Adaptation of Mixed Crop– 10 Livestock Systems in Asia Fujiang Hou State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-Ecosystem, China College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, China

10.1 Introduction duction and other components and eco- regions of farming systems, especially Th e mixed farming system combining crop between plant and livestock, fi ve types of and livestock production, which usually is mixed crop–livestock systems have been based on the interaction of arable crops such identifi ed in Asia: farming systems based on as forage crop, grain crop and oil crop, rangeland; farming systems based on grain rangeland, woodland and livestock, is the crops; farming systems based on crop/ dominant agricultural system of the world. pasture rotations; agrosilvopastoral systems; It produces about half of the world’s food and farming systems based on ponds (Fig. (Herrero et al., 2010) and makes the largest 10.1). contribution to the food supply of humans. Th e production system uses 90% of the total cropland, feeds 70% of sheep and goats and 10.2.1 Farming systems based on produces 88.5% of beef, 88% of milk, 61% rangeland of pork and 26% of poultry meat (Seré and Steinfeld, 1996; Blackburn, 1998). Th is type of production system is operated Approximately 84% of the total agricultural in the arid area (annual mean precipitation population is involved in the operation of below 250 mm) of north-west China, central mixed farming systems in developing Asia and west Asia, of which the dominant countries (Blackburn, 1998). As one of the landscape is the Gobi desert; some of the biggest developing areas, the situation in semi-arid area (between 250 mm and Asia is similar (Hou et al., 2009). 500 mm annual mean precipitation), of which the dominant vegetation is steppe; the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and northern 10.2 The Current Situation of Mixed Russia, of which the dominant vegetation is Crop–Livestock Systems in Asia tundra, alpine steppe or alpine meadow (Fig. 10.1). Th ere is about 1900 × 104 km2 of Farming system evolution is the outcome of rangeland, which occupies 45% of the total social, abiotic and biotic factors and their land area in Asia. At a regional level, typical interactions (Ren, 1985). Various mixed landscapes are coupled agroecosystems crop–livestock systems exist due to the being made up of mountain, desert and diversity of culture, environment, plants, oasis. Rivers originating in the mountain animals and microbes, economic activities areas integrate three ecosystems of and the rich history of agricultural pro- mountain, oasis and desert by supplying duction in diff erent countries. In terms of water and carrying the ingredients for life, the interactions between livestock pro- while the desert supplies the existent

© CAB International 2014. Climate Change Impact and Adaptation in Agricultural Systems 155 (eds J. Fuhrer & P. Gregory) 156 Chapter 10

Legend Farming systems based on rangeland Classically mixed farming systems based on grain crops Farming systems based on crop/pasture rotation Agrosilvopastoral systems Farming systems based on ponds

Fig. 10.1. Sketch map of mixed crop–livestock systems in Asia. background of oasis and mountain (Hou and and produce approximately 60% of the wool Li, 2001). Cropland appeared over 2000 and cashmere and 33% of the total milk and years ago, fi rst in natural oases, and mutton produced in China (Nan, 2005). In expanded rapidly through the cultivation of arid areas of China, the main crops are the rangeland (including saline meadows, cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), wheat which are distributed sporadically in desert (Triticum aestivum L.) and maize (Zea mays region) and the establishment of irrigation L.), which account for 31%, 20% and 14% facilities both in desert and mountain of total croplands, respectively. Lucerne regions (Hou and Li, 2001). Mountain, (Medicago sativa L.) originates from Iran, has desert and oasis account for 43%, 53% and been planted for over 2000 years and is the 4%, respectively, of the total land area in the dominant forage crop in this kind of farming Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of system. Th e main livestock in arid areas are China (Hou, 2007), and most of the sheep, goats, cattle and camels. In semi-arid croplands are located in oases. Th is kind of areas of China, maize is planted in about spatial pattern is common to many arid one-third of the croplands, while the planted regions and some semi-arid regions of the area of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) and world. On the whole, as a result of drought, wheat is 13% and 7%, respectively. Th e main high elevation and cold, there is over 95% of livestock are sheep, dairy cattle, goats and rangeland in desert, tundra and alpine areas, beef cattle. In the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, and the forage crop area is less than 10% of the main crops are rapeseed (Brassica napus the cropland in oasis areas (Ren et al., 1995; L.), hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare L. var. Hou, 2000). Farming systems are supported nudum Hook.f.) and wheat, for which the by water from rivers rising in mountain planted areas occupy 26%, 22% and 20%, areas (Ren et al., 1999). respectively. Th e main livestock are yak (Bos Mixed farming systems based on grunniens) and Tibetan sheep. Th e sown rangeland feed about 35% of the sheep, pasture area accounts for only about 0.2% of horses and donkeys in the whole of China rangeland in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Adaptation of Mixed Crop–Livestock Systems in Asia 157

1% in the arid area and 0.2% in the semi- and the third highest yield of soybean, which arid area (Hou et al., 2008). In the tundra is next only to North (USA and Canada) and area of eastern Russia, rye (Secale cereale L.), South America (Brazil and Argentina). With oat (Avena sativa L.), triticale (Triticale abundant and high-quality grain and straw hexaploide Lart.) and sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris resources, this type of agricultural system L.) are planted as forage crops in small areas, seldom grows forage crops but feeds 34% of and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) is one of cattle, 47% of goats, 26% of sheep, 42% of the dominant livestock. donkeys and generates 58% of beef and 50% In this type of agricultural system, crop, of milk production in China (Hou et al., rangeland and livestock interact with each 2008). And nearly 80% of buff alo is fed in other in the following fi ve ways: (i) livestock India (A.K. Roy, 2013, unpublished). Inter- graze rangeland throughout the year; (ii) action between crop production and live- livestock often graze fallow cropland and stock production occurs mainly in four ways stubble cropland after harvesting the crop; (Wang and Zhou, 2007; Hou et al., 2009): (i) (iii) livestock supply draft power and manure crop residues and grain are fed to livestock for crop production; (iv) crop residues and throughout the year; (ii) livestock supply forage crops are provided to livestock mostly manure and draft power for some crop in the cold season; and (v) in an abundant production in the extensive systems of the rainfall year, herbage is harvested in the developing regions, although there is an rangeland and then made into hay to feed increasing level of mechanization in in - animals in the cold season, which is one of tensive crop production systems; (iii) live- the prevalent utilization ways in native stock graze fallow cropland, stubble cropland meadow. Th ere is a net fl ow of nutrient and sparse rangeland; (iv) they also elements from rangeland to cropland in two sometimes graze small grain crops such as ways: fi rst, livestock graze rangeland during wheat, barley and rye, which in these areas the daytime and stay overnight on fallow have been prevalent as multi-purpose crops cropland; or, second, more prevalent in Asia, (ground cover, energy, grain, forage, and so livestock excrement is collected, after the on) for a long time. Th e incorporation of animals have grazed rangeland during the small grain crops into grazing systems can day and have stayed overnight in pens, overcome the feed gap of early spring and which is then applied to cropland. Th is winter which commonly occurs in this type extensive type of agricultural system has a of farming system, and also provides the high ecological effi ciency as a result of low opportunity to exchange nutrient elements inputs. A high ratio of rangeland to cropland between diff erent components of the farm- such as in the farming–pastoral ecotone in ing system. northern China (e.g. Z.B. Nan, 2007, un - published results) leads to intensive fer- tilization of cropland. 10.2.3 Farming systems based on crop/ pasture rotation

10.2.2 Classically mixed farming systems Th is type of mixed system exists mainly in based on grain crops the transition zone between the nomadic and cropping areas and between the nomadic Th is kind of farming system is located in the and forest areas in Asia. Th ey are part of the plains and oases of temperate and sub- Eurasian steppe and have relatively suffi cient tropical Asia, where crop production is rainfall and heat, and have therefore been possible owing to favourable conditions of cultivated for crop production for a long water (rainfall or irrigation), temperature time. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), maize, and soil (Fig. 10.1). It is one of the most some small grains such as oat (Avena dominant regions for maize, wheat, cotton chinensis (Fisch. ex Roem. et Schult.) Metzg.), and soybean production in the world because foxtail millet (Tetaria italic L.), broom millet of the high yields of maize, cotton and wheat (Panicum miliaceum L.) and legume crops 158 Chapter 10

such as soybean, pea and bean are the main interact: (i) livestock graze in the forests; (ii) crops in the region. Th e area planted to livestock graze the harvested cropland, potato accounts for 73.4% of China’s total forage cropland and fallow cropland; (iii) potato crop (Hou et al., 2008). Th e main grain and crop residues are supplemented to livestock are goats, sheep, beef cattle and livestock in pens; (iv) livestock supply draft donkeys (mule). Rainfed farming is power and manure both for crop production dominant in a gulley area where the annual and timber production; and (v) forests average rainfall is more than 250 mm and provide shade and windbreaks for both over 60% of the annual rainfall falls during crops and grazed livestock. Large areas of the crop growing season. Frequent droughts forest have been converted to cropland over are a key risk, especially in spring, because a long period in these regions. Forests and of large year-to-year variation in rainfall cropland exchange nutrient elements (Hou and Nan, 2006). A large number of through livestock movement, but there is a farmers plant small grain crops in late net nutrient fl ow from forestland to summer or early autumn in order to utilize cropland because farmers collect manure the rainfall and warmth for hay production from the pens where livestock sleep over- (Hou and Nan, 2006). In most cases, this night, after grazing in the forest areas, and kind of farming operation takes place apply this manure to cropland. Both deer because of crop failure as a result of drought and goats browse trees, so they play a key during spring or early summer. Legume role in the timber production of farming crops are planted as part of the crop rotation systems and forest conservation in some in order to maintain or improve the fertility areas. of cropland and to supply protein-rich fodder to livestock. Crop production and livestock production 10.2.5 Farming systems based on ponds are integrated into these systems in four ways (Hou et al., 2008): (i) forage crops Integrated systems based on ponds are (including some legume crops) and residues located in the tropics and subtropics with of other crops are fed to livestock in pens; good rainfall and relatively fl at land (Fig. (ii) livestock supply manure and draft power 10.1). Th is type of system has a relatively for crop production; (iii) livestock graze short history which can be traced back only stubble cropland, fallow cropland and sparse about 600 years in inshore regions and rangeland; and (iv) livestock graze crops gradually spreads to inland areas with after failed harvests because of economic abundant water resources in big river basins reasons as the result of serious disease and (Nie et al., 2003). Th is type of farming con- drought. tributes over half of the rice, pork and chicken and most of the buff alo in the world, and the other main ruminant livestock are 10.2.4 Agrosilvopastoral systems goats and cattle, which play a relatively minor role. Th e main crops are rice, tropical Based on forest, this system is operated fruits and vegetables, among which the mainly in temperate forest areas, forest planted area of rice occupies nearly 60% of zones in the high mountains and some of the total cropland in this region. the subtropical forest areas of Asia (Fig. Interactions between livestock pro- 10.1). Dominant crops are wheat, soybean duction and crop production in this type of and maize in the temperate zone and rice system include: (i) crop residues are fed to and maize in the subtropical zone. Th e main livestock; (ii) livestock excrement together livestock are cattle, goats, buff alo and deer with some forage crops and crop residues are (reindeer, wapiti, sika, river deer, etc.). used as a resource for pond production; (iii) Th ere are fi ve ways in which livestock, pond sludge together with livestock excre- crops and forestry enterprises mutually ment are applied to cropland as fertilizers; Adaptation of Mixed Crop–Livestock Systems in Asia 159

(iv) buff alo or cattle supply draft power for higher lean meat percentage (Cheng, 1993). crop production; and (v) livestock graze the In wetter regions including eastern Asia, sparse rangeland and the cropland after South-east Asia and some of southern Asia, being harvested. Obviously, the mixed the quality of fur, wool and cashmere is farming systems originate from the pond usually poor, but the quality may improve if production, which plays a key role in re - the climate becomes warmer and drier (Zhao cycling nutrient elements and the economic and Qiu, 1999). In China, most of the fi ne- allocation and energy exchange of the whole wool sheep have been bred in the cold system (Pittaway et al., 1996). regions, so a warmer climate could result in a negative infl uence on the yield and quality of fi ne wool. However, if precipitation 10.3 Mixed Farming Systems, Climate increases more than evaporation, global Change and Adaptation climate change may promote animal production. 10.3.1 Mixed farming systems under global climate change Impacts at ecosystem scale Global climate change threatens the Global climate change not only results in sustainable productivity of farming systems transforming the distribution, productivity at all scales, especially at the scale of species and interaction of crop, rangeland and (crop cultivars or animal breeds) and livestock but also aff ects the whole farming ecosystems. production system. Global warming with increased rainfall will raise the productivity of all types of farming systems, including Impacts at species scale both plant and animal production. In Climatic factors play an important role in Asia, the area of rangeland has been fore- the productivity and distribution of crops casted to expand and that of woodland to and livestock. If the climate becomes warmer shrink under conditions of global warming and drier, which have been identifi ed as the (Schellnhuber et al., 2013). Furthermore, main trends of global climate change in most increased rainfall will boost the eff ects of areas of Asia (Ren et al., 2011), livestock global warming. However, other models with high adaptation to drought, such as have indicated that global warming will goat, donkey, camel, deer, will extend their decrease the productivity of grassland in the distributive areas, while other livestock with farming–pastoral areas of northern China high susceptibility to climate change (such and exacerbate the drought in arid regions as horse, cattle, buff alo, sheep, and so on) of central and western Asia (Qiu et al., 2001; will have their area of distribution reduced IPCC, 2007). (Fan and Zhang, 1993). If the climate Normally, farming systems are relatively becomes warmer and wetter, the changes in stable on an environmental gradient because distribution of both the above types of the existing farm management measures livestock will be reversed. could minimize the drift of farming systems Global climate change will potentially under conditions of limited climatic fl uctu- aff ect the quality of animal products, ation. All types of integrated farming although this topic has been largely ignored systems can be characterized as part of a in much previous research. In cold regions of successional framework under the pressure eastern and central Asia, livestock usually of interaction among biotic factors (crops, have higher meat production per capita, livestock, etc.), abiotic (environmental) with higher fat content in animal products factors (precipitation, heat, etc.) and social (Cheng, 1993). Global warming might result factors (economics, management, etc.; see both in smaller livestock body weight and a Fig. 10.2). Global climate change is another decrease of meat production, but result in factor exerting selection pressure on the 160 Chapter 10

succession of farming systems. If the climate 10.3.2 Adaptation of mixed farming becomes warmer, management of forage systems to global climate change crops and of the interactions between herbivore and forage will determine the Varieties of crop and breeds of livestock with stable level of the integrated farming high stress resistance systems (Fig. 10.2). However, increased frequency of dry and hot periods associated It is generally recognized that both varieties with global warming could be disastrous for of crops and breeds of livestock with high farming systems. stress tolerance have more stable and higher Global climate change is a slow and productivity under global climate change; gradual process at a large timescale, so this provides more options to improving livestock and crops could adapt themselves farm management. A number of studies slowly and simultaneously (Hou and Yang, have looked at the eff ects of climate change 2006; FAO, 2007; Yadav et al., 2011). on forage and animal species, and on their Humans have time enough to breed new potential to enhance adaptation both by cultivars or breeds and to develop innovative traditional and genetic improvement (FAO, management practices. However, global 2007; Yadav et al., 2011; Redden, 2013). climate change will also induce a natural Furthermore, forage and livestock breeding selection on the new breeds of livestock and can also contribute to climate change new cultivars of crops; the infl uence of this mitigation through reducing emissions of is little known. greenhouse gases (GHG) and raising carbon

+ Rainfall + Rainfall – Solar radiation – Heat Farming systems based on + Legume forage crops ld + Perennial forage crops – Rangeland – Rangeland + Rangeland

Severe environment: cold, arid, Farming system based on sown pasture Farming systems based on crop/pasture hot, high elevation, poor soil, etc.

Abundant solar radiation and high variation of rainfall Classically mixed farming Abundant rainfall, poor heat systems based on grain Legume forage crops + Perennial forage crop

rotation crops

+ Pond

Abundant rainfall and heat + Wood and herbage

+ Wood

Farming systems based on Agrosilvopastoral – Pond ponds systems

+ Pond + Wood + Heat + Rainfall

– Heat + Perennial forage crop

–Grain crop

Fig. 10.2. Succession of the integrated farming systems. (Adapted from Hou et al., 2009.) Adaptation of Mixed Crop–Livestock Systems in Asia 161

(C) sequestration in both grassland and production. However, with the largest and livestock production. Asia has one of the fastest growing population in the world, the most abundant germplasm resources of increased demand in this region for animal forage and domestic animals in the world, products must be associated with decreasing which can serve as the basis of new breeds. emissions per unit of product, and by con- Improvements of forage and animal trolling the increase in emissions through breeds will decrease GHG emissions and establishing and improving mixed farming resource use per unit of animal product systems. Otherwise, a vicious circle in - (Hou et al., 2009). High sugar ryegrass leads evitably emerges between mitigation and to a 7.5–21.0% increase in milk yield and a adaptation of global climate change. 7.1–25.7% decrease in excrement nitrogen (N) (Cheng et al., 2011). Re-seeding native grass species with those with higher 10.4 Approaches to Mitigating productivity or C allocation to deeper roots, Greenhouse Gases through or introducing legumes into grazing lands, Managing Integrated Farming can all promote soil C in rangeland soils and Systems reduce N emissions (Kell, 2011; Waha et al., 2013). Biological N fi xation of the latter Asian food systems, from rangeland utiliz- displaces the need for fertilizer N, which was ation to fertilizer manufacturing to food often used to rehabilitate the seriously storage and packaging, are responsible for degraded alpine meadow in the Tibetan- nearly one-third of all human-caused GHG Qinghai Plateau, Mongolian Plateau and emissions (Vermeulen et al., 2012). However, mountainous rangeland of inland arid in terms of the components of integrated regions (Hou et al., 2009, 2013, unpublished farming system, GHG emissions could be results). mitigated through the use of management practices on a farm scale, including rangeland management, switching to no-till, reducing The adaptive farming system fallow, managing species composition on In the face of global climate change, an grazing lands, adjusting management of adaptive farming system supplies oppor- nitrogen fertilizer and improved manure tunities, not only for new crop varieties and management. livestock breeds to manifest more sustain- able productivity but also for more innovative management practices to be 10.4.1 Rangeland management implemented. In most Asian regions, especially in developed regions of eastern Rangeland is the dominant component of Asia and South-east Asia, integrated crop– mixed farming systems and also plays a key livestock farming systems possess higher role in the livestock production of agro- productivity and stability under conditions silvopastoral systems. One of the main of global climate change through the contributors to the emission of GHGs from coupling of plant production and animal rangeland is the severe degradation owing to production, promoting effi cient use of biotic overgrazing and cultivation for crop pro- and abiotic resources, prolonging the eco- duction (Fig. 10.3a). Th e latter operation nomic chain and strengthening the inter- accounted for 40% of the loss of world total action of all components (Hou et al., 2009; soil organic carbon (SOC) from 1850 to 1980 Burney et al., 2013). (Houghton, 1995). Degradation of rangeland Th e inevitable evolution of agricultural has caused 39% loss of biomass C and 25.4% systems in Asia towards enhanced loss of SOC, equal to 0.8–1.5 times the total productivity due to structural optimization cropland SOC in China. or better application of existing breeds and Exclusion plays an important role in technologies is generally associated with the rehabilitating the carbon of vegetation and integration of crop production and livestock the soils of rangeland (Fig. 10.3b), but long- 162 Chapter 10

(a) ) –2 Organic C (km m

(b)

Fig. 10.3. Organic C content density (a) of typical steppe under different grazing intensities (adapted from Wang and Li, 1995) and (b) following grazing exclusion of typical steppe and alpine meadow (adapted from Jia et al., 2009.) term exclusion increases grazing pressure in integration of livestock production and the other areas of the rangeland and destroys forage crop production is necessary, both to the continuity of nomadic culture and balance the livestock demand and feed coupled human–rangeland systems (Hou supply on the range and to reduce the and Yang, 2006; Ren et al., 2011). Systemic grazing pressure of rangeland while Adaptation of Mixed Crop–Livestock Systems in Asia 163

improving the livelihood of ranchers. Forage portion of livestock emissions results from crops could be planted in farming regions poor manure management (Steinfeld et al., and then transported to pastoral regions 2006). Th e dramatically increased livestock after harvest and made into hay, and could production, which has been caused by the be sown in pastoral regions without sharp rise both in population and living destroying the fragile environment through standards, is leading to increasing volumes controlling the cultivated area of rangeland. of manure to be managed, which are a source of methane (CH4) and N2O (Hou et al., 2008). Net emissions of CH4 and N2O 10.4.2 Nitrogen fertilizer application in depend not only on manure composition crop production and local management practices with respect to preliminary treatment, storage and fi eld Th e application of fertilizer is a common application but also on ambient climatic approach for enhancing the productivity and conditions. Th e diversity of livestock pro- quality of sown pasture, which is important duction systems and their associated to livestock production in all mixed farming manure management has resulted in various systems. Because the applied N is not always patterns of nutrient management and used effi ciently by forage crops (Galloway et environmental regulation (Jungbluth et al., al., 2003), improving N-use effi ciency can 2001; Heitschmidt et al., 2004; Garnett, signifi cantly reduce emissions of nitrous 2009). Growth in livestock populations is oxide (N2O) generated by soil microbes projected to occur mainly in intensive pro- largely from surplus N, and can indirectly duction systems where the largest potential reduce emissions of CO2 from industrial N for GHG mitigation may be found (Jarvis fertilizer production (Schlesinger, 1999). and Pain, 1994; Hao et al., 2001; Jungbluth Operations in mixed farming systems that et al., 2001). In extensive systems, there is can improve N-use effi ciency include the almost no excessive emission of CH4 from following: (i) precisely estimating application manure because it is promptly involved in rates based on the need of the forage crop in the N cycle of grazing systems. Th ere is no crop production systems and the need of confl ict between eff orts to improve food and livestock in grazed sown pasture, together feed production and those to reduce GHG with a further need of economic profi t; (ii) emissions from manure management. How- using slow-release N fertilizer forms; (iii) ever, emissions from manure might be using nitrifi cation inhibitors, which could curtailed, both by altering feeding practices slow the microbial processes eff ectively, and by composting the manure in livestock leading to N2O form ation; (iv) avoiding time pen-feeding systems (VanderZaag et al., delays between N application and plant N 2013). uptake, mostly through improving the integration of grazing and N application with irrigation or rainfall; (v) placing N fertilizers 10.4.4 Livestock management into the soil more precisely, to make it more accessible to the roots of forage crops on the Livestock are important sources of CH4 premise of not reducing the profi t of the because most CH4 is produced primarily by whole farming system; and (vi) avoiding enteric fermentation. Adjusting feeding excess N applications, or eliminating N ration can reduce GHG emissions from applications under conditions of economic livestock through feeding more concentrates, benefi t (Smith et al., 2008). which may increase daily CH4 emissions per capita, but almost invariably reduce the CH4 emissions per kilogram of feed intake and 10.4.3 Manure management per kilogram of product (Smith et al., 2008). High sugar ryegrass has been fed to Livestock is responsible for 18% of GHG ruminant livestock because it could increase emissions in the world, and a signifi cant N-use effi ciency in the intestine and reduce 164 Chapter 10

N excretion. Feed additives such as coconut and annually trampled soil; (iv) avoiding or oil and garlic in the ration can also decrease reducing the re-cultivation of fallow the GHG emissions of ruminant livestock. cropland and the cultivation of rangeland; However, the eff ect of chemical additives in and (v) reducing the intensity of cropping livestock rations on the food safety of systems can also reduce GHG emissions humans is widely feared in the developed because of less inputs of chemicals and countries of Asia. Uncertainties also remain fertilizers (Smith et al., 2008). as to the balance of benefi ts resulting from reduced animal numbers or younger age at slaughter for meat production, against how 10.5 Conclusion the practice aff ects emissions when producing and transporting concentrates In most of the developing countries of Asia, and other fodders, and the cost of adjusting extensively mixed farming systems are the livestock production system from one to currently predominant. Compared with the another. intensively mixed farming systems mainly operated in the developed countries of the world, extensive systems are characterized 10.4.5 Management of sown pasture by low input, low output and low risk (Hou et al., 2009). Extensive systems manage Improved agronomic practices that increase carbon more positively than intensive yield and generate higher inputs of residue C systems, because the low input of carbon is can result in increased soil C storage (Follett associated with low GHG emissions (Table et al., 2001). Th e practices that could be used 10.1). are as follows: (i) growing improved crop However, there is an increasing shift from species or varieties such as high-sugar extensive mixed crop–livestock systems to ryegrass; (ii) expanding crop/forage rota- intensive systems, which has resulted from tions which mitigate GHG emissions by the increased demands for both quantity and multiple pathways, including reducing quality of animal products, and has resulted chemicals for the control of weeds, diseases in serious environmental problems, such as and pests, limiting grain crop production, pollution of both underground and surface most of which is for livestock production in water. Currently, environmental problems developed countries, and promoting water- arising from agricultural operations are one use effi ciency in arid and semi-arid regions; of the great challenges facing the human (iii) planting perennial forage crops which race, both in Asia and in other continents. allocate more C below-ground and reduce Th is threatens the sustainability of farming GHG emissions both from annual sowing systems, long-term food security and carbon

Table 10.1. Comparison between carbon inputs and outputs in extensive and intensive mixed crop– livestock systems. Carbon Extensive systems Intensive systems Input Very low High Component of input Human labour Chemicals, machinery, fuel energy, human labour Output Low High Component of output Animal products Plant products, animal products Output/input High Low

Balance Positive Negative Risk of management Low High Response to climate change Resilient Susceptible Adaptation of Mixed Crop–Livestock Systems in Asia 165

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