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Estrogenic Properties of Sorghum Phenolics

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Estrogenic Properties of Sorghum Phenolics ESTROGENIC PROPERTIES OF SORGHUM PHENOLICS: POSSIBLE ROLE IN COLON CANCER PREVENTION A Dissertation by LIYI YANG Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Chair of Committee, Joseph M. Awika Co-Chair of Committee, Clinton D. Allred Committee Members, Stephen T. Talcott Lloyd W. Rooney Head of Department, Jimmy T. Keeton August 2013 Major Subject: Food Science and Technology Copyright 2013 Liyi Yang ABSTRACT Consumption of whole grains has been linked to reduced risk of colon cancer. This study determined estrogenic activity of sorghum phenolic extracts of different phenolic profiles and identified possible estrogenic compounds in sorghum in vitro, as well as evaluated the potential of estrogenic sorghum phenolic extracts to prevent colon carcinogenesis in vivo. The thermal stability of sorghum 3-deoxyanthocyanins was also studied, to determine their suitability as functional food colorants. White and TX430 (black) sorghum extracts showed estrogenic activity in cell models predominantly expressing estrogen receptor-α (ERα) or ERβ at 5 and 10 µg/mL, respectively. The same treatments led to induction of apoptosis in cells expressing ERβ. The red TX2911 sorghum did not possess these activities. Compositional analysis revealed differences in flavones and flavanones. Flavones with estrogen-like properties, i.e. luteolin and apigenin, were detected in White and TX430 (black) sorghum extracts, but not in red TX2911 extract. Naringenin, a flavanone known to antagonize ERα signalling, was only detected in the red TX2911 extract. Additional experiments with sorghum extracts of distinct flavones/flavanone ratio, as well as with pure apigenin and naringenin, suggested that flavones are the more potent ERβ agonists in sorghum. On the other hand, 3-deoxyanthocyanins were probably not estrogenic. Estrogenic white and black sorghum phenolic extracts (fed at 1% level in the diet) reduced the number of azoxymethane induced colon premalignant lesion (aberrant ii crypt foci) by 39.3% and 14.7%, respectively, in ovariectomized mice. Further studies are needed to elucidate the protective mechanisms induced by these sorghum extracts. Sorghum 3-deoxyanthocyanins retained good color stability after 30 minutes of heat treatment at 121 °C under pressure: More than 80% of color retained in pH 1 and 2 HCl and citric acid solutions, and 39-84% retained from pHs 3-7. Formic acid negatively affected the color stability at pH 1 and pH 2 due to its reducing capacity. Methoxylation decreased the thermal stability of 3-deoxyanthocyanins. The heat stability of 3- deoxyanthocyanins indicates good potential for food use. Overall, the inherent estrogenic activity of specific sorghum phenolic extracts is a likely mechanism for colon cancer prevention. Further studies are needed to assess physiologically relevant dietary level of sorghum phenolics for prevention of colon cancer, and effect of food processing on the activity and bioavailability of the chemopreventive components. iii DEDICATION 献给 我挚爱的家人 我的父亲 杨显宇先生 母亲 温磊女士 以及 我的丈夫 陈明先生 TO MY BELOVED FAMILY My father Mr. Xianyu Yang and mother Ms. Lei Wen as well as My husband Mr. Ming Chen iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my committee chair, Dr. Joseph M. Awika, for this opportunity of my education, the consistent, dedicated but yet critical guidance and support throughout the course of this research. I would also like to thank my co-chair of committee, Dr. Clinton D. Allred, for his selfless support and dedication, not only in terms of strengthening this research, but also encouraging and guiding me to what I hope to achieve for my career. I am grateful to have such splendid mentors. Grateful thanks are extended to my committee members, Dr. Lloyd W. Rooney and Dr. Stephen T. Talcott, for their thoughtful ideas and support during my study. I am indebted to all of them. Grateful thanks goes to Mrs. Kim Allred, for her excellent technical support in the cell culture and animal studies, as well as moral encouragement and inspiration during my study. Special thanks to Dr. Linda Dykes for her high quality technical assistance with the UPLC-MS analysis and data interpretation, as well as the discussions to improve the research. Special thanks are also extended to Dr. William L. Rooney and Dr. Gary Peterson in the Department of Soil & Crop Sciences and Texas AgriLife Extension of Texas A&M University for providing sorghum seeds used in this study. I would like to express my heart-felt thanks to all my colleagues and friends in both Cereal Quality Lab and the Allred’s Lab. I wish to thank Miss Cameron Armstrong, Miss Ji-Hye Yoo, Miss Dorothy Herrman, Miss Kristen Dunn, Ms. Shima Agah, Miss Diana Whitefield, Miss Eileen Quinn and Miss Jessica Justice for the tremendous v assistance and support they provided for this research; without any of you, the research could not be as strong as it is. I would also like to thank Miss Eliana Pinilla, Miss Autumn Billimek, Dr. Charles Weige, Dr. Bhima Geera, Dr. Leonnard Ojwang, Dr. (to be) Tom Jondiko, Dr. Frederico Barros, Dr. Archana Gawde, Dr. Constance Chiremba, Ms. Karla Siska, Dr. Victor Taleon, Miss Amy Collison and Mr. Taehoon Kim, for all the discussions we had which provoked my ideas and improved myself both in my expertise and my personality. I am very fortunate to have worked and spent the most important years of my higher education with all of you together. I shall appreciate all the moments we spent, either cheerful or difficult, which I carry as a fortune of my life. Last but not least, I would like to thank Dr. Joseph M. Awika and the Department of Soil & Crop Sciences for the opportunity I had to work as a full-time Research Associate while I complete my doctoral study. This is valuable experience and support for what I wish to accomplish for my career goals. Finally, I extend my everlasting gratitude to my family, my father Mr. Xianyu Yang, my mother Ms. Lei Wen, as well as my husband Mr. Ming Chen, for their affection, encouragement, patience and faith in the career path I chose. I love you all. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION .......................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................... 5 Prevalence of Colon Cancer ................................................................................ 5 Colon Carcinogenesis .......................................................................................... 5 Diet and Risk of Colon Cancer ........................................................................... 10 Sorghum in Cancer Prevention ........................................................................... 12 Phenolic Composition of Sorghum Grains .......................................................... 14 Estrogen and Colon Cancer Prevention............................................................... 19 Phytoestrogens and Colon Cancer Prevention .................................................... 22 Methods Used to Determine Estrogenic Activity ............................................... 25 Methods Used to Study Chemopreventive Potential of Estrogenic Compounds against Colon Cancer .......................................................................................... 27 Effect of Thermal Processing on Sorghum Phenolics ......................................... 31 CHAPTER III SORGHUM PHENOLIC EXTRACTS DEMONSTRATE ESTROGENIC ACTIVITY IN NON-MALIGNANT COLONOCYTES: RELATIONSHIP TO PHENOLIC PROFILES ........................................................ 34 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 34 Materials and Methods ........................................................................................ 36 Results and Discussion ........................................................................................ 46 Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 101 vii Page CHAPTER IV SORGHUM PHENOLIC EXTRACTS PREVENT AZOXYMETHANE INDUCED COLON CARCINOGENESIS IN OVARIECTOMIZED MICE .................................................................................... 103 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 103 Materials and Methods ........................................................................................ 104 Results and Discussion ........................................................................................ 112 Future Studies ...................................................................................................... 123
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