SPECIAL ARTICLES Tamil Cultural Elites and Cinema Outline of an Argument

M S S Pandian

The arrival of the talkies in Tamil in the 1930s confronted the Tamil elite with a challenge in that while they were implicated in the cinematic medium in more than one way, they, in retaining their exclusive claim to high culture, had to differentiate their engagement with cinema from that of the subalterns. This essay discusses how the Tamil elite negotiated this challenge by deploying notions of realism, ideology of uplift and a series of binaries which restored the dichotomy of high culture and low culture within the cinematic medium itself

I than one way, they, in retaining their consideration of language should be im- exclusive claim to high culture, had to ported so as to lower or impair that standard" THE arrival of talkies in Tamil during the differentiate their engagement with cinema [Arooran 1980:260].2 1930s was received with much enthusiasm from that of the subalterns. This essay In contrast to Bharatanatyam and Carnatic by the lower class film audience. However, explores in broad outline how the Tamil elite music, company drama and 'therukoothu' such subaltern enthusiasm for this new form negotiated this challenge by deploying (folk street theatre) constituted the so-called of leisure was simultaneously accompanied notions of realism, ideology of uplift and a low culture patronised by the Tamil subaltern by enormous anxiety among the upper caste/ series of binaries which recuperated within classes. Therukoothu, which was confined class elites.1 Though this anxiety was initially the cinematic medium itself, the dichotomy to the countryside, was performed throughout framed in terms of low cultural tastes of the of high culture and low culture. the night particularly in the post-harvest subalterns and resolved within the binary of summer months and during festivals in non- high culture vs low culture, the elites were II brahminic Hindu temples. Therukoothu was soon confronted with newer problems. treated by the Tamil elite as a marker of low Quickly they realised that cinema as a By the turn of the 20th century, the cultural taste and was despised. Writing medium carried the unwelcome possibility boundaries between the so-called high culture about his childhood days. Jayakaantan, a of upsetting and recasting the already existing and the low culture were already well- Tamil fictionist, noted, "My 'upper caste' and carefully patrolled boundaries between affirmed in specific ways in the Tamil social [status] informed me that these interesting high culture and low culture. milieu. On the side of high culture, one had masqueraders, who had their faces [full of paint] and told stories from Mahabaratham, Cinema's ability to upset pre-existing Bharatanatyam and Carnatic music, which were lowly people" [Jayakaantan 1980:9; cultural boundaries and to reallocate were almost exclusively monopolised by the emphasis mine]. previously ghettoised cultural practices brahmins and a very small section of the followed from the unprecedented ways in non-brahmin upper castes. Needing years of Company drama, though performed mostly which it brought together the elites and the training, with rules of training worked out in towns, traversed both the rural and the masses. First of all, the pleasure of spectating in meticulous detail, and marked by caste urban areas. Capturing the flavour of the did not fail to draw sections of the elite exclusivity, these cultural forms were company drama performances, Baskaran towards cinema as audience, though most available only to the upper caste elites. (1991:755) writes, of cinema's patrons came from the lower Both Bharatanatyam and Carnatic music The repertoire of these companies was classes. Secondly, cinema as a medium was affirmed themselves decisively as markers limited to a few mythologicals, written as informed by what one may term as of high culture with their institutionalisation musicals. The stories were standardised in 'intertextual excess' whereby it could borrow by the Madras elite in the form of Madras a series of songs. The playwright, in these both from high and low cultural universes Music Academy in 1928. We may note here companies, called 'vathiyar' (teacher), wrote at the same time and recombine them in that the first Tamil talkie Kalidas appeared the songs, composed the music and also unexpected ways. Thirdly, as cinema evolved only in 1931. Interestingly, the Music directed the plays. All the actors had to be into an industry and trade, i e, as an avenue Academy was conceived during and funded singers, including the clown. And there was for investment and profit, the elites were by the 42nd session of the Indian National the pit orchestra, with a harmonium and a drawn to it. Then such profit-seeking criti- Congress held in Madras in 1927. The tabla. The emphasis was on singing, not on cally depended on the subaltern consumers Academy not only conducted annual music drama. When a character died on the stage of cinema who were kept in contempt by and dance festivals with much fanfare, but after singing a song, he would get up without the elite because of their allegedly low also functioned as a watchdog institution any hesitation to respond to cries of 'once more' and start singing all over again. cultural tastes. Finally, the act of putting monitoring the so-called purity and standards What is important for our argument is the together a film required mobilisation of of classical music and dance. For instance, fact that, simitar to therukoothu, company different kinds of skills - some of which at the annual conference of the Academy in dramas were also shunned by the Tamil were almost exclusively available only to 1941, it responded to the demand that there elites as low-brow entertainment of the the elites (direction/camera/editing), while should be more Tamil songs instead of subalterns. Rao Bahadur P Sambanda other sorts of skills, which were equally Telugu and Sanskrit songs in Carnatic music concerts by resolving that "it should be the Mudaliar, who was part of the highly critical, were for historical reasons, available aim of all musicians and lovers of music to educated upper caste elite of the Madras city, among the lower classes (acting). preserve and maintain the highest standards reminisced of his childhood thus: "Though In other words, while the elites were of classical Carnatic music and that no there was a 'koothukottagai' (drama implicated in the cinematic medium in more auditorium) close to the house where 1 grew

950 Economic and Political Weekly April 13, 1996 up years back and though Tamil dramas III produced during the 1930s had similar were staged often in different places in number of songs. Also, most of their themes Madras city, I did not watch one even for Tamil talkies made their appearance during were from Hindu mythologies and Puranas five minutes. Not only that I did not watch the 1930s in this milieu of great divide as in the case of popular stage productions. Tamil dramas, "but had great contempt for between high culture and low culture. Equally significant as during the silent era. them" [Sambanda Mudaliar 1931:1].3 Instantaneously, they became popular among the early Tamil talkies drew its actors from Moreover, the Tamil elites derisively the lower class audience. In any case, they the stage. These actors were not ashamed referred to the popular stage artistes as had been the patrons of silent cinema, before. of their career on the stage and often acted 'koothadigal' (mountebanks), refused to rent Moreover, cinema, silent or otherwise, both in films and dramas. As late as 1944, them houses and feared them as possible functioned as a social equaliser of sorts. N S Krishnan, who was a towering abductors of young women [Avvai 'The cinema hall was the first performance personality of both the Tamil screen and the Shanmugam 1983:33]. According to Avvai centre in which all the Tamils sat under the stage, claimed in public, "Is it fair to accuse Shanmugam, a doyen of 20th century Tami1 same roof. The basis of the seating is not cinema as having killed the drama? [No] stage, "Parents would not allow their children on the hierarchic position of the patron Drama and cinema have born of the same to watch dramas. Youths were ashamed to but essentially on his purchasing power" mother... One is real and the other, image" admit in public that they had been to drama. [Sivathamby 1981:18-19]. [Arantahi Narayanan 1994:67]. . Opposite to [every] drama hall, a toddy shop A contemporary account of the situation This overlap between the early talkies and would be present" (ibid). in the cinema halls of Madras city captures the company drama, which had already been The best illustration of the elite scorn for the flavour of subaltern enthusiasm for this inscribed as part of the Tamil low culture, these artistes is the way they were treated new medium of entertainment: offered the Tamil elite with sufficient basis by the leadership of the Tamil Nadu unit If we wish to watch films in Madras city, to negotiate this new medium, They, to of the Indian National Congress. During the the greatest difficulty is getting tickets. There begin with, ghettoised it as part of the low pre-1947 period, a large number of these are huge crowds at the ticket counter. As cultural universe of the subaltern classes. artistes used the medium of drama and songs tickets began to be issued, they jostle each Reflecting this elite cultural politics in to spread the message of nationalism other and some climb on the others and get Tami Nadu, the practitioners of classical art However, their contribution, for most part, the tickets, In between such commotion, forms shunned cinema: "... Carnatic was never acknowledged by the Congress some policemen surface, beat them up and musicians looked down, with a shudder, leadership. For instance, referring to harass them. Some people approach those upon the idea of singing in films, the same Madurakavi Baskara Das, whose songs who could not get the ticket but stand away way that ladies of respectable families looked evoked widespread nationalist passion watching the fun, and offer, "I will get you upon visiting a cinema hall" [Guy 1988]. As among the Tamil masses R Saarangabani, the ticket Give me quarter Anaa." Wanting B S Ramaiya (1943:269), who straddled one of those numerous artistes who sang to watch the film, they give the money. simultaneously the exalted world of creative Baskara Das's songs on the stage, wrote Those who collect the money merge with writing and the lowly one of cinema, noted with much distress, "On August 15, 1947, the crowd. Thereafter they cannot be seen. about the classicists' contempt for cinema, India attained freedom along the Gandhian Most of those who go for films are the poor it was common among those well-versed in 5 path. On that golden day, no one remem- They go there and suffer so much,. classical music to ridicule film songs by bered our poet Baskara Das, I alone wrote Rao Bahadur P Sambandam, who had his posing To what school of music they an essay on him" [Aranthai Narayanan own encounter with early Tamil talkie as belong.'' [Ramaiya 1943:269]. 4 1988:9]. actor, script-writer and so on, vouched for It was the same elite politics which made the popularity of cinema during the initial Within this already enforced divide visiting cinema halls a taboo for 'respectable' years of talkie and noted, "...it is a decade between high culture and low culture, the women from upper caste/class families. If since talkies appeared in our country. There cinema of the silent era was treated by the visiting cinema halls was a taboo, acting in is no doubt that during these 10 years, talkie Tamil elite as being on the side of the low films was unthinkable for them, Thavamani has spread all over the country... In Tamil culture. This was because the cinema of the Devi, an actress who came from Ceylon to Nadu alone, there are 250 cinema halls... We silent era drew its performing artistes Madras to act in Modern Theatre productions, can say without any reservation that in a few from the despised universe of low culture, made an appeal in the 1930s that women years, there will not be even a small village i e, company drama, circus and wrestl- from respectable families should give up without cinema" [Sambanda Mudaliar ing [Baskaran 1981:88-89] sums up the their reluctance and act in films. Responding 1938:50]. This popularity of talkie among situation: to this appeal, a Tamil magazine allegedly the Tamil subaltern classes itself was good published her photo in a swimming costume The stigma that was attached to the popular enough reason for the elite to keep away and captioned it thus, 'Thavamani Devi, an stage and those working for it was extended from it. Then, there were more substantial actress, who has come from Ceylon to act to the world of cinema also. The witnesses reasons too. as chaste Akalya, appeals to women from who deposed before the Cinematography The early Tamil talkies were basically [respectable] families to act in films" Enquiry Committee repeatedly declared that film versions of plays by drama companies, they were either averse to watching films [Aranthai Narayanan 1981:115]. already proven to be successful on the stage. or that they had never seen one, that only The practice was to hire a whole drama the low class frequented cinema houses, and company and shoot the film in one stretch. IV that cinema was harmful to the community. Typical of this attitude was the statement So the stage actors, who were not classical A small section of the Tamil elite clung of the president of the Corporation of Madras, musicians but singers familiar with classical on rather resolutely to this idea that cinema G Narayanaswamy Chetty, who told the music, found themselves in the tinsel world" is incorrigibly a sign of low culture. C committee: 'I find the uncultured flock to [Baskaran 1991:755]. In keeping with the tradition of company drama, these talkies Rajagopalachari is perhaps the most telling the cinema. It could be said that 75 per cent 6 of cinema patrons are of the lower order.' carried a large number of songs and placed representative of this cinephobic minority; The Indian members of the Board of Film less emphasis on dialogue. The first Tamil and even the invocation of nationalism could Censors, Madras, also adopted the same talkie Kalidas (1931) was not exceptional not convert this nationalist to cinema. In view [emphasis mine]. in having 50 songs. A number of them 1939, when the Indian Motion Picture

Kconomie and Political Weekly April 13, 1996 Association sought a ban on anti-Indian had their stint in films.'' [Baskaran Significantly, this anxiety about lack of foreign films, he, as the prime minister of 1991:756).8 realism in Tamil films was framed in terms Madras state, noted cynically, "I have a Equally important is the fact that cinema of its shared characteristics with popular notion that in most cases the objection comes as a state of spectating pleasure too worked theatre. The nationalist Tamil newspaper from competing companies that want in the' towards breaking the boundaries between Dinamani complained in 1935, "Tamil films guise of patriotism to keep out as far as the elites and the masses. Sections of the are devoid of acting and without life like possible well executed films that carry away elites were indeed drawn towards the medium Tamil plays It elaborated further: 'Tamil the money. There is so much objectionable as its consumers. Writing in 1939 about cinema greatly disappoints those who have matter in the films prepared in India that the three-fourths of the people "among developed their appreciation for acting by 'anti-Indian' objection pales into ourselves" (i e, the Tamil elites and the watching American films and those who insignificance."7 His objection to cinema middle classes which exhibited elite innately know what is the art of acting. There continued well into the post-1947 India. pretensions), 'Kalki' R Krishnamurthy is very little dialogue; and even whatever Addressing the South Indian Film Chamber claimed, "We will keep talking about the ills little is there is in vulgar Tamil ('Kodun of Commerce in 1953, he was unrepentingly done to the world by cinema. But, as we hear Tamil'). The rest is all songs. Songs appear critical of cinema for it, according to him, that a good film is being released, we are [in the films] as one faints and as one gets catered to the uncontrolled sexual urge in only too willing to spend our money and killed." It compared the songs in Tamil films the human beings [Diwakar and spoil our eyesight." For him, ignoring cinema to the "intolerable wrestling and fencing" Ramakrishnan 1978:156-63]. was any longer a futile exercise: "What is present in the early Bombay films.11 As much as representations about cinema the use in someone saying 'I object to Similarly, Sambanda Mudaliar, in listing the in the elite political sphere, elite literary earthquake'? What is the use in someone shortcomings of Tamil films, noted that they saying 'I don't accept rain'?" [Karnadagam representations too exhibited such were made "music concerts" [Sambanda 1939:45-471 Similarly, Chandilion, a writer cinephobia. Ku Pa Rajagopalan, a Tamil Mudaliar 1938:50]. Perhaps the most of historical fictions in Tamil, responded to fictionist belonging to the elite nationalist instructive instance of elite antipathy to songs Rajagopalachari's cinephobic comments Monikodi group of writers, published a short in films is the review of Lava Kusa by thus: "Ignoring cinema... will be similar to story 'Studio Kathai' (Studi Story) in the 'Kalki' Krishnamurthy. Instead of calling it the story of the old woman who tried to early 1940s. The story narrates how an a talkie, he called it 'paatti' punning on the sweep back (with a hroom] a turbulent educated girl takes to the career of acting Tamil words 'paattu' (song) and 'paatti' ocean" [Chandilion 1987:30]. In other so as to sanitise the film world of its evils (grandmother). For him. Lava Kusa was full words, cinema had come to stay whether one and make it unthreatening for respectable of songs and moved at a grandmotherly slow likes it or not and the elites were part of it women. She gives up the mission after a day pace [Guy 1988]. We need to bear in mind both in the process of its production and in the studio floor. While she resents the here that songs (instead of dialogue) were consumption. director physically touching her and leaves a common feature of both company dramas the studio, the director exclaims. "Why The cultural elite of Tamil Nadu now and early Tamil talkies. should a pativratha come to the studio?" required new modes of negogitating the In the place of songs, what got privileged Setting in opposition the immorality of the challenge thrown by cinema. They could no in the new discourse of the Tamil elite on film world and the chastity of respectable longer merely brand it as the leisure-time cinema was dialogue. For instance, the review woman, Ku Pa Rajagopalan names the activity and entertainment of those who of Iru Sagotharargal published in Manikodi director in the story as Krishnan and the tacked high cultural tastes, for they have noted, "What infuses life into Iru failed actress as Sita [Ku Pa Rajagopalan become part of it. As a first move towards Sagotharargal is its realistic dialogue. We 1986:82-87]. redefining their engagement with cinema, see (sic) in this film interesting dialogues However, large sections of the Tamil elite the Tamil elite privileged realism as the which fit the situation... We sec everywhere realised' within years of the arrival of the governing principle of good cinema. This in this film fluent dialogue." The review also talkie, that this cinephobic mode of was a move, as we shall see soon, that was exclaimed, "Isn't it a wonder in Tamil cinema engagement with cinema was inadequate. basically meant to free cinema from its world?" [Aranthai Narayanan 1988:38-39]. As cinema expanded into an industry and demeaning identity with company drama. Exhibiting similar attitude, N Shrinivas, the as a dominant mode of leisure, it offered C K Sachi, soon after his return from founder of the film magazine Talk-a-Tone hitherto unavailable possibilities for the England where he worked in film studios, (which announced itself as "A motion picture Tamil elites. At one level, it had become a complained of the lack of realism in Tamil magazine with a mission and a purpose"), site of financial investment and a source of films. According to him, wrote, "Dialogues should be written so as profit and fame. These new possibilities At present in western countries, those who to fit the roles of the actors... One who is even lured the practitioners of classical art enjoy watching reality (on the screen] are drawn from upper class speaks in a particular forms such as Carnatic musicians, who increasing in numbers They do not like way. Illiterate low caste person speaks carefully kept themselves away from cinema mere stories. Good Earth portrays the real differntly. When a rich man addresses as a way of maintaining their claim to cultural life of the Chinese people and the real labourers, he speaks in a specific fashion. superiority, towards cinema: "Movie modesty of the Chinese women. That is why Labourers do not speak the same way as their business came to mean big money and this it ran for four months in London on its first employers..." (Shrinivas 1942:51]. Thus, it did not fail to catch the attention of the release; and it is running for [the past] four was not only that dialogue should replace classical musicians who had hitherto been months on re-release... But look at our films. songs, but dialogues also should be realistic. ignoring cinema as a plebian entertainment... What we see in (Tamil film as a dasi is a We may note here that this was exactly Musicians like Papanasam Sivan, who wrote marvellous image which none has seen in the basis on which the alliterative dialogue and composed more than 500 film songs, life.[Similarly ] thieves appeur in[thes e films] of the DMK genre of films were critiqued. entered films andseduce dth e other classical in unheard of English constumes of hat and As M Karunanidhi, who along with C N musicians also into cinema. Musical coat... if there is a thief [in the film] he 9 Annadurai, introduced such dialogue to luminaries of the late 1930s like G N should [took like] a real thief. Tamil films, noted in 1951, "Does the Subramanian, Dandapani Desigar, Musiri As much as Sachi. others like S common man on the street, whom we meet Subramanya Ayyer and V V Sadagopan, all Satyamurthy too stood on the side of realism everyday, speak in alliteration." Then, why [Aranthai Narayanan 1981.66].

952 Economic and Political Weekly April 13, 1996 should chose on the screen speak alliterative Coincidental events were plenty in these participate to a large extent in the struggle language? Such questions are now being films. The protagonists would appear either for the liberation of the country. It is possibte posed loudly..." [Thirunavukkarasu] as Rama or as Karma. There was excess of for the cinema to carry on simultaneously 1990:95].12 It was this desire for realism in dialogue in their films" [ibid:38]. For him, in several places a great agitation that can dialogue which made Muktha Seenivasan, the period between 1976 and 1985, when be carried on only by great orators and who has worked closely with the DMK Tamil cinem., came to terms with "partly writers... A new spirit can be created among script-writers, to credit T V Chari and realistic and anti-sentimental stories", was the people by introducing the songs of poet Illangovan for changing the pre-existing trend the best so far. though it was still inadequate. Bharathi in political, economic, social and that "cinema, like the stage, had little dialogue Despite the fact that Seenivasan's scheme devotional films "14 It was only in the context in between songs and for bringing literary was one of calendric periodisation, it is of nationalism as uplift that people like K taste to cinema" and to refer, in contrast, to simultaneously it classificatory system by Subramaniyam and S Satyamurthy could be the dialogue written by Karunanidhi and which individual films and film-makers can part of the world of cinema and Annadurai as "sensational" [Secnivasan be evaluated in terms of their closeness or simultaneously claim an unsullied reputation 1993:140]. otherwise to realism. In other words, this among the Tamil cultural elites.15 In the The shared qualities between company teleology, which privileged realism, offered post-1947 Tamil Nadu, the ideology of uplift drama and early Tamil talkies did not stop the Tamil elite with a space to locate had different incarnations. To mention just with the presence of large number of songs themselves within the universe of cinema one it set in opposition films that appeal to in both. In addition to songs, both the media and at the same time to assert their superior emotions and films that appeal to mind, and drew their stories from mythological and aesthetic self. annexed the latter as part of its territory. For puranic sources. Once again, this was targeted In an effort to further their agency over instance, films of K Balachandar were by the Tamil elite for criticism. While the cinematic medium, the Tamil elites, as appropriated as part of elite self-definition Dinamani treated the religious ones and a second move, brought in the criterion of within this dichotomy. According to Muktha "those who are mad after songs" as equals uplift. Good cinema could not merely be Seenivasan (1993:168). "Before the time of in sharing low cultural tastes in the context realistic, but should also have a social Balaehandar, cinema-goers remained merely of film spectating,13 Sambanda Mudaliar purpose. In 1939, 'Kalki' Krishnamurthy, as appreciators of emotions" and it was he (1938:50) specified "ancient stories" as a criticising those who kept themselves away who converted them to the higher ideal of shortcoming of Tamil films. What they from cinema, wrote, "As the best of the applying their mind. preferred instead was so-called contemporary intellectuals are ignoring cinema, its bad themes with realist orientation. A review of effects are proliferating uncontrolled; V Manna Samrakshanam in Pesumpadam intellectuals are [on the other hand] ignoring (April 1945) noted, it because of its bad effects! In short, a Though notions of realism and the ideology The Tamil film Maana Samrakshanam is a powerful instrument, which is capable of of uplift recovered for the Tamil elite the great consolation for the cinema fans who directing people's mind, is being used for necessary space to be part of the cinema but are tired of seeing only puranic films during bad ends" [Karnadagam 1939:48]. He further still be different, it was inadequate. As we the past four or five years. It is not only that argued, "To the extent one is genuinely have noted earlier in this essay, the cinematic human beings appear instead of gods in this interested in social uplift, one should pay medium carries the possibility of intertextual film; but it is full of realities of the attention to cinema... If cinema leads to excess'. That is, cinema can appropriate contemporary life that it makes one happy. moral degradation, one should prevent it and artefacts of high culture and low culture K Subramaniyam has become popular for transform cinema as a medium for moral simultaneously and represent them in ways his social films. He is a master in observing uplift" [ibid:47]. Even B S Ramaiya, who which subvert the boundaries between such and reproducing in minute details was basically convinced that cinema was the divisions. As Revathi, a national award commoner's life situations, altitudes and most popular entertainment medium of the winning actress and a Bharatanatyam dancer, daily realities in films, It is these skills which lower classes and who was never ashamed lamented recently, films can have a disco he has correctly applied in this film [Aranthai to get involved with cinema for that reason, dance number in Bharatanatyam costume.16 Narayanan 1988:275]. could not give up the temptation towards the The elite, so as to maintain their cultural In other words, the privileged teleology ideology of uplift. In his book, Cinema...?, hegemony, needs to contain such 'intertextual of cinema in the elite discourse was one of which is a brilliantly written practical manual excess' of cinema.17 Their anxiety in this progress towards realism - a realism which for film-makers, he wrote, "It is the regard was predominantly about the would annul cinema' slowly association with responsibility of everyone to strengthen cinematic representations of classical dance the cultural products of the subaltern classes cinema and make it useful for the people. and classical music. To negotiate this such as company dramas and therukoothu. The responsibility of the educated and the challenge, they imported into the cinematic For instance, Muktha Seenivasan periodises journalists, who are concerned about the universe those evaluatory schemes which the first three phases of Tamil cinema as future of the country, is great in this they had already been deploying for (i) puranic, mythological and folklore period [mission]" [Ramaiya 1943:273]. If 'Kalki' boundary-maintenance in the case of dance (1931-50), (ii) melodramatic story period Krishnamurthy wanted the intellectuals to and music. In other words, they granted the (1951-75) and (iii) partly realistic anti- be invested with agency to carry out social stamp of approval only to those cinematic sentimental stories period (1976-85) uplift, for Ramaiya. they were the educated. representations of dance and music which [Seenivasan 1993:25-26]. Within this approximated the so-called pure form. periodisation, he characterises the first period The career of the ideology of uplift in as one in which films "had nothing to do Tamil cinema is complex and needs separate Let us first take up the question of music. with real life" [ibid:33]. The second period, study. In the pre-1947 phase, the ideology Though in Muktha Seenivasan's ideological i e, the period of melodrama, was also not of uplift was framed in terms of nationalism. scheme, the first phase of Tamil talkies did much to be proud of; it was a period of Even the conservative nationalist daily not constitute good cinema, they did have exaggeration: "Scenes of extreme sacri- Dinamani did not mind cinema as long as other positive consequences: "The first fice, totally unconnected with real life, it served nationalist cause, in 1936, it positive consequence of Tamil films of the were seen in their films. Events of family appealed, "What our country wants at present period 1931 to 1950 is that they cultivated life were presented in an exaggerated form. are only propaganda films. The cinema can individual morality. Secondly, they protected

Economic and Political Weekly April 13, 1996 953 classical music" [Seenivasan 1993:33]. Ramaiya Pillai, Hiralal, Dandapani Pillai, good to use the powerful medium [of cinema] Within this logic, a number of film artistes, Kalamandapam Madhavan and Gopala- for the benefit of the people. In the north, who were extremely popular, were appro- krishna Master. This nostalgia of Seeni vasan K A Abbas used his writings and films for priated as pan of elite self-definition. As an is immediately displaced by distress as he the uplift of the nation. I was contemplating account of the early Tamil cinema puts it, moves on to talk about the present state of whether something similar could be done K B Sundarambal, M K Thyagaraja dance in Tamil films: After the period of here, at least at a smaller scale" [Akilon Bhagavathar and S D Subbalakshmi were Kumari Kamala et al, "dance lost its 1984:318-19]. He also claimed that he left the most popular cine artistes much wanted sacredness. Dances are choreographed and the film world because he refused to submit and adored by the masses for their excellent used now in Tamil films only to feed the his writings to the dictates of film producers talents in the art of music and rendering of sexual urges [of the audience]'' [Seenivasan [ibid:335]. songs in chaste classical style [Centre for 1993:168, 263; emphasis mine]. The controversy surrounding Social Research 1974:10]. If Seenivasan invokes the question of Bharatidasan's lyrics for Balamani will be While K B Sundarambal and M K Thyagaraja sexuality to inferiorise popular film dance, an instructive example of the status of lyric- Bhagavathar endeared themselves to the it may be because Bharatanatyam, as it was writers in the eyes of the elites. Ariyur masses as stage artistes before moving into reconstituted by the Tamil brahmin elite Padmanabha Pillai called Bharatidasan's cinema, it was never their pre-history in during the 20th century, was sanitised of its lyrics as "kavithai kolai" (murder of poetry) theatre which was foregrounded in elite eroticism. It is true that a few like T Bala and argued that they violated the rules accounts of cinema history, but the chaste Saraswati tried to resist the effots to "purify' governing the 'virutham' form of Tamil manner in which they represented classical Bharatanatyam of Sringara. As she puts it, poems. Bharatidasan, who inspired music on the screen. "Some seek to 'purify' Bharatanatyam by generations of Tamil poets, was forced to Such appropriation of cinematic replacing the traditional lyrics which express respond by writing a long rejoinder defend- personalities was accompanied by a denial sringara with devotional songs. I respectfully ing how his lyrics were governed by the of others who did not respect the boundary submit to such protagonists that there is grammatical rules [Bharatidasan 1984: between classical and other forms of music. nothing in Bharatanatyam which needs to 300-02]. Jayakantan, who shares all the The popularity of Illayaraja, who specialises be purified afresh; it is divine as it is and assumptions of the Tamil elite so far as in hybrid film music which synthesises Indian innately so. The sringara we experience in cinema goes, confessed it all when he classical' western classical and folk music Bharatanatyam is never carnal; never, wrote, "Actor is an artiste; even then he can forms, is a moment of great anxiety for the never...'' [Guhan 1991:14]. As evident in the never attain and should never attain in society musical elite. At one level, his music is above quote, such resistance could not go the high status which a poet (not a song treated by them as crass. The well known beyond a point and what Bala Saraswati writer), a writer (not a script-writer) or a music critic Subbudu, who is a fanatical could do was to sublimate sringara as bhakti. scientist" [Jayakantan 1980:188, emphasis defender of purism in classical music, Moreover, Seenivasan's mode of mine.] compared the popularity of Illayaraja's music argumentation fits well within the elite In differentiating their superior aesthetic to drug addiction. For him, Raja's music was ideology of uplift. After all, preaching self- self from that of the subalterns, what the similar to swallowing a pill to get rid of a control (sexual or otherwise) has a sustained Tamil elite endorsed instead was the use of headache and without any lasting value.18 At and long career in Tamil Nadu as elsewhere. poems by established poets (Subramania another level, given Illayaraja's enormous The subaltern self always figured in upper Bharati is a case in point) or stories or novels success, there are attempts to recuperate him caste/class discourse as overlaid with excess by established fictionists (Moga Mull of within the elite scheme of things by invoking sexuality. Janakiraman is a recent case) in films. his proficiency in classical music; We may also note here that occasionally, Illayaraja is a brilliant man. We cannot deny the opposition between the so-called classical VI that. He went to London and conducted a forms of music and dance and their other symphony with big-time composers; and forms is staged within avant-garde film texts The notion of realism, the ideology of they had listened to him and appreciated and resolved in favour of the former. uplift, and the deployment of binaries such him... He knows our [classical] music... Now Sankarobaranam is a recent case in point.21 he is dishing out some easy music. I think, as classical vs non-classical - all of them he will slowly increase the dose of high class As much as dance and music, other film- provided the Tamil elite with a new language music and make people knowledgeable about associated practices like writing scripts and to engage with the medium of cinema, carnatic music.19 lyrics were also inferiorised by the Tamil particularly during the period when they This statement by classical musician elite. Here they deployed the binaries of realised that they could not afford to ignore Chemmangudi Sreenivasa Iyer mobilises literature vs film script and poetry vs film it. All the same, this new language did not both Illayaraja's competence in classical lyrics. For instance, Akilon, who won the lead to the hegemony of the elite over cinema. music as well as the ideology of uplift to Gnanapeet award for literature and had a The doubt which B S Ramaiya expressed recuperate him as part of the elite universe.20 four-year encounter with cinema, in 1943 about the ability of cinema to become Similar moves were deployed by the Tamil differentiated literature and film script thus: the monopoly of the elite continues to haunt elite in the case of cinematic representation "If one writes a novel keeping film script them. As Ramaiya (1943:266-67) put it, of dance too. They authorised only the [as a model], the novel will turn out to be "Films are produced at present for the representation of classical dance forms in a chain of emotional events and will be attraction of the ordinary people. One cannot films as good taste. According to Muktha interesting while reading. But it will not say whether cinema will ever reach the place Seenivasan's account of Tamil film history, stand the time as (good) literature ex- of classical arts such as music and dance. 22 Kumari Kamala, Vaijayanthimala Bali and pounding socially relevant ideas." I n his Under the present circumstances, it is not Lalitha-Padmini were the best that happened autobiography, Akilon was shame-faced possible to make films just for the satisfaction to dance in Tamil cinema. For him, during about his involvement in the film world. He of the educated classes." their period, dance in cinema "witnessed alluded to the 'ill-rffects'o f the DMK genre The Tamil elite could succeed in reducing astonishing progress''. He also docs not forget films on the illiterates and legitimised his Bharatanatyam and Carnatic music as their to mention the veteran dance teacherinvolvemens under t as one of trying to correct the exclusive enclaves where both the performers whomall of them their training:Vazhuvur situation: "I used to think that it would be and the audience belonged to their own

Economic and Political Weekly April 13, 1996 954 class. A similar solution was unavailable for so as to break the classical musicians' favours watching films, a vamp-like character them in the context of cinema. The very to cinema. in the film, consciously aumel Jolly, dissuades him from going to films and tells him. "If an economy of cinema which initially attracted 9 Article on Tamil cinema in Dinamani. May 24, 1935, reproduced in Dinamani Vaira Vizha association to finish off cinema comes up, I sections of the elite towards it, subverted any Aandu Malar. Madras. 1994, p353 (emphasis will be its president. Only Bharatanatyan is such possibility. Their desire for autonomy mine). fit for our country ..." She takes him to a is constantly frustrated by the unavoidable 10 Ananda Vikadan quoted in Aranthai performance, drugs him and cheats him all dependence on the masses as audience. In Narayanan (1988:227-28) his money. this context of elusive hegemony, the new 11 Ibid. 22 Bommai. October 1966. language of the elite about cinema got 12 Despite such elite criticism, the alliterative reduced to a framework for endless angst dialogue of the DMK films turned out to be References extremely popular. The complete dialogue of and lament about the masses. these films werepublishe d in the form of low- Akilon (1984): Ezhuthum Vazhkkalyum, Paari priced booklets and they were sold in Puthaga Pannai, Madras. Notes thousands. In several cases, there were pirated Aranthai Narayanan (1981): Tamil Cinenatsin editions illegally published by unauthorised Kathai, New Century Book House, Madras [An initial version of this paper was presented publishers. The hook carrying the dialogue - (1988): Suthanthirap Poril Tamil Cinema, New in the conference on 'Making Meaning in Indian of M Karunanidhi's Manohara (1954) became Century Book House, Madras. Cinema' organised by the Institute of Advanced so popular that the publisher got the block Arooran, Nambi (1980): Tamil Renaissance and Studies, Shimla, in October 1995. I acknowledge for the cover page done in copper from the Dravidian Nationalism 1905-1944, Koodal with gratitude the critical inputs from Anandhi famous G K Velu company so that it would Publishers, Madurai. S. Venkatesh Chakravarthy, J Jeyaranjan, withstand large-scale printing [Sornam Avvai Shanmugam (1983): Yenathu Nadaga Madhava Prasad, Ashis Rajadhaksha. Rajan- 1992:41: see also Thirunavukkarasu Vazlikai, Vanathi Pathipagam. Madras. kurai, Padmini Swaminathan and A R 1990:116]. Baskaran, S Theodore (1981): The Message Venkatachalapathy, which helped me in revising 13 Dinamani, May 24, 1935. Bearers: The Nationalist Politics and the the initial draft.] 14 Dinamani, August 7,1936, quoted in Baskaran Entertainment Media in South India, 1880- (1981:120), 1945, Cre-A, Madras. 1 In the specific context of this paper, I define 15 A comparison of the way in which the cultural -(1991): 'Music for the Masses: Film Songs of elites as those who were part of an ideological elites recuperated K Subramaniyam and S Tamil Nadu'. Economic and Political Weekly, habitus wherein access to certain cultural Satyamurthy then and recuperate Annual Number, March. products/practices (Carnatic music, Manirathnam now would be interesting. Both Centre for Social Research (1974): The Impact Bharatanatyam) were celebrated as a marker of them share the common characteristics of of Film on Society, Madras. of superior aesthetic self deploying nationalism as uplift, though in Chandilion (1987): Poratangal, Vanathi 2 For a critical account of how classical music different contexts. Pathipagam, Madras. was deployed by the Tamil elite in defining 16 Dinamani, October 6, 1994. Diwakar, R R and S Ramakrishnan (1979): Rajoji's their superior aesthetic self, see [Ra(masamy) 17 If the Tamil elites despised company drama, Speeches, Vol II, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1990/1944]. one of the possible reasons for this was the Bombay. 3 In his adult life, Sambanda Mudaliar took to way it combined different forms of music Guhan, S (ed) (1991): Bala on Bharatanatyam, amateur play writing and acting for an elite without much respect forthe boundaries across The Sruti Foundation, Madras. audience. While he refers to the actors of them: "These songs of the drama companies Guy, Randor (1988): 'The First Superior'. Aside, company dramas as 'koothadigal' were based on Carnatic music. In addition February 16. (mountebanks), those of the amateur theatre they introduced a new strain of music into Jayakanthan (1980): Oru IIIakiyavathiin were for him 'nadaga kalaingrargal' (stage Tamil Nadu, 'natya sangeeth' (drama music), Kalaiyulaga Anubavangal, Thean Mozhi artistes). the kind of Hindustani music as it came from Pathipagam. Madras. 4 It was the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam Marathi and Parsi drama companies that had Karnadagam (1939): 'Cinema Sandai', Anamda (DMK) and its leadership, which stood loured Tamil Nadu in the beginning of the Vikadan, November 5. against different forms of brahminical century. Through this strain, Hindustani Ku Pa Ra[jugopalan] (1986): Kanagambaram. exclusivity and the elitism of the Indian 'ragas' were observed and the synthesis was The Alliance Company, Madras. National Congress, that corrected this quite popular. Folk music also featured in Panneerselvan, A S (1987): 'Musical Mission situation: "Even those artistes who worked these dramas and was usually sung by the Frontline, August 22-September 4 for the national cause during the freedom comedian" [Baskaran 1991:756]. Ramaiya, B S( 1943): Cinema...? Jyothi Nilayam. struggle were derogatorily branded by this 18 Interview with Subbudu, Subamungala, Madras society as 'koothodigal' and were made to February 1993. Ra[masamy]. Va (1990/1944): Kalaiyum Kulai feel ashamed [of their profession]. There was 19 Interview with Chemmangudi Sreenivasa Iyer, Valarchiyum, Alliance Company, Madras this attitude among the people that actors are Subamangala, March 1994 Sambanda Mudaliar, P Rao Bahadur (1931): lowly and should not be mixed with The 20 lllayaraja himself is a critic of pigeonholing Nadaga Medai Ninaivugal, Part 1, Pearless exclusive credit for ending this situation with music as classical and otherwise. As he puts Press, Madras. systematic effort and full commitment goes it, "I am not a musician. For a musician raga - (1938): Pesumpada Anubavangal, Pearless to Aringrar.Anna[durai]" [Thirunavukkarasu is a hurdle; tala is a hurdle; his music training Press, Madras. 1990:42]. is a hurdle; and his very conception about Sivathamby, Kartigesu (1981): The Tamil Film 5 N G Damodharan inDinamani , July 31,1936, music is a hurdle Since I am not a musician. as a Medium of Political Communication, reporduced in Dinamani, July 31, 1995. I have no parameters to restrict my sell. New Century Book House, Madras 6 The concept of cinephobia has been drawn Whatever comes to my mind, I have no Sornam, K (1992): 'Malarum Ninaivugal' in from Ravi Vasudevan (1995). hesitation in doing it. I am able to compose MurosoliPon Vizha Malar, 1942-92, Madras. 7 Home Department (ms), GO No 2182, dated a song in 'aarohanom' alone, while the whole Seenivasan, Muktha V (1993): Tamil Thiraipada April 19, 1939, Tamil Nadu Archives. spectrum of music vidwans believed tor Varalaru, Gangai Puthaga Nilayam, Madras. 8 According to Randor Guy (1989), it was centuries that a song should essentially Shrinivas. N (1942): Cinema Ulagin Marmangal, 'Raval' Krishna Iyer who introduced regular comprise 'aarohanom' and 'avarohanam'. This Talk-a-Tone Publication, Madras. carnatic music and well known musicians to is because I have no bonds" [Panneerselvan Thirunavukkarasu, K (1990): Dravidar Tamil film. Iyer achieved this "by getting 1987:91]. lyakkamum Thiraipuda Ulagamum, veteran musician and composer Harikesa- 21 Significantly, M Karunanidhi's Parasakthi Manivasagar Pathipagam, Madras. nallur Muthaiah Bhagavathar (Raval's uncle) (1952), a DMK genre film, inverts this Vasudevan, Ravi S (1995): 'Reflections on the to set the music for Lava Kusa.. " It seems resolution and privileges cinema over Cinematic Public. 1913-43' (unpublished that Iyer had mobilised his kinship resource Bharatanatyam. While the hero of the film paper).

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