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Goals, Affect and Appraisal Within the Stressful Transaction Stacey GOALS, AFFECT AND APPRAISAL WITHIN THE STRESSFUL TRANSACTION STACEY LEIBOWITZ-LEVY A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Johannesburg, 2008 ii DECLARATION I declare that this thesis is my own, unaided work. It is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any other degree or examination in any other university. Stacey Leibowitz-Levy __________________________ Date ________________ iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to the following people: • Professor Gill Eagle, my supervisor, for her friendship, patience, care, kindness and excellent supervision. • Mike Greyling for his valued statistical input. • Nicky Israel and Gillian Fincheliscu for providing feedback on the ANOVA analyses. • Professor Norman Duncan for his understanding. • Kate for her interest and support. • Nina for her encouragement, understanding and moral support. • Hayley for helping me both through kind words and deeds. • Mum for her love and encouragement. • Pnina and Eli for their tremendous support especially in taking care of the kids. • My kids who stoically tolerated the fallout from the Perfectly Horrible Document. • My one and only Love… For all you are and all you do for me. iv ABSTRACT This study explored how personal strivings constructs of Goal Conflict and Complementarity and primary appraisal dimensions of Motivational Relevance and Congruence (separately and in combination), related across time to immediate and long-term effects of a stressful transaction. The study was located within the transactional model of stress and integrated aspects of motivational theory, focusing on the theoretical position that within the stressful transaction the relationship between motivational factors and the individual response to an event is mediated by cognitive processes, including appraisal. Advances in transactional theory highlight the role of motivational factors (such as personal strivings) as linked to primary appraisal in the form of Motivational Relevance and Congruence. The utility of personal strivings in exploring the role of motivational factors in the stress process were highlighted. Despite an increasing theoretical focus on motivation and appraisal, research in the area is limited. Data was collected for the study through the administration of questionnaires to university students (N=152) prior to (time 1) and into (time 2) an examination period. The questionnaires used a range of self- report measures. Correlations, partial correlations and ANOVAs were used to analyze the data. The findings indicated that Goal Complementarity and Conflict directly influenced primary appraisal processes but not affective and wellbeing outcomes. It was proposed that primary appraisal processes were the conduit through which the impact of Goal Complementarity and Conflict were expressed within the stressful transaction. The results also suggested the impact of anticipatory Motivational Relevance which seemed to imply a highly “loaded” event with negative affective and long-term consequences into the event. Subjects entering the event wit h an “optimistic” demeanour indicated by high anticipatory v Congruence and positive affect had increased Congruence into the event with consequent amplified positive emotions and dampened negative effects. Subjects with high anticipatory Relevance and low Congruence across the event had relatively higher scores on negative outcomes. High anticipatory Relevance and Congruence was associated with negative immediate and long-term outcomes into the event. High Relevance Congruence was generally associated with a strong emotional response, which also elicited strong positive emotion as the event unfolded. Subjects with low Relevance did not seem to hold as strong an investment in the event and reported reduced emotions and symptomology. These findings were discussed in relation to the stress, appraisal and motivation literature and their limitations and implications were explored. KEY WORDS: Transactional model, Goals, Appraisal, Affect, Wellbeing, Personal strivings, Goal Conflict, Goal Complementarity, Motivational Relevance, Motivational Congruence. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS page DECLARATION ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii ABSTRACT iv TABLE OF CONTENTS vi LIST OF TABLES xvi LIST OF FIGURES xvii CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION 1 1. THE HISTORICAL LOCATION AND EPISTEMOLOGICAL BASIS 3 OF THE STUDY 2. STRESS: LAZARUS’S TRANSACTIONAL MODEL 7 2.1. Goals, appraisal and emotion in the stressful transaction: 9 Conceptual advances 3. MOTIVATION: EMMONS’S NOTION OF PERSONAL STRIVINGS 13 4. CONCLUDING COMMENT 15 CHAPTER TWO - THE CONCEPT OF STRESS 17 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE NOTION OF STRESS 17 2. THE STIMULUS-BASED APPROACH 19 3. THE RESPONSE-BASED APPROACH 21 4. THE TRANSACTIONAL APPROACH 23 4.1. Cox's theory 26 4.2. Lazarus’s theory 27 4.2.1. Core features of Lazarus’s approach 28 4.2.2. Appraisal 36 4.2.3. Appraisal and emotion 40 vii 4.2.4. Coping 42 5. CONCLUDING COMMENTS 45 CHAPTER THREE - CONCEPTUAL ADVANCES WITHIN 46 TRANSACTIONAL THEORY 1. INTRODUCTION 46 2. AN OVERVIEW OF THE ADVANCES 47 3. OPERATIONALISING THESE CONCEPTUAL ADVANCES 52 3.1. Environmental and individual variables 52 3.1.1. Environmental variables 54 3.1.2. Individual variables 55 3.2. Appraisal 59 3.2.1. Primary appraisal 62 3.2.2. Secondary appraisal 63 3.3. Appraisal and emotion 66 3.3.1. Locating the appraisal and emotion dimensions of harm/loss, 68 threat, challenge and benefit 3.3.2. The role of primary appraisal in the generation of emotion 71 (i) Appraisal as a dynamic process 72 (ii) The role of specific goals 73 4. CONCEPTUAL LIMITATIONS OF THE TRANSACTIONAL MODEL 75 4.1. Going beyond cognitive processes 75 4.2. Socio-cultural aspects 76 4.3. The primacy of appraisal versus emotion 76 4.4. Linear causality and the transactional model 77 5. CONCLUDING COMMENT 79 viii CHAPTER FOUR - MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS AND 81 THE APPLICATION OF PERSONAL STRIVINGS TO THE TRANSACTIONAL MODEL 1. MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS AND THE STRESS PROCESS 81 2. THEORETICALLY CONTEXTUALING THE PERSONAL 83 STRIVINGS CONSTRUCT 2.1. Locating personal strivings within motivational theory 83 2.2. Locating personal strivings within personality theory 86 2.3. Goal theories 88 3. PERSONAL STRIVINGS 91 3.1. Personal strivings and the transactional model 92 3.2. Defining personal strivings 94 3.3. Personal strivings and control theory 97 3.4. Personal strivings and emotion 99 3.5. Nomothetic constructs 103 3.5.1. Goal Conflict 105 4. LIMITATIONS OF PERSONAL STRIVINGS THEORY 110 4.1. Motives and conscious awareness 110 4.2. A reductionist and mechanistic understanding of 112 human goals and motivation 4.3. Defining personal strivings 113 5. CONCLUDING COMMENT 115 CHAPTER FIVE - APPRAISAL AND MOTIVATION STUDIES 116 RELATING TO STRESS RESEARCH 1. RESEARCH RELATING TO APPRAISAL 117 ix 1.1. Relevance and congruence - general studies 118 1.2. Antecedent variables and appraisal 122 1.3. Appraisal and stress 124 1.3.1. Appraisal, affect and stress 124 1.3.2. Associations with antecedent and outcome variables 129 1.3.3. Appraisal, affect and stress - variations over time 132 1.4. Concluding comments: Appraisal and stress research 137 2. RESEARCH RELATING TO GOAL CONSTRUCTS 138 2.1. Personal goals and well-being 138 2.2. Goal conflict studies 142 2.3. Goal complementarity studies 145 2.4. Interactional models relating to goal content 147 2.5. Goal conflict and stress 150 2.6. Concluding comments: Research into goal constructs 152 3. THE CURRENT STUDY 152 CHAPTER SIX – METHOD 154 1. RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY 154 2. AIMS 155 3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 157 4. RESEARCH DESIGN 162 4.1. Methodology in stress research and the current research design 162 4.2. Defining constructs 165 5. SAMPLE 166 6. INSTRUMENTS 169 6.1. Biographical questions 171 x 6.2. Environment /event 171 6.3. Motivational Factors 172 6.3.1. Generation of strivings list 172 6.3.2. Striving instrumentality matrix 174 6.4. Cognitive processes 178 6.4.1. Goal appraisal measure 178 6.5. Immediate Effects 181 6.5.1. Emotion scale 181 6.6. Long-term effects 183 6.6.1. The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) 183 7. DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE 185 8. STATISTICAL ANALYSES 188 8.1. Inter-item consistency and descriptive statistics 188 8.2. Chi-squared tests and ANOVA procedures 188 8.3. Exploring associations between variables 189 8.4. Exploring interrelationships between variables 189 8.4.1. Testing for mediation 190 8.4.2. One-way ANOVA 193 9. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 197 CHAPTER SEVEN – RESULTS 199 1. INTER-ITEM CONSISTENCY AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 199 1.1. Inter-item consistency 199 1.2. Examination experience of subjects 201 1.3. Descriptive Statistics 201 2. RELATIONS BETWEEN PERSONAL STRIVINGS CONSTRUCTS 207 xi AND THE STRESS PROCESS 2.1. Associations between Goal Complementarity and other variables 207 2.2. Associations between Goal Conflict and other variables 208 3. INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PERSONAL STRIVINGS 209 CONSTRUCTS AND THE STRESS PROCESS 3.1. Mediator relationships with Goal Complementarity 210 3. 2. Mediator relationships with Goal Conflict 212 4. RELATIONS BETWEEN PRIMARY APPRAISAL AND THE 213 STRESS PROCESS 4.1. Associations between Motivational Relevance and other variables 213 4.2. Associations between Motivational Congruence and other variables 215 5. INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PRIMARY APPRAISAL 217 PROCESSES AND THE STRESS PROCESS 5.1. Mediator relationships with Motivational Relevance 219 5.2. Mediator relationships with Motivational Congruence 220 5.3. Motivational Relevance-Congruence groupings 222 6. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 228 6.1. Results regarding Goal Conflict and Goal Complementarity 228 6.2. Results regarding Motivational Relevance and Congruence 229 CHAPTER EIGHT – DISCUSSION 233 1. INTER-ITEM CONSISTENCY AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 233 1.1. Inter-item consistency 233 1.2. Descriptive statistics 236 1.2.1. Goal Conflict and Complementarity 236 1.2.2. Primary appraisal 238 xii 1.2.3. Emotions 241 1.2.4. Symptomology 243 1.2.5. Summary regarding the descriptive statistics 247 2.
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