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The Role of Livestock for Sustainability in Mixed Farming: Criteria and Scenario Studies Under Varying Resource Allocation J.B

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The Role of Livestock for Sustainability in Mixed Farming: Criteria and Scenario Studies Under Varying Resource Allocation J.B Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 90 (2002) 139–153 The role of livestock for sustainability in mixed farming: criteria and scenario studies under varying resource allocation J.B. Schiere a, M.N.M. Ibrahim b,∗, H. van Keulen c a Animal Production Systems Group, Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences (WIAS), Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands b Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka c Research Institute for Agrobiology and Soil Fertility (AB-DLO), P.O. Box 14, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands Received 8 November 1999; received in revised form 30 January 2001; accepted 30 January 2001 Abstract Cropping, when possible, tends to become more important than animal production because, in general, it can feed more people per area unit in terms of calories and protein. In such systems, the role of wasteland grazing as a source of energy for agriculture through animals for traction and dung is often taken over by the use of resources from fossil reserves. This changing role of animals in the sustainability of agriculture is addressed in this paper to discuss options and constraints for animal production in newly developing farming systems. Based on a brief literature review, this paper discusses how and in which way ruminant livestock has played or can continue to play a role in (newly developing forms of) sustainable agriculture. The role of livestock in different modes of agriculture ranging from expanded agriculture (EXPAGR), and high external inputs agriculture (HEIA) to low external inputs agriculture (LEIA), and new conservation agriculture (NCA) are elaborated. It is argued that even when fossil reserves based external inputs such as oil and fertilisers become more widely used, they should still be used with care to save money and finite resources as well as to avoid problems of waste disposal. However, in conditions with limited access to resources, it continues to be difficult to obtain inputs from fossil reserves. Under these conditions, the major options to increase system sustainability by reducing pollution problems and dependency on external resources are (a) to adjust ways and objectives of production systems to the access to resources, and (b) to achieve increased use and recycling of resources within the system itself. Definitions for sustainability are given and translated into four criteria, i.e. food production and degree of self-sufficiency in the short term based on energy, protein, clothing, shelter, etc.; food production and degree of self-sufficiency in the long term expressed in the form of soil organic matter (SOM) content; reduced dependence of external inputs (=nitrogen use); and aspects of resilience, stability and equity in crop–livestock systems. The results of scenario studies concerning use of grass and legume leys for livestock production illustrate options and trade-offs for different crop–livestock combinations in terms of these criteria for sustainability. © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Crop–livestock systems; Sustainability; Food production; Resource fluxes 1. Introduction Traditionally, animals and particularly ruminants ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +94-8-387180; were an asset to society by converting biomass from fax: +94-8-388041. vast grazing areas into products useful for humans, E-mail address: [email protected] (M.N.M. Ibrahim). e.g. dung, draught, milk, meat and security. However, 0167-8809/02/$ – see front matter © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S0167-8809(01)00176-1 140 J.B. Schiere et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 90 (2002) 139–153 growing human populations cause increased and Table 1 shifting demands for food and other products. This Approximate number of people fed per hectare of land in areas results in the conversion of natural forests and grazing where cropping is possible (adapted from Spedding, 1979) land into arable land for crop and fodder production, Protein Energy thus leading to quantitative and qualitative changes Crops in biomass availability for human food and livestock Maize (Zea mays) 5.2 10.4 feed (Winrock, 1978). Where cropping is possible, it Wheat (Triticum aestivum) 6.3 8.4 can feed more people in terms of calories and protein Rice (Oryza sativa) 7.0 14.0 than what is possible with animal production. This Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) 9.5 16.5 is shown in Table 1 (Spedding, 1979) with data for Livestock specific conditions that reflect the general principle. Chicken meat 2.5 1.0 Lamb meat 1.0 1.0 However, there are soils and climates where cropping Beef 1.0 1.0 is not very successful or very risky such as on the Pork 1.4 2.0 wet peat soils in Western Europe, in high mountain Milk 3.0 2.5 ranges or in arid regions (Fig. 1). Apart from their inferior caloric output, compared to crops, animals are also associated with defor- Poelhekke, 1984; Hecht, 1993). In the present day, the estation and erosion (Durning and Brough, 1991). strong argument against keeping of livestock is that the However, historically, deforestation tended to start in requirement for cropland is increasing through expan- response to the requirement for timber for fuel and sion of grain-based beef, dairy and poultry production construction (Ponting, 1991). Forest was cultivated in the USA, Western Europe, in peri-urban dairies of with crops and grassland for food production through developing countries, and recently in the Pacific Rim shifting cultivation, permanent cropping or simply and China (Winrock, 1978). Combined with changing as a method of occupying land (Ruthenberg, 1980; human food patterns, this has increased the demand Fig. 1. Carrying capacity in terms of human population based on crop and animal production in areas where cropping is possible (adapted from Spedding, 1979). J.B. Schiere et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 90 (2002) 139–153 141 for crop land relative to grazing land (Alexandratos, 2. Livestock and sustainability of 1988). As a result, even marginal grazing areas are agricultural systems converted into crop land and overgrazing of the re- maining areas becomes the rule rather than the excep- 2.1. Role of livestock tion (Jodha, 1986). Land scarcity starts to occur, even in pastoral areas. This upsets existing ethnic balances, Livestock, and particularly ruminants, traditionally and can result in animosity between pastoralists and graze on natural pasture, forest areas, roadsides, fal- arable farmers who peacefully co-existed to mutual low lands, crop re-growth or crop residues such as benefit in the past (Powell and Waters-Bayer, 1985; straws, brans, oilseeds, and other by-products. When Grijseels, 1988). abundant feed is available, livestock can be considered The use of external inputs can increase the carry- a form of wealth, power and security, a perception ing capacity of some range-land systems (Breman and based on the conversion of solar energy captured in De Wit, 1983). However, such external inputs are not biomass into products valuable for human society. available or not affordable to all farmers. Hence, over Therefore, not surprisingly, strong linguistic links exploitation (i.e. mining) of land without the use of between the words for cattle and capital exist in lan- external inputs tends to be the result (Van Der Pol, guages all over the world (Schiere, 1995). For exam- 1992). This threatens the sustainability of these sys- ple, the Spanish ‘ganado’ is related with ‘ganar’, and tems, which is defined here in simple terms as “the similar relations exist in African and Asian languages. capacity to continue production”. Too liberal use of Indeed, under conditions of abundant biomass, cattle external inputs, on the other hand, causes waste dis- were often a decisive factor in the survival (sustain- posal problems or increased political dependency on ability) of a system. However, ways and objectives of external supplies (De Haan et al., 1997; Schiere and keeping livestock are changing as a cause and result of van Keulen, 1999). changing access to feed (Crotty, 1980; Palthe, 1989; In general, animals are often considered to be the De Leeuw and Rey, 1995; Schiere, 1995; Ifar, 1996). cause for unsustainability in both high and low exter- Often, animal production is associated with problems nal input agricultural systems (HEIA and LEIA). In of unsustainability. This may be true in some cases, LEIA, animals are blamed for scavenging whatever is in others it is definitely not. left, and in HEIA, the role of animals as waste utilis- ers has been reverted to a role as polluters and con- 2.2. Benefits of livestock verters of prime resources. Rather than being an asset to sustainability, livestock keeping has become a lia- Livestock were components of systems with long bility (Durning and Brough, 1991; Kaasschieter et al., term sustainability. For example, the keeping of live- 1990; Rifkin, 1992). stock was essential for survival in divergent systems The objective of this paper is to show that livestock such as those of the pastoralists in Africa, and those can play a positive role in sustainable systems. The on peat soil pastures of the low countries and on paper reassesses the controversial role of animals in mountain ranges unsuitable for cropping. Animals sustainable agriculture based on scenario studies and have long been essential in sustaining crop yields in literature. Specific objectives are (1) to describe a set the infield–outfield systems of Western Europe and of historical
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