Transiting Sub-Stellar Companions of Intermediate-Mass Stars

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Transiting Sub-Stellar Companions of Intermediate-Mass Stars Friedrich-Schiller-Universit¨at Jena Physikalisch-Astronomische Fakult¨at Th¨uringer Landessternwarte Tautenburg Transiting Sub-stellar companions of Intermediate-mass stars Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades doctor rerum naturalium (Dr. rer. nat.) vorgelegt dem Rat der Physikalisch-Astronomischen Fakult¨at der Friedrich-Schiller-Universit¨at Jena von Dipl.-Phys. Daniel Sebastian geboren am 03. M¨arz 1987 in Leipzig Gutachter 1. Prof. Dr. Artie P. Hatzes Th¨uringer Landessternwarte Tautenburg 2. Prof. Dr. C.W.M. Fridlund Leiden Observatory 3. Prof. Dr. Sebastian Wolf Christian-Albrechts-Universit¨at zu Kiel Tag der Disputation: 23.05.2017 i U¨ bersicht Ziel ist es, durch die Messung der absoluten H¨aufigkeiten kurzperiodischer Planeten von IMSs (engl. f¨ur Sterne intermedi¨arer Masse) die Vorhersagen von Theorien der Planetenentstehung zu testen. Uberraschend¨ war in den sp¨aten 90ern die Entdeckung von sogenannten heißen Jupitern bei sonnen¨ahnlichen Sternen. Solche schweren und sehr nah bei ihren Sternen (< 0.1 AE) umlaufenden Planeten gibt es nicht in unserem Sonnensystem. Die g¨angige Theorie ist, dass Planeten in großer Entfernung zum Stern entstehen und dann durch Wechselwirkungsprozesse zum Stern hin migrieren. Wechselwirkungen der Planeten mit der protoplanetaren Scheibe, welche diese Migration erkl¨aren k¨onnen, tragen allerdings nur effektiv zur Migration bei, solange die Scheibe existiert. Die Erforschung von nahen Planeten bei IMSs kann effektiv die Parameter der Entstehung dieser Planeten eingrenzen. Erstens ist von Infrarotbeobachtungen bekannt, dass die Lebens- zeiten von protoplanetaren Scheiben dieser Sterne nur halb so lang sind wie die von son- nen¨ahnlichen Sternen. Zweitens wurde durch Radialgeschwindigkeitsstudien von entwi- ckelten IMSs entdeckt, dass diese im Vergleich zu Sternen mit sonnen¨ahnlicher Masse viel h¨aufiger Planeten in weiten Umlaufbahnen (> 5 AE) besitzen. Allerdings ist nicht viel ¨uber die nahen Planeten um IMSs bekannt. Ein wichtiger Schl¨ussel, um die Parameter der Entwicklung dieser Objekte einzugrenzen, ist die Antwort auf die Frage: “Gibt es eine h¨ohere H¨aufigkeit von diesen sehr nah umlaufenden Planeten bei Sternen mit- tlerer Masse als bei Sternen mit sonnen¨ahnlicher Masse?” Die Transitmethode ist am besten geeignet, um solche Planeten zu finden. Erstens hat bei der Methode die schnelle Rotation der Sterne keinen Einfluss, zweitens ist sie ideal, um kurzpe- riodische Planeten zu finden. Im Gegensatz zu bodengebundenen Teleskopen erlaubt es die Genauigkeit des Weltraumteleskops CoRoT, alle jupitergroßen, transitierenden Objekte bei IMSs zu detektieren. Um die Massenverteilung der Sterne in der CoRoT-Durchmusterung zu bestimmen, habe ich zun¨achst eine repr¨asentative Stichprobe von 7 131 Sternen spektral klas- sifiziert. Anschließend wurden mehr als 123 000 Lichtkurven der CoRoT-Mission untersucht, um Transitkandidaten zu finden. 14 Kandidaten habe ich daraufhin genauer analysiert um herauszufinden, ob es sich um sub-stellare Begleiter handelt oder nicht. Als Ergebnis dieser Durchsuchung habe ich einen Planeten und zwei sehr junge braune Zw- erge mit ¨ubergroßen Radien bei IMSs gefunden. Darunter befindet sich der erste, transit- ierende, braunde Zwerg der ¨uberhaupt bei einem B-Stern entdeckt wurde. Dieses Ergebnis best¨atigt, dass es kurzperiodische Planeten um IMSs gibt. Die absolute H¨aufigkeit kurzpe- riodischer Planeten wurde bei dieser Durchmusterung mit 0.11 0.04 % berechnet. Damit ± sind kurzperiodische, massereiche Planeten von Sternen mittlerer Masse sowohl im Vergleich zu den langperiodischen Planeten dieser Sterne, als auch im Vergleich zu den sonnen¨ahn- lichen Sternen weniger h¨aufig. Im Kontext der Theorie der Scheibenmigration l¨asstsich dieses ¨uberraschende Ergebnis am besten damit erkl¨aren, dass die Lebensdauer der Scheiben dieser Sterne zwar ausreicht, um Planeten entstehen zu lassen, aber nicht ausreicht, um diese anschließend zum Stern migrieren zu lassen. ii Abstract The aim of the project is to evaluate the predictions from theories of planet formation by determining the absolute frequency of close-in planets of intermediate-mass stars (IMSs). In the late 90s, the detection of hot Jupiters orbiting solar-type stars was a big surprise. These massive and extreme close-in (< 0.1 AU) planets have no counterpart in our Solar System. State-off-the-art theories of planet formation predict that these planets first form at large distances from their host stars. Due to interaction processes, they migrate then inwards to distances of 0.1 AU and less. Even though other processes exist, it is commonly accepted that planet-disc interactions are the main source of migration. Therefore, planets can only migrate due to this process as long as the disc exists. The detection of close-in planets of IMSs can put constraints to these theories of planet formation. First, it is known from infrared observations that the lifetimes of protoplanetary discs of IMSs are half as long as those of solar-mass stars. Second, radial velocity surveys of evolved IMSs show that the frequency of planets at distances larger than 5 AU is higher in comparison to solar-mass stars. However, not much is known about the frequency of close-in planets. An important key to constrain processes of planet formation and evolution is, thus, answering the question: “Is the frequency higher for close-in planets of IMSs than for solar-mass stars?” The transit method is best suited to find such planets. First of all, it is not affected by the fast rotation of these stars and secondly, it favours the detection of close-in planets. I used the CoRoT database to survey all IMSs observed with this instrument. In contrast to ground- based surveys, the precision of CoRoT allows the detection of all Jupiter-sized transiting objects orbiting IMSs. To determine the mass-distribution of the stars in the sample, I first did a spectral classification of a representative sample containing 7 131 stars. To find transit candidates, more than 123 000 light-curves from the CoRoT mission were analysed. I finally identified and observed 14 candidates to find out whether they are sub-stellar companions or not. In result, I detected one planet as well as two very young brown dwarfs with large radii of IMSs by this survey. Among them, the first transiting brown dwarf of a B-type star. This result confirms that close-in planets of IMSs exists. The frequency for close-in planets of IMSs derived from this survey is 0.11 0.04 %. This means that close-in planets are less ± frequent than long-periodic planets of IMSs and they are less frequent than close-in planets of solar-type stars. In the context of disc-migration, this surprising result can be explained by the lifetime of the protostellar discs of IMSs. It is apparently long enough for the planets to form, but on average too short for them to migrate inwards. CONTENTS iii Contents 1 Introduction to sub-stellar objects 1 1.1 The melange of planet-detection methods . 2 1.2 Radial velocities . 3 1.2.1 High-resolution spectrographs . 4 1.2.2 Deriving the mass from RV-measurements . 6 1.3 The transit method . 7 1.3.1 Surveys from ground . 8 1.3.2 Space missions . 9 1.3.3 False alarms . 10 1.4 Planets of solar-like stars . 12 1.4.1 Planet formation . 13 1.5 Planets of non solar-like stars . 14 1.5.1 Low-mass stars . 15 1.5.2 Intermediate-mass stars . 16 1.5.3 Massive planets and brown dwarfs . 18 1.5.4 Why are planets of IMSs important? . 19 2 A Survey for close-in planets of IMSs 25 3 The stellar population observed by CoRoT 27 3.1 Photometric spectral types . 27 3.2 Spectroscopy with FLAMES/GIRAFFE . 27 3.3 Multi-object spectroscopy . 28 3.3.1 Computer-based spectral typing . 28 3.3.2 Spectral types in the CoRoT anticentre fields . 29 4 Identification of transit-candidates 32 4.1 Light curve analysis . 32 4.1.1 EXOTRANS - Transit search . 33 4.1.2 Multicolour analysis - Removal of false positives . 34 4.2 Database search . 35 4.3 Spectral typing of candidates . 35 4.3.1 Data from Tautenburg . 35 4.3.2 Data from collaboration partners . 39 4.4 Characterisation of the candidates . 40 4.4.1 Estimation of the radius . 40 4.4.2 Ephemerides of the targets . 40 4.4.3 Identification of contaminants . 41 4.5 Bringing it all together: The candidate list . 42 5 Radial velocity measurements 45 5.1 Precision of RV-measurements . 45 5.2 Observations . 46 CONTENTS iv 5.2.1 Data reduction of E´chelle spectrographs . 46 5.2.2 SANDIFORD . 47 5.2.3 CAFE . 48 5.2.4 TWIN . 49 5.2.5 Other observational data . 50 5.3 Measuring radial velocities . 51 5.3.1 ASFIA - Automatic Spectral FItting Application . 52 5.3.2 Templates for comparison . 55 5.3.3 Measuring telluric lines . 56 5.4 Fitting Kepler orbits . 58 5.5 Testing and accuracy of the RV-measurement . 59 5.5.1 HD 209458 . 59 5.5.2 Error estimates from early type stars . 60 5.5.3 Significance of an orbital solution . 61 5.6 Doppler tomography . 61 6 Results of radial velocity measurements 65 6.1 LRc02 E1 0132 . 65 6.2 LRa01 E2 1578 . 66 6.3 LRa02 E1 0725 . 67 6.4 LRa01 E2 0203 . 67 6.5 LRa02 E2 4150 . 68 6.6 LRa01 E2 0963 . 70 6.7 LRa02 E1 1475 . 70 6.8 LRa02 E2 1023 . 72 6.9 LRc03 E2 2657 . 73 6.10 LRc07 E2 0108 . 75 6.11 LRc07 E2 0307 . 76 6.12 LRc07 E2 0482 . 77 6.13 LRc08 E2 4203 . 78 6.14 LRc10 E2 3265 . 78 6.15 IRa01 E2 2721 . 79 6.16 IRa01 E1 4591 . 80 7 Discussion of the survey 82 7.1 Confirmed binaries .
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