeface, e.g. bold, italic, condensed. type weight Most typefaces are available in several different 'weights' or stroke thicknesses. A 'medium' or 'light' weight is usually used for continuous text, while 'bold' is useful for . Terms describing type weights are relative. 'Medium' in one typeface may be the visual equivalent of 'bold' in another. typeface A set of letters, numbers, punctuation marks etc. with the same design characteristics. typescale A metal or plastic device used to determine the baseline-to-baseline measurement between lines of type, or to find out how much space will be occupied by a given number of lines with a particular linefeed. Some typescales resemble ordinary rulers, but are marked in units of, say, 9, 10, 11 and 12 points; others are wider and slatted, and may allow you to measure as many as 15 different linefeeds. unit system A relative system of measurement used to specify set widths of characters, inter-letter spacing, and sometimes inter-word spacing. The width of the em is divided vertically into a fixed number of units. (With metal type there are usually 18 units to the em, but the current industry standard for laser typesetters is 54 units to the em.) The actual width of the unit depends on the point size of the type: in an 18-unit system, the unit would be 1 point wide with 18pt type and half a point wide with 9pt type. Each character is then assigned a width of so many units, including a small amount of space on either side to GLOSSARY1 132 Computer Presentation of Data

separate it from its neighbours. This is 'standard' letter spacing. In an 18-unit system, 'M' might have a width of 18 units, 'h' 10 units, and 'i' 5 units. uppercase letters Another way of describing capital letters. See also: lowercase letters. vertical justification The adjustment of inter-line spacing to make a block of text fit within a designated area. visual acuity The resolving power of the human eye. widow The final line of a paragraph, isolated at the top of the next column or page. word spacing See: inter-word spacing. x-height The height ofthe lowercase letter 'x', measured from the baseline to the mean line. The x-height is used as a measure of the size of the lowercase letters in a given typeface and size, excluding the ascenders and descenders. xerography An electrostatic copying process. The original is exposed onto a metal drum which becomes electrostati• cally charged in areas where dark lines are present. The charge attracts powdered ink or 'toner', which is then transferred to paper and fused to it by heat. Computer Presentation of Data 133 GLOSSARY2

GLOSSARY2 TERMS USED IN COMPUTING

Words in italics are separately defmed. application (Macintosh) Any program that is designed to manipulate data in a particular way. For example, 'write' and 'draw' programs are applications, but systems pro• grams are not. ASCII American Standard Code for Information Inter• change. A system of codes used to represent the charac• ter set in a computer. ASPIC A generic coding system recommended by the British Printing Industries Federation. binary The counting system used in computing. The binary system uses the base 2, as opposed to the decimal system which uses the base 10. bit Stands for 'binary information transfer'. The bit is the basic unit of information in computer systems. Each bit can have a value of either 0 or 1. bit-mapping The storage of an image in tenns of pixels and their specific locations. byte A measure of computer storage. A byte is equal to one character in an eight-bit environment. central processing unit (often abbreviated to CPU) The part of the computer that sorts data and executes commands from the programs or the keyooard. character-driven A computer system with fixed character shapes stored in the ROM. Data manipulation and display are controlled by typing commands at the keyboard. See also: graphics-driven. clipboard (Macintosh) The place where information that has been cut or copied is held, until such time as another item is cut or copied. command-driven Used to describe a computer system where the user must type commands at the keyboard. See also: menu-driven. GLOSSARY2 134 Computer Presentation of Data

CPU See: central processing unit. cursor A moveable indicator on the screen, used to select the point in the data at which the next command is to be actioned. cut-and-paste Editing operations that allow the removal of portions of text from a document and their reinstatement elsewhere in the same document or in another document. daisywheel printer A printing device with the character forms held on a metal disc. data We use this word in its loosest sense, meaning 'informa• tion'. desk accessories (Macintosh) Mini-applications that are available whilst you are using any other application. Examples include the Calculator, Alarm Clock and Scrapbook. desktop (Macintosh) The working area on the Macintosh screen. Also the highest (first) level in the hierarchical filing system. device independence See: output-device independence. disc drive A mechanism for holding a disc, and for writing information on it and retrieving information from it. document (Macintosh) The name given to a file created within an application. dot-matrix printer A printing device on which the charac• ters are formed by different configurations of pins strik• ing the paper. There are normally either nine or twenty• four pins. dpi Abbreviation for ''. draft-quality output Many dot-matrix printers offer two or more printing qualities. Draft output is usually the fastest and lowest quality option. See also: letter-quality output, near-letter-quality output. driver A computer program or device that communicates with a peripheral device such as a printer or disc drive. file A collection of information stored on a disc. Each document, application, desk accessory etc. constitutes a file. fill pattern Patterns and shadings used to fill objects in 'paint' and 'draw' programs. finder (Macintosh) Program responsible for retrieving files when you ask for them. floppy disc flexible plastic disc used for the magnetic storage of information. The most commonly used sizes are 3.5in and 5.25in. folder (Macintosh) and applications can be Computer Presentation of Data 135 GLOSSARY2

grouped inside folders on the desktop. This reduces clutter and makes it easier to find your files. Folders can in tum be placed in other folders. This is called the hierarchical filing system. font Traditionally, a font is a set of letters, numerals, punc• tuation marks and other characters in the same typeface, style and size. With metal type, the printer holds a separate font, or set of characters, for every combination of size and style likely to be needed in a given typeface. With digital type, however, a number of sizes and styles can be generated from the same 'font master' held in electronic forrn. In the computer world, the word 'font' is increasingly used to mean 'typeface' rather than a spe• cific combination of typeface, style and size. generic coding In the printing environment, the terrn is used to refer to codes inserted into electronic text as a means of controlling typesetting. In the computer environment, ge• neric codes are control codes for the program. global search and replace See: search and replace. graphics Used in computing to mean the images created by a graphics-driven computer where every pixel is directly addressable by the . graphics-driven A computer system where the character shapes are not fixed in the ROM. Shapes, including characters, can be created using menus and a pointing device. See also: character-driven. hard copy Printout from a computer file. Written or typed copy may also be referred to as hard copy. hard disc. A disc that is permanend y encased in the disk drive. Hard discs (sometimes referred to as 'Winchesters') have a much greater storage capacity and speed thanfloppy discs. hardware The equipment, as opposed to the software, comprising a computer system. hierarchical filing system A filing system where files can be placed inside folders, which in turn can be placed inside other folders, and so on. 1-beam A type of cursor frequently used in text-handling programs. icon A small picture used to represent an object (such as a file), a concept or a message. impact printer A printing device in which the paper is struck by a character forrn (daisywheel printers) or a configura• tion of pins (dot-matrix printers). initialise Before a disc can be used to store data, it must be GLOSSARY2 136 Computer Presentation of Data

initialised. The available storage space is divided into segments so that the system can keep a record of what has been stored where on the disc. ink-jet printer A printing device on which characters are formed by tiny jets of ink squirted at the paper in a dot matrix configuration. install Some programs cannot be used immediately simply by inserting the floppy disc into the computer. Such programs need to be installed. This is often a matter of selecting the parts of the program that are appropriate for your system, so that in effect you have a customised version of the program. interface The link between two parts of a computer system, or between the computer system and the operator (1m• man/computer interface). kilobyte (often abbreviated to K) 1024 bytes, or about 1000 characters. LAN See: local area network. laser printer A printing device based on xerography and laser technology. Laser printers are capable of generating traditional printers' typefaces at resolutions of around 300dpi. New models, now being developed, print at resolutions of 400 to 600dpi. laser setter See: laser typesetter. laser typesetter A typesetting machine based on laser technology. Laser typesetters produce graphic arts qual• ity output at resolutions of 1280dpi and above. letter-quality output (often abbreviated to LQ) The highest quality of output obtainable from an impact printer. Only daisywheel printers are capable of true letter-quality. See also: draft-quality output, near-letter-quality output. local area network A group of microcomputers and periph• erals with direct (i.e. cable) links between them, operat• ing within a limited geographical area (for example, in the same building or the same room). lock In most systems, individual documents or whole discs can be locked to prevent them from being edited, re• named, or accidentally erased. LQ See: letter-quality output. MB See: megabyte. megabyte (often abbreviated to MB) 1,024,000 bytes, or about 1 million characters. menu A list of possible actions, displayed on the screen. menu-driven A computer system which the user operates by selecting alternatives from a menu. Selection may be by Computer Presentation of Data 137 GLOSSARY2

means of a pointing device (such as amouse), or by typing very simple commands (such as a letter or digit plus the return key). See also: command-driven. microcomputer A small computer. The tenn is derived from the 'micro' chip used to construct the processor. monitor A VDU that shows what the computer is doing. mouse A pointing device used with menu-driven and graph• ics driven systems. The movement of the mouse on a flat surface controls the movement of the cursor on the screen. MS-DOS The Microsoft Disc Operating System, used by the IBM-PC and compatible computers. multi-tasking Multi-tasking systems are able to perfonn several tasks at the same time. For example, the user may be able to edit one document while printing another. multi-user Describes a computer system that allows several users to access the same machine, programs and data files at the same time. near-letter-quality output This is the highest quality of output that most dot-matrix printers can achieve. It is relatively slow. See also: draft-quality output, letter• quality output. network See: local area network. NLQ See: near-letter-quality output. operating system A program that organises the activities of the computer and its peripheral devices. outline-mapping The storage of an image in tenns of outlines with no fixed dimensions. output-device independence A facility provided by certain programming languages used for specifying output. The contents of pages are described in such a way that they can be output on any compatible device. See also: page• description language. package Program or programs bought 'off-the-shelf, as opposed to being written for a specific pu1p0se. page-description language A computer-programming lan• guage used to control output. The language is used to describe the nature of the text and graphic elements on a page, and their exact placement. Any output device that is capable of supporting a specific page-description lan• guage can accept pages from any program that is capable of generating pages in that language. The pages are thus held in a fonn that is output-device independent. parameter A variable that can be set at a particular value to suit a specific operation. GLOSSARY2 138 Computer Presentation of Data

pass One run through a computer system. PC See: . peripheral An input or output device that is separate from the computer itself, e.g. a scanner or a laser printer. personal computer (often abbreviated to PC) See: micro• computer. picture element See: pixel. pixel The smallest element that can be displayed on a computer screen. plotter A peripheral device capable of receiving instructions from a computer and drawing graphics at very high resolution according to those instructions. These ma• chines 'draw' in steps which can be in increments as small as 0.005in (O.lmm). port A socket on a computer, into which a peripheral device can be plugged. PostScript A proprietary page-description language mar• keted by Adobe Systems. It is currently the most popular of such languages and has been adopted by both Apple and IBM as a standard. print buffer A block of random-access memory set aside to provide temporary storage for files that are waiting to be printed. program A set of instructions that enables a computer to carry out a particular operation or series of operations. pull-down menu A menu whose presence is indicated only by its title. The options are revealed when the title is activated in some way, usually by pointing at it with a device such as a mouse. Once an option has been selected, the menu disappears again, leaving the screen unclut• tered. RAM See: random-access memory. random-access memory The part of the computer's resident memory that is used for the temporary storage of pro• grams and data files currently in use. It can be both written to and read from. It is erased when the power is switched off. raster image processor (often abbreviated to RIP) A device that receives data from a computer and uses PostScript for typesetting. read-only memory The part of the computer's resident memory that is used for storing programs, , and other essential data needed by the computer and the printer. It is not erased when the power is switched off. refresh rate Images on a VDU are created by electrons Computer Presentation of Data 139 GLOSSARY2

hitting the phosphor coating of the screen and causing it to glow. It is not necessary for the image to glow continu• ously for it to be perceived as steady, so it is typically refreshed at a rate of 50 times per second with European voltage sytems and at 60 times per second on American systems. The higher the refresh rate, the less the percep• tible flicker in the image. resident memory The permanent memory that forms part of the computer. The resident memory is of two kinds, read• only and random-access. resolution The number of dots per inch that a printer or typesetter is capable of generating. Resolution varies from perhaps 72dpi on an impact printer to 300dpi on a laser printer and over 2000dpi on some laser typesetters. RIP See: raster image processor. ROM See: read-only memory. scanner A device capable of 'reading' black and white printed images and converting them into binary data that can be processed by a computer. scrapbook (Macintosh) A desk accessory that allows you to store useful items (logos, letterheads, diagrams etc.) and paste them into any document you are working on. screen-refresh rate See: refresh rate. scrolling Moving the contents of a file so that a new section is visible on the screen or in a window. SCSI An abbreviation for Small Computer System Interface. This is a standard interface for high-speed communica• tion with peripherals. search and replace The process of finding a specified string of characters wherever it occurs in a file and replacing it with another specified string. The better word-processing programs offer this facility. SGML An abbreviation for Standard Generalised Mark-up Language. This is a complex generic coding scheme that has been adopted by the International Standards Organi• sation and the British Standards Institution. soft copy Data in electronic form. software The programs used to drive a computer. spreadsheet A program that allows numerical data to be entered in rows and columns and then manipulated. A modelling tool much used for projections in business. stand-alone A computer that is not part of a network. startup disc A disc that contains the program files necessary to start the computer working. With Macintosh comput- ers, a startup disc must have the systems folder on it. GLOSSARY2 140 Computer Presentation of Data

systems folder (Macintosh) A folder that contains the sys• tems programs necessary for the operation of a Macin• tosh computer. terminal A keyboard and/or screen giving access to a multi• user computer system. tools (Macintosh) Options available in 'paint', 'draw' and page make-up programs. Typical tools include brushes and pens of different widths, a spray-paint facility, rules of different widths, an eraser, and so on. Tools are usually represented by icons. UNIX A multi-user operating system that allows several people to use the same computer at the same time. UserWare Software that is available to all for a nominal fee. VDU An abbreviation for 'visual display unit'. vector-mapping The storage of an image in tenns of vectors and coordinates. WIMP An abbreviation for a system using windows, icons, a mouse, and pull-down menus. Winchester An alternative name for a hard disc. window In some computer systems (such as Macintosh), documents are viewed through 'windows' on the desk• top. Windows can be moved around or changed in size. Some programs allow you to have several windows open at once on the desktop. This is ideal for cut-and-paste operations. word wrap The automatic carry-over of text to the next line when the measure is full. WYSIWYG An abbreviation for 'what you see is what you get', meaning that, for example, if you specify bold type you will see bold type on the screen as well as on the fmal printout. Neither the resolution nor the measurements of the screen image will match the printed image exactly. zoom A facility that allows the entire page to be viewed at a reduced size, or small portions to be viewed at enlarged sizes. Computer Presentation of Data 141 APPENDIX 1

APPENDIX 1 COPYFITTING

When you are planning a document, there will be occasions when you need to know how much space a word-processed text will occupy when it is set in your chosen typeface and size and to a given measure. The following instructions and tables illustrate the principles of copyfitting. We also show you how to make calculations in the case of typefaces specific to your particular printer. The first stage in copyfitting is to calculate the number of characters or words in the text. You will be able to do this most accurately if you: Print your word-processed version in a monospaced letterform. • Leave the right-hand margin unjustified. With documents occupying more than one page of printout, it is advisable to work with one whole page and to multiply your answers by the total number of whole pages in the document. Part-pages will need to be treated separately, or added to• gether and treated as the equivalent number of whole pages. How many words are there in the text?

Method 1: Calculation by character count 1 Work out the average line length in inches. Draw a vertical line to mark the end of the shortest line (ignoring any incomplete lines) and another to mark the end of the longest line. The mid-point between the two is the aver• age line length. In the example on page 142 the average line length is 5.8in. 2 Find out how many characters there are per line. Column B in Table 1 gives the number of characters per inch for APPENDIX 1 142 Computer Presentation of Data

The text below is set in a typical Maximum line length typeface. These are often monospaced, as in Average line length this example of Courie(l'M 12pt (1 0 pitch) I Minimum li ne length I Ten patients with end-stage renal failure and anaemia n thr ice weekly haemodialysis have been treated with recombinan I erythropoietin (r-HuEPO) for one year. Doses have been adju~ted to maintain Hb concentrations at ~ 12g/dl. Red cell rna s, p}asm volume, erythron transferrin uptake (ETU) and red cell lifel spa were measured before and after response . Pharmacokinet'c 1 profil es were performed at the time of first dose and fter l response. Bone marrow cultures were set up before and fter: treatment had been established to look for inhibitors f I erythropoiesis and quantify the number of early erythr id 1 progenitors (CFU-e and BFU-e) . The mitotic rate of the e ea~ly progenitors was determined by 3 H thymidine suicide. I I 5.8in ------?

several LaserWriter Plus™ typefaces. The 12pt Cou• rier™ in our example gives 10 characters per inch. If your text has been printed in 10 or 12 pitch monospaced lettering, then you will have exactly 10 or 12 characters to the inch. 3 Multiply the average line length in inches by the number of characters per inch. In our case the number of charac• ters per line is therefore 5.8 x 10 = 58. 4 Multiply by the number of complete lines: 58 x 11 = 638. 5 Divide by the average number of characters per word (6 for normal prose, or 7 if your text contains a large number of long scientific and medical words): 638 + 6 = 106 words. 6 Add on the number of words in any incomplete lines (in our case the last line): 106 + 7 =113. 7 Multiply again by the number of pages if appropriate. There are in fact 109 words in the example, but a small degree of inaccuracy is inevitable in text that contains symbols and formulae. Accuracy is also reduced with texts that are less than a page in length. Computer Presentation of Data 143 APPENDIX 1

Line length 41n (24 pleas) LaserWriter Plus typefaces Characters Words Characters 12 point type size per li:le per line per inch 0 Points 126 A NP SM B Narrow efgh ijklmnopqrstuvwx~ 65 10.8 9.2 16.25 144 Times Roman bcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxy, 58 9.6 8.2 14.5 153 Helvetica Regular bcdefghijklmnopq rstuvwxy~ --- 53 8.8 7.5 13.25 162 Palatine bcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyJ -- 50 8.3 7.1 12.5 164 New Century Sch.Bk. bcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwx~ -- 50 8.3 7.1 12.5 171 Bookman bcdefghijklmnopqrstu~ -- 48 8.0 6.9 12.0 183 Courier cdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxy ~ - 42 7.0 6.0 10.5

10 point type size 105 Helvelica Narrow fghijklm~ 77 12.8 11.0 19.25 120 Times Roman ghijk.lmnopqrstuvwx~ 67 11.0 9.5 16.75 129 Helvetica Regular fghijklmnopqrstuvwx1 65 10.8 9.2 16.25 135 bcdefghijl

Key: NP . Normal prose. The number of characters per average word in Eng&sh is 6 SM s Scientific and medical prose. The number of characters per average word is 7 SM values can also be used for technical or any 'speciaist' texts where long words may be commonly found

TABLE 1 Copyfitting guide for selected LaserWriter Plus typefaces APPENDIX 1 144 Computer Presentation of Data

Method 2: Calculation by word count The word-count method is slightly less accurate than the character-count method. 1 Work out the average line length in inches, as in Method 1. 2 Refer to Table 1 to find out the average number of words per line in the face in which the text appears. In this case, look for 12pt CourierTM and read across to the NP column. This gives 7.0 as the average number of words per line in normal prose, assuming a line length of 4in. We have a line length of 5.8in, so a correction is required. A'repro• duction computer' will tell you that 5.8in is 142% of 4in, so the calculation is 7.0 x 142% = 9.9 words per line. 3 Multiply by the number of complete lines in your text: 9.9 X 11 = 109. 4 Add on the number of words in any incomplete lines: 109 + 7 =116. (We have shown the method here, but once again the inaccuracy is due to the shortness of the text.) 5 Multiply by the number of pages if appropriate.

The Reproduction .Computer can be used to calculate any percentage increase or REPRODUCTION decrease in meas• COMPUTER urements. For example if your line measure is 18 picas then this is calculated as 75% of 24 picas Computer Presentation of Data 145 APPENDIX 1

How many lines will the text occupy when it is typeset?

Let us assume that the text in our example is to be set in I Opt Times RomanTM to a measure of22 picas. 1 Work out the average line length in inches, as described above. 2 Count the number of characters in the average line. (All characters, including punctuation, have a value of 1. Spaces between words and after punctuation marks such as full stops and commas also have a value of 1, even if the typist has typed two spaces.) In our example there are 58 characters in the average line. 3 Multiply this by the number of complete lines: 58x 11 =638. 4 Count the number of words in any incomplete lines and multiply by 6 or 7 according to the nature of the text: 6 x 7 = 42. Add this to the total for complete lines: 638 + 42 =680 .

TABLE 2 Alphabet Number of To calculate the length in characters per: specifications for a points 24 picas inch non-standard -- typeface: 120- 124 67 16.75 Type a complete 125- 129 65 16.25 lowercase alpha- 130- 134 62 15.5 bet and measure 135- 139 60 15.0 its length in points 140- 145 14.5 (72 points to the 58 inch). Use the 146- 151 55 13.75 table above and 152- 159 53 13.25 you will find the 160- 167 50 12.5 number of charac- 168- 175 48 12.0 ters per 24 pica measure or per inch as required APPENDIX 1 146 Computer Presentation of Data

5. Look up lOpt Times Roman™ in Table 1 and find the number of characters per inch (column B). The answer is 16.75. (Referto Table 2 if the typeface you wish to use is not shown in Table 1.) 6 Divide the total number of characters by the number of characters per inch in the required typeface. This will give the total length of the text in inches - imagine it as one long line: 680 + 16.75 =40.6. 7 Multiply the length in inches by 6 to give the number of picas: 40.6 x 6 =244 . 8 Divide this by the chosen measure of22 picas to give the numberoflines that the text will occupy: 244 + 22 = 11.1. The illustration below shows that in fact the answer is eleven, indicating the difficulty of accurate assessments with short texts. 9 Multiply by the number of pages if appropriate.

22 picas

Ten patients with end-stage renal failure and anaemia on thrice weekly haemodialysis have been treated with recombinant erythro• poietin (r-HuEPO) for one year. Doses have been adjusted to main• tain Hb concentrations at~ 12g/dl. Red cell mass, plasma volume, erythron transferrin uptake (ETIJ) and red cell life span were measured before and after response. Pharmacokinetic profiles were performed at the time of first dose and after response. Bone marrow cultures were set up before and after treatment had been established to look for inhibitors of erythropoiesis and quantify the number of early erythroidprogenitors (CFU-e and BFU-e). The mitotic rate of these early progenitors was determined by 3 H thymidine suicide.

The final result: the original Courier™ text set to a measure of 22 picas in Times Roman™ 1Opt on a 12pt linefeed Computer Presentation of Data 147 APPENDIX 1

How many lines will fit into a given column height?

There may be times when you need to know how many lines of text will fit into a given column height. Table 3 will help with this. Remember, it is the linefeed in points that will determine how many lines will fit, not the point size of the type. If, for example, you were using 12pt type with a 14pt linefeed, the numberoflines per vertical inch would be shown in column 14. If you wish to how many column inches are required to accommodate a given number of lines, simply multiply the linefeed in points by the number of lines and divide by 72 (there are 72 points to the inch).

Lines of text per column height & line length Line feed 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18

Column height inches Number of lines of text 1/4 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1/2 6 5 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3/4 9 7 6 6 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 1 12 10 9 8 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 4 2 24 20 18 16 14 13 12 11 10 9 9 8 3 36 30 27 24 21 19 18 16 15 14 13 12 4 48 41 36 32 28 26 24 22 20 19 18 16 5 60 51 45 40 36 32 30 27 25 24 22 20 6 72 61 54 48 43 39 36 33 30 28 27 24 7 84 ·72 63 56 50 45 42 38 36 33 31 28 8 96 82 72 64 57 52 48 44 41 38 36 32 9 108 92 81 72 64 58 54 49 46 43 40 36 10 120 102 90 80 72 65 60 55 51 48 45 40 11 132 113 99 88 79 71 66 60 56 52 49 44 12 144 123 108 96 86 78 72 66 61 57 54 48 Computer Presentation of Data 149 APPENDIX 2

APPENDIX2 SIGNATURES AND IMPOSITION

A signature is a section of a book. Within the signature, the arrangement and numbering of the pages will depend on the binding method chosen. We show here two of the common• est 'in-house' binding methods and how they affect page num• bering. In 'professional' book binding the signatures may be much more complex and you will have to discuss this with your printer or publisher. Saddle stitched. Each folded sheet is inserted into the fold of its neigh• bour. This method becomes unwieldy if used for large documents. The finished document will need trimming to make the folded pages flush

Side stitched. Folded sheets are placed on top of each other and stitched through the back-edge margin. This method can usually accommo• date more sheets than saddle stitch• ing. The document may not need trim• afterwards APPENDIX 2 150 Computer Presentation of Data

Front of sheet page page

aced aced

Back of same sheet page page

2 7 ::

£ ~-t-:-- ' aced i aced ~ ~

A simple imposition scheme for an eight-page sheet which is to be saddle stitched. Dotted lines indicate folds. Note that half the pages have to be laid out upside down Camera-ready copy is laid out so that several pages can be printed on one sheet of paper at one pass through the printing machine. The copy must be arranged or 'imposed' so that the sequence of pages will be correct when the sheet is folded and trimmed. Computer Presentation of Data 151 APPENDIX 2

Italic numbers are the page numbers of the document. L and R are left• and right-hand pages

Note that in the final printing, sheets 2,4,6,8 print on the reverse of 1,3,5,7 5~ 6 4 1 ,!==:1 :~ I

An imposition scheme for an AS document that is to be printed on A4 sheets. In this case, the document must either be side• stitched along the back-edge margin, or bound in a hot-melt cover with the folded sheets one on top of the other as in the lower example on page 149. This stage in the preparation of camera-ready copy can be very confusing and it would be sensible to discuss the binding and printing methods with your printer. It is often a great help to construct a model or 'dummy' of the document with the same pagination and folds as the finished article. Computer Presentation of Data 153 APPENDIX3

APPENDIX3 PUBLISHING AND THE LAW

·When you first discover the freedom and independence that desktop publishing gives, it's easy to forget that there are certain legal requirements that you must observe. The follow• ing notes are for those living and working in the United Kingdom. Copyright

We advise you to read the short booklets mentioned on page 168 for a more detailed version of what is stated here. Our only concern is that you should be careful not to unwittingly or deliberately contravene the law. However, the law is some• what vague in certain areas and our counsel is to get the permission ofthe copyright holder wherever possible if copy• righted work is likely to be used. All published work, in whatever form, is copyright. Even though copyright 'dies' fifty years after the death of the author, can you be sure that the document you are copying from is also fifty years old? Certainly the floppy discs you may be tempted to copy from are unlikely to be fifty years old. Copyright exists not only in the information being presented but also in the form of its presentation. Thus the work of Homer is not copyright but the recently published volume is. It is as well to remember that there is no copyright in ideas per se, but only in their recorded form. Thus a lecturer speaking without written notes may have the talk recorded by another person who may subsequently publish it. In this case the copyright will belong to the person who owns the text, and not to the lecturer. There have been cases of copyright contravention in some countries in which even the institutions of higher learning and APPENDIX3 154 Computer Presentation of Data

research have been taken to court. One of these cases centred around a lecturer whose lecture notes consisted of his own material plus data photocopied from copyright material. These notes were sold to the students for a sum that would just cover the cost of reproduction. As the lecturer was employed by a university, it was the university that went to court and who had, in the end, to pay! What you may NOT do: • Make use of any copyright material without acknow• ledgement to the copyright holder and previously pub• lished source. • Offer copyrighted work for sale, e.g. as part of lecture notes. • Copy copyrighted works at all, except as shown below. The fact that teaching and research would be impossible without photocopying flies in the face of the above every day. So the best advice is: never sell it, always acknowledge it. What you MAY do: • Copy a document for your own private study and research (i.e. not for incorporation into lecture notes or to be displayed as a slide or OHP transparency). The copying must be done at a centre registered for the purpose (most university libraries, for example, fall into this category), and you will be asked to sign a declaration that you will abide by the law. • Copy a limited amount for the purposes of review. The law states that the amount copied for this purpose should not be a 'substantial part' ofthe document in question, but it does not defme how much is a 'substantial part'. Our advice is to use common sense and only use a 'small part' for review purposes. For further infonnation contact: The Patent Office Industrial Property and Copyright Department Copyright Enquiries Room 1504 State House 66-71 High Holbom London WlP 4AA Telephone (OJ) 580 5544 Computer Presentation of Data 155 APPENDIX3

The British Copyright Council Copyright House 29-33 Bemers Street London WC1R 4TP Telephone (OJ) 829 6145 Legal Deposit in the British Library

The law relating to legal deposit is really part of the Copyright Deposit law Act. The relevant portion is quoted below: "The publisher of every book published in the United Kingdom shall, within one month after the publication, deliver, at his own expense, a copy of the book to the British Library Board who shall give a written receipt for it. The copy given to the British Library Board shall be a copy of the whole book with all maps and illustrations belonging thereto, finished and coloured in the same manner as the best copies of the book are published, and shall be bound sewed or stitched together and on the best paper on which the book is printed. If a publisher fails to comply with this section, he shall be liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding five pounds and the value of the book, and the fme shall be paid to the British Library Board or authority to whom the book ought to have been delivered. For the purpose of this section, the expression 'book' includes every part or division of a book, pamphlet, sheet of letterpress, sheet of music, map, plan, chart or table separately published, but shall not include any second or subsequent edition of a book unless such edition contains additions or alterations either in the letterpress or in the maps, prints or other engravings belonging thereto." (We are glad to note that, even in this computerised world, the possibility of someone making an engraving for a book illus• tration has not been overlooked.)

In the terms of the 1911 Copyright Act, publication is defined What is thus: 'publication'? "A literary, dramatic or musical work, or an edition of such a work, or an artistic work, shall be taken to have been published if, and only if, reproductions of the work or edition have been issued to the public." In the terms of the 1956 Copyright Act, publication is defmed as follows: "Publication means the reproduction in tangible form and APPENDIX3 156 Computer Presentation of Data

the general distribution of copies of a work from which it can be read or otherwise visually perceived." (Both of these definitions are valid.) Exempt There are certain categories of publication which are exempt publications from deposit regulations: • Publications wholly or mainly in the nature of trade advertisements. • Publications wholly or mainly in the nature of timetables of passenger transport services, being publications pre• pared for local use. • Publications wholly or mainly in the nature of calendars. • Publications wholly or mainly in the nature of blank fonns of accounts, or blank fonns of receipts, or other blank fonns of a similar character. • Wall sheets printed with alphabets, mottoes, religious texts or other matter for the purpose of elementary in• struction. Further infonnation is obtainable from: The British Library Copyright Receipt Office 2 Sheraton Street London WI V 4BH Telephone (01) 323 7179 or 7180 Copyright Do not be deceived into thinking that the The Copyright registration Receipt Office can provide you with some fonn of copyright registration. This Office does not accept unpublished manu• scripts or typescripts. Registration of material in order to prove copyright ownership at a later date ceased in 1842. Now all work, whether published or not, is copyright once it has been put into a fonn that can be visually perceived. However, in order to establish copyright 'officially', it is still possible to register material by paying a fee and depositing it at the following address: The Stationers Company Stationers' Hall Court London EC4M 700 As far as computer origination of material is concerned, we must presume that it is the hard copy, the printout, that will be deposited and recorded. Although the electronic version is the 'original', the electronic data are neither tangible nor visually perceivable in themselves. Computer Presentation of Data 157 APPENDIX 3

International Standard Book Numbers

All published works in the form of 'books' (see definition above) are required to have a unique ISBN number. Apply to the following address: Standard Book Numbering Agency 12 Dyot Street London WClA IDE Telephone (OJ) 836 8911 Data Protection Act

This is a law that requires all users of computers to register if they have any kind of personal data held in an electronic file. This means that if you hold even an address book in digital form you have to register. You can have a hand-written address book at home with all kinds of highly personal things in it, but you can't hold any sort of personal details about other people in digital form without registration. Failure to register under this act is against the law in the UK and is subject to substantial fmes. The law came into force on 11th November 1987.

For details concerning application forms, and to find out if the law applies to you, contact: Data Protection Registrar Springfield House Water Lane Wilmslow Cheshire SK9 SAX Telephone (0625) 535777 Computer Presentation of Data 159 APPENDIX4

APPENDIX4 WORKING COMFORT

If you are likely to be using your computer for extended periods, it is important to pay attention to your working environment. A badly planned working area can damage your health, as well as reducing your efficiency. Your working surface should be deep enough to enable you to The work surface place the computer screen directly in front of you at a comfortable distance. Many people find that a viewing dis- tance of about 24in (60cm) is ideal, but you will need to test this for yourself. This means that your worlc surface will need to have a depth of between 30 and 36in (75-90cm), depending on the depth ofyourVDU. You will then be able to place the keyboard between you and the screen. The screen should be approximately at eye level, and you may like to consider using a small plinth of some kind if the screen seems too low. You will also need adequate space on either side of the keyboard to place papers and books (perhaps even a manual or two!) that you need to refer to as you worlc. An adjustable stand of some kind is useful for documents that you are working closely from. This will enable you to position the document at about the same level and angle as the screen so that reference back and forth is made easier. Some stands incorporate a moveable horizontal guide which is invaluable if you are copy-typing. A comfortable chair with adjustable support for the lumbar Seating region of the back is essential. If your chair does not provide adequate back support, you will very soon begin to suffer with backache. The height of the seat must also be adjustable. You should set the height so that your foreanns are approximately horizontal as you type and your feet rest comfortably on the floor. It is important that your anns should be in the correct APPENDIX4 160 Computer Presentation of Data

position, and if this means that your feet dangle uncomforta• bly you will need to use a footrest of some kind. If you are not seated at the correct height in relation to the keyboard, you will probably find that your shoulders and neck begin to ache, and possibly your head too. Positive versus There is a trend now towards the use of positive screens (i.e. negative screens a dark image on a light background) rather than negative screens (a light image on a dade. background). On balance, we feel that positive screens are more convenient and comfort• able to work with. Negative screens have several disadvantages: • The image on the screen bears little relation to the appearance of the final printout. • Bright characters glowing against a dark screen will appear to spread and fill, thus decreasing legibility. • Troublesome reflections are difficult to avoid. • Constantly referring back and forth from a light sheet of paper to a dade. screen may be tiring. Positive screens have the following advantages: • They give a much more accurate impression of what the image will look like when it is printed out. • The characters will not appear to spread in the same way as on a negative screen, so legibility is improved. • Reflections are much less troublesome. • The contrast when referring back and forth from paper to screen is less extreme and likely to be less tiring. A possible disadvantage with a positive screen is that its brightness may be tiring, but this can usually be adjusted to suit your personal preferences and circumstances of use. Screen flicker can also be a problem with poor-quality posi• tive screens.

Screen filters It is possible to obtain anti-radiation and anti-reflection fllters to fit over your screen. Anti-radiation filters are considerably more expensive than anti-reflection fllters. The question of whether or not radiation from the screen is likely to be a health hazard is a controversial one, though there seems to be some agreement that pregnant women should avoid working with VDUs on a regular basis. If you would like more infonnation, contact: Computer Presentation of Data 161 APPENDIX4

Health and Safety Executive Regina House 259-269 Old Marylebone Road London NWl 5RR Telephone (01) 723 1262 There are two sorts of anti-reflection filters. The cheaper ones consist of a fme mesh, while the more expensive ones are polarising. Some people find that the cheaper filters increase eye strain rather than reducing it This may be because the mesh creates a fuzzy image which the eyes are constantly trying to bring into sharp focus. We would argue that it is far better to reposition the computer or re-arrange the room lighting than to put your sight at risk by using any methods that degrade the screen image.

Your computer should ideally be placed a room with diffuse Lighting lighting to reduce reflections on the screen. Reflections are more troublesome with negative screens. It is important to prevent strong light from falling directly on the screen as this will reduce contrast and hence legibility.

If you normally wear spectacles for reading, you may find that Spectacles you need a special pair for reading from the screen. Your nonnal reading glasses are intended for a reading distance of 16in (40cm) or so, and they may not give a satisfactory image of the screen at 24-30in (60-75cm). It is possible to obtain spectacles coated with an ultraviolet filter. Incorrect spec- tacles for computer worlc areprobably the most common cause of headaches, since a combination of factors is at worlc. The very act of straining to get the screen properly in focus will causes you to crane your neck forward. It is this poor posture that is responsible for much long tenn discomfort Computer Presentation of Data 163 FURTHER READING

FURTHER READING

British Standards

The following British Standards are likely to be of interest. Copies are obtainable from: The British Standards Institution 2 Park Street London WlA 2BS Telephone (01) 629 9000

Abbreviation oftitles ofperiodicals: Part 1. Principles. BS 4148 :Part 1 : 1970 Abbreviation of titles ofperiodicals: Part 2. Word abbre• viation list. BS 4148: Part 2: 1975 Bibliographical references. BS 1629: 1976 Citing publications by bibliographical references. BS 5605 : 1978 Copy preparation and proof correction. Part 2. Specifica• tion for typographic requirements, marks for copy preparation and proof correction, proofing procedure. BS 5261 : Part 2 : 1976 Guide to copy preparation and proof correction: Part 1. Recommendations for preparation of typescript copy for printing. BS 5261 :Part 1 : 1975 The International System of units (Sf). BS 3763: 1976 Letter symbols, signs and abbreviations. BS 1991 : 1976 Numbering of divisions and subdivisions in written docu- ments (point-numbering). BS 5848 : 1980 The preparation of indexes to books, periodicals and other publications. BS 3700 : 1976 Recommendations for the presentation of tables, graphs and charts. Draft for Development DD 52: 1977 Sizes ofpapers and boards. BS 4000: 1968 FURTHER READING 164 Computer Presentation of Data

Writing

CareyGV Mind the stop (revised edn). Hannondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd 1958 The do's and don'ts of punctuation, clearly explained. GowersE The complete plain words (2nd edn, revised). Har• mondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd 1977 The classic guide to the use of English. Very readable. Hartley J, Trueman M and Burnhill P Some observations on producing and measuring readable writing. Programmed Learning and Educa• tional Technology 1980 17 (3) 164-174 Includes a review of readability fonnulae. Partridge E Usage and abusage (revised edn). London: Hamish Hamilton Ltd 1965 An alphabetically-ordered survey of words and con• structions that are frequently misused. Strunk W Jr and White E B The elements of style (3rd edn). New York: Macmillan Publishing Co Inc; London: Collier Macmillan Pub• lishers 1979 A concise guide to style in written English. Turk C and Kirkman J Effective writing: improving scientific, technical and business communication. London: E & F N Spon 1982 One of the best books of its kind. Style manuals

Butcher J Copy editing: the Cambridge handbook (2nd edn). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1982 Perhaps the classic amongEnglish style manuals. HartH Hart's rules for compositors and readers at the Uni• versity Press Oxford (39th edn). London: Oxford University Press 1983 A concise reference book on house style issues. University of Press The Chicago manual of style for authors, editors and copywriters (13th edn). Chicago: University of Chi- Computer Presentation of Data 165 FURTHER READING

cago Press 1982 Gives exhaustive coverage of every aspect of editing and book production. An invaluable reference book. Electronic manuscripts

Quorum Technical Services Typesetting for micro users: a beginner's guide to improved text presentation. Cheltenham: Quorum Technical Services Ltd 1985 A step-by-step guide to the use of generic coding in electronic manuscripts. Invaluable for those who wish to prepare manuscripts using a word-processing system and then send the discs to a professional typesetter. University of Chicago Press Chicago guide to preparing electronic manuscripts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1987 A guide for both authors and publishers. It discusses the division of labour between author and publisher, and explains how the electronic should be keyboarded and generically coded. Desktop publishing

Felici J and Nace T Desktop publishing skills: a primer for typesetting with computers and laser printers. Wokingham: Addison• Wesley Publishing Company 1987 Contains much helpful infonnation on systems and equipment, and how to select them. The typographic features offered by electronic typesetting systems are clearly explained, and there are chapters on typeface selection and page layout. Miles J Design for desktop publishing: a guide to layout and typography on the personal computer. London: Gordon Fraser Gallery Ltd 1987 Concerned almost exclusively with design principles rather than with systems and their selection. Profusely illustrated. ParkerR C The Aldus guide to basic design. Seattle, Washington: 1987 This is an excellent pocket-size guide, full of helpful FURTHER READING 166 Computer Presentation of Data

illustrations and ideas for layout, from books to news• papers. Highly recommended. Wilson-Davies K, StJohn Bate J and Barnard M Desktop publishing. London: Blueprint Publishing Ltd 1987 Written for publishers, this book explains the technol• ogy of desktop publishing and compares the most popular systems. Legibility

ReynoldsL Legibility studies: their relevance to present-day documentation methods. Journal of Documentation 1979 35 (4) 307-340 A survey of the results of research on legibility, includ• ing work carried out since Spencer's 'The visible word' was published. SpencerH The visible word. London: Lund Humphries 1969 The classic survey of legibility research, beautifully illustrated. TinkerM Legibility ofprint. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press 1963 Miles Tinker devoted many years to the study of legibility, covering such topics as type face, type size, line length, inter-line spacing, and so on. This is a summary of his findings. Typography and layout

Craig J Designing with type (revised edn). New York: Watson• Guptill Publications; London: Pitman Publishing Ltd 1980 A practical guide, pitched at a level suitable for those with little previous knowledge of typography. Hartley J Designing instructional text. London: Kogan Page 1978 Practical recommendations for the design of textbooks and teaching materials, backed up by summaries of relevant research results. Computer Presentation of Data 167 FURTHER READING

McLeanR The Thames and Hudson manual of typography. London: Thames and Hudson 1980 A thorough coverage of the principles and techniques of typographic design. Historical detail is given where appropriate. Reynolds L and Simmonds D Presentation of data in science. The Hague/Boston/ London: Martinus Nijhoff 1982 A practical guide to the production of text, tables, graphs and charts for printed publications, slides, OHP transparencies, posters and TV. Tables

Ehrenberg A S C Data reduction: analysing and interpreting statistical data. London: John Wiley & Sons 1975 Contains useful advice on the construction of tables. Wright P and Fox K Presenting information in tables. Applied Ergonomics 1970 1 134-242 Describes original research on the design of tables. Graphs, charts and diagrams

Cleveland W S The elements of graphing data. Monterey, California: Wadsworth Advanced Books and Software 1985 A study of the methods and principles of graph con• struction. Recommendations are backed up by the results of the author's research on the perception of graphs. Lockwood A Diagrams: a visual survey of graphs, maps, charts and diagrams. London: Studio Vista 1969 Very little text, but a visual feast. Simmonds D (ed) and The Institute of Medical & Biologi• cal lliustration UK Charts and graphs: Guidelines for the presentation of statistical data in the life sciences. MTP Press, Martinus Nijhoff, International Medical Publishers 1980 Basic standards for charts, graphs and diagrams. If FURTHER READING 168 Computer Presentation of Data

followed, these standards will help to ensure that journals accept your illustrations for publication. Tufte E The visual display of quantitative information. Chesh• ire, Connecticut: Graphics Press 1983 A survey of methods of presenting quantitative data, with many fascinating examples. The author explains his theory about the importance of 'data ink' and the undesirability of 'chart junk'. WrightP Presenting technical information: a survey of research fmdings. Instructional Science 1977 o 93-134 A thorough and very useful survey by one of the leading researchers in this area. Overhead projection

WallerC Using your overhead projector and other visual aids. Fordigraph Division of Ofrex Ltd 1983 A very practical book, fully illustrated. Wilkinson J The overhead projector. London: The British Council 1979 Another practical book, and since both of the books listed here are inexpensive, it's worth getting them both. Copyright

British Copyright Council Photocopying and the law. 1970. Available from BCC, 29 Bemers Street, London W1 Committee on Photographic Copyright Copyright for photographers. 1983. Available from CPC, 2 Amwell End, Ware, Herts SG12 9HN Computer Presentation of Data 169 INDEX

INDEX

A Anatomy of type 39 B Bar charts, use of colour in 118 Bibliographies, treatment of 74-75 Binding methods 36-37 Bit-mapping 86-87 Bold type for emphasis in text 41, 65 for headings 69 in bibliographies 75 in contents lists 76 in indexes 79 in tables 73 legibility of 41 Boxes, use for parallel text or pull quotes 64-65 c Capital lettering for emphasis in text 65-66 versus lowercase lettering 42 Centred setting 49 Charactercount 141-143 'Character-driven' computers 9 Charts, use of colour in 118 Chromatic aberration 113 Colour blindness 113, 116 coding 115-116 contrast 108, 112, 114 creating images in 107 discrimination 115-116 for emphasis 114-115 in diagrams, charts and graphs 118-119 in tables 118 in text 117 INDEX 170 Computer Presentation of Data

on paper 108 on slides 113-114 on VDUs 111-113 Computer, choosing a 8-11 Computer drawing systems 86-89 bit-mapping 86-87 outline-mapping 88-89 vector-mapping 87-88 Computer journals 7 Condensedtype 42 Contents lists, treatment of 76 Copyprotection 14 Copyfitting 141-147 Copyright 153-156 deposit law 155 exempt publications 156 meaning of 'publication' 155-156 registration 156 Covers, treatment of 81 D Data, loss of 21 Data Protection Act 157 Design importance of 31 what is good 31 Desk accessories 15 Diagrams See also: Graphics use of colour in 118 Disc drive configurations 12 Discs floppy discs, organisation of 23 hard discs, use of 23 Displayed headings 52, 69-70 Documents, purpose of in relation to design 32-34 Draw programs 16 E Emphasis of paragraphs 65, 117 of sentences 65 ofwords 65 through colour 114-115,117-118 through spatial and typographic cueing 59-60 Estimating copy length 141-144 by character count 141-143 by word count 144 Extended type 42 Computer Presentation of Data 171 INDEX

F Floppy discs organisation of 23 versus hard discs 12 Files, loss of 21 Folders, organisation of 23-24 Footers, treatment of 80 Footnotes See: Notes Formulae, effect on inter-line spacing 51-52 G Graph programs 17 Graphics forOHP 105 for slides 102 production of 85-94 'Graphics-driven' computers 9 Graphs, use of colour in 119 Grids 52-56 asymmetrical double-column 53 more complex grids 55 single-column 53 symmetrical two-column 53 three-column 55-56 using more than one grid 56 H Hard copy, value of 24 Hard discs use of 23 versus floppy discs 12 Headers, treatment of 79-80 Headings colour in 113, 117 displayed 69-70 numbering of 66 running 79-80 spatial cueing of 66-68 typographic cueing of 68-69 Hue 108 I lllustrations See also: Graphics and page make-up 74,82 combining with text 28 Impact printers 12-13 Imposition 149-151 Indexes, treatment of 77-79 Ink-jet printers 13 Instruction manuals 11, 33 INDEX 172 Computer Presentation of Data

Inter-letter spacing 46-47 Inter-line spacing 49-52 Inter-word spacing 46-47 International Standard Book Numbers 157 Italics for emphasis in text 65 in bibliographies 75 legibility of 41. 69 J Justified versus unjustified setting 48-49 K Kerning See: Inter-letter spacing L Laser printers 13 getting the best from 28-29 typefaces in 29 Laser typesetters 13 Leading See: Inter-line spacing Legibility 35 Letter spacing See: Inter-letter spacing Lighting 161 Line length 47-48 Line spacing See: Inter-line spacing Linefeed 49 Listed points and page make-up 82 treatment of 61-64 M Margins 37-39 Measure See: Line length Memory requirements of programs 15 resident memory 10 Monospaced letterforms 40-41, 94, 141 N Notes and page make-up 82 treatment of 75-76 0 Object-oriented drawing See: Vector-mapping Omnicrom 108 Outline-mapping 88-89 Output devices 12-13 Overhead projector 104-106 advantages and disadvantages of 104-105 Computer Presentation of Data 173 INDEX

graphics for 105-106 legibility of transparencies 105 use of colour on 106,107 p Page make-up importing word-processed text 27 principles of 81-83 programs 17-18 with tables 73 Page numbers, treatment of 80 Page orientation 36 for illustrations 74 for tables 74 Page size 35-36 Paint programs 16-17 Paper quality 56 sizes for documents 35-36 sizes for posters 99 Paragraphs emphasis of 65, 117 indentation of first line 60 spacing between 60-61 Parallel text, treatment of 64-65 Photography from the computer screen 104 Pixels and bit-mapping 86-87 Positive versus negative screens 160 Posters planning 95-98 pre-configured for 98-99 size of originals for 98 style sheets for 96-97, 98-99 type sizes and styles for 96, 98,99 PostScript 8,13,15,17, 89 Pre-configured designs for posters 98-99 Preliminary pages, treatment of 80-81 Printer preparation 28 Printers See: Output devices Proportionally spaced letterforms 40-41, 94 Pull quotes, treatment of 64-65 R Ragged-right setting See: Unjustified setting RAM 10,15 Ranged-left setting See: Unjustified setting Ranged-right setting 49 Readability 35 Repeatable image store 89-90 Reproduction computer 144 INDEX 174 Computer Presentation of Data

Resident memory 10,15 Reversed type 43, 113-114 ROM 10 Rules for displayed headings 70 for notes 76 for parallel text or pull quotes 64-65 horizontal and vertical, use of 52 Running heads, treatment of 79-80 s Saving work 21 Sans serif versus serifed typefaces 40, 43,45-46 Saturation 108 Screen filters 160-161 Seating 159-160 Sentences, emphasis of 65 Signatures 149 Slides 99-104 amount of information per slide 101 colour on 113-114 graphics for 102 legibility of 100-101 photographing from the computer screen 104 saving space on 103 testing of 104 use of 99-100 Software availability 9 compatibility between programs 15 draw programs 16 graph programs 17 memory requirements 15 page make-up programs 17 paint programs 16-17 what to look for 13-18 write programs 15 Spatial cueing 59-60 for headers, footers and page numbers 80 for headings 66-68 for listed points 61-64 for notes 75-76 for paragraphs 60-61 in bibliographies 74-75 in contents lists 76 in indexes 77-79 in tables 71-73 Spectacles for use with VDUs 161 Subscripts, effect on inter-line spacing 51-52 Superscripts, effect on inter-line spacing 51-52 Computer Presentation of Data 175 INDEX

System control 15 System folder 15, 21 T Tables and page make-up 73, 82 colour in 117-118 designing a set of 74 spatial cueing in 71-73 structure of 70 titles and captions for 73-74, 103 typographic cueing in 73 Tabs, importing of 27 Tinted backgrounds effect on legibility of type 43 for displayed headings 70 for parallel text or pull quotes 64-65 Tonal contrast 108, 112, 114 Tonal value 108 Training 18-19 Type anatomy of 39 mixing faces and sizes 45-46, 69 on tinted backgrounds 43 proportionally spaced versus monospaced 40-41 sizes and styles for posters 96, 98-99 sizes for headings 69 sizes for notes 76 sizes for tables 73 sizes for text 43-45 styles 41-42 reversed 43 Typefaces 40 for dot-matrix printers 29 for laser printers 29 in typographic cueing 60 mixing of 45-46, 69 Typographic cueing 60 for displayed headings 70 for emphasis in text 65 for header and footer text 80 for headings 68-70 for listed points 61 for notes 75-76 in bibliographies 75 in contents lists 76 in indexes 79 in tables 73 INDEX 176 Computer Presentation of Data

u Underlines effect on legibility 42. 66 for emphasis in text 66 Unjustified setting 48-49 User-friendliness 10 v VDU screens filters for 160-161 positive versus negative 160 use of colour on 111-113 Vector-mapping 87-88 Visual acuity 112 w What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get 7-8 Word count 143-145 Word-processing as a prelude to page make-up 27 early stages in 26 for final output 26-27 Word spacing See: Inter-word spacing Words, emphasis of 65,117 Work surface 159 Working comfort 159-161 lighting 161 positive versus negative screens 160 screen filters 160 seating 159-160 spectacles 161 work surface 159 Write programs 15-16 WYSIWYG 7-8 Computer Presentation of Data 177

Remember - the best way to find out about computers is not only to read the manuals seriously but enjoy just playing with the amazing things the machine can do ...

I've found out how it works• now I'm trying my hand at re-programming

.... but be careful, you can get just a little too clever! 178 Computer Presentation of Data

PERSONAL DETAILS

Doig Simmonds has recently retired as Head of the Medical DOIG Illustration Department at the Royal Postgraduate Medical SIMMONDS School, London. In 1987 the Art Studio at the School turned from using conventional drawing-boards to providing Apple Macintosh computers for its DIY illustrating service. Doig is now a free-lance medical and scientific illustrator and is interested in running tutorials for small groups or individu• als who want help in getting started with using Apple-Mac computer graphics in science or technology subjects.

Linda Reynolds is a part-time tutor in the Department of LINDA Graphic Design at the Royal College of Art, London, and a REYNOLDS visiting lecturer in the Department of Typography and Graphic Communication at the University of Reading. She holds a Bsc (Hons) in Zoology and Psychology and an MSc in Information Science. After a short spell in publishing she joined the Graphic Information Research Unit at the Royal College of Art in 1973. As a Research Fellow, and sub• sequently as Senior Research Fellow, she was involved in a number of research projects, funded by the British Library and the Post Office, on the legibility of printed information, microforms, screen displays and directional signing systems. Since 1981 she has been teaching and carrying out research on a free-lance basis.