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Springfield College Library Manuscript Thesis SPRINGFIELD COLLEGE LIBRARY MANUSCRIPT THESIS The manuscript copies of master’s theses and doctoral dissertations deposited in the Library of Springfield College are available for appropriate usage. If passages are copied, proper credit must be given to the author in any written or published work. Extensive copying or publication of materials should be done only with the con¬ sent of the Director of the School of Graduate Studies. William N. Miller This thesis or dissertation by has been used accordingly by the persons listed below. (Librarians are asked to secure the signature of each user.) Name and Address College Date SPRINGFIELD COLLEGE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES December, 1997 Dissertation We Recommend that the prepared under our direction by William N. Miller ATHLETIC INJURY: MOOD DISTURBANCES AND HARDINESS entitled OF INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETES be accepted as fulfilling the research requirement for the degree of Doctor of Physical Education ATHLETIC INJURY: MOOD DISTURBANCES AND HARDINESS OF INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETES A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of Springfield College In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Physical Education by William N. Miller December 1997 IX DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my mother, Barbara N. Connolly, whose inspiration and encouragement instilled in me the desire to always pursue my goals and dreams in life. /I'D m iwi up- 3 Ill ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to the members of my dissertation committee for all of their help and guidance: Dr. Mimi Murray, Chairperson, Dr. Mary Ann Coughlin, and Dr. William Sullivan. I would also like to extend a special thank you to Professor Charlie Redmond for his input and insight as both a professor and as an athletic trainer. I would like to thank Dr. Christa Winter and Dr. Daryl Arroyo for their assistance and comments while serving as my readers. I would like to thank Dr. Betty Mann for her support and guidance throughout my three years in the doctoral program. I would also like to thank Dr. Britt Brewer for his suggestions and insight regarding my dissertation, and Dr. Ken Wall for his interest and concern throughout my doctoral studies. Behind the scenes of any dissertation or thesis at Springfield College is the library staff. For me, their assistance.and support was a tremendous asset. The assistance provided by Mr. Bill Stetson was insurmountable regarding my review of literature, not to mention the detective work he did regarding the hardiness construct. In addition, I would also like to extend my appreciation to Jim Del Re, Ron Jackson, Mike Kennedy, Bob Kudlay, Linda Matson, Rachael Naismith, Sheri Sochrin, and Diane Walsh for all of their assistance, support, and encouraging words. IV To two very special friends and peers, Tracey D. Fogarty, and Craig Poisson. Thank you both so very much for your humor, assistance, encouragement, and emotional support (which included lending me an ear when necessary)! Thank you to my two closest friends and confidants back in California, Craig Castle, and Paul Salazar. Without "Boots", you know how much your friendship has meant to me! And to Paul, you will always stand tall in my mind. Thank you to all of the student-athletes who agreed to participate in my study, and to the athletics directors and coaches who gave me the necessary permission. A very special thank you to the athletic trainers who served as liaisons throughout my study, and also for helping me collect the posttest data when necessary. I only wish I could mention you by name, but you know who your are. Also, to the student-athletes I worked with over the years at St. Ambrose University and Cal State Northridge. You helped inspire me to learn more about the psychological consequences associated with athletic injury. Most of all, I would like to thank my grandmother, Maxine Nathanson, and my father, William R. Miller, for their unconditional love and support! December 1997 W.N.M. V Table of Contents Page Dedication ii Acknowledgments iii List of Tables viii List of Figures x Abstract 2 Introduction 3 Method 9 Participants 9 Measuring Instruments 10 Profile of Mood States 10 Personal Views Survey 12 Procedures 15 Statistical Analyses 17 Results 18 Profile of Mood States 18 Personal Views Survey 23 Relationship between POMS and PVS 25 Discussion 27 References 40 Appendix A. RESEARCH DESIGN 62 Statement of the Problem 63 Definition of Terms 63 Delimitations 67 VI Page Appendix A. RESEARCH DESIGN (continued) Limitations 68 Hypotheses 68 Appendix B. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 71 Psychological Response to Athletic Injury 75 Models of Athletic Injury 79 Stage Models 80 Cognitive Appraisal Models . 82 Interactive Models 87 Emotional Response to Athletic Injury 93 Profile of Mood States 104 Test Development 105 Validity and Reliability of the POMS 106 POMS and Athletic Injury 110 The Hardiness Construct 118 Definition and Theory of Hardiness 118 Hardiness and Executives 124 Hardiness in Sport and Exercise 131 Personal Views Survey 137 Validity and Reliability of the PVS 141 Appendix C. INFORMED CONSENT 146 Appendix D. PROFILE OF MOOD STATES 148 Appendix E. PERSONAL VIEWS SURVEY 152 Appendix F. LETTER TO THE ATHLETICS DIRECTORS .... 157 vii Page Appendix G. LETTER TO THE COACHES 159 Appendix H. LETTER TO THE ATHLETIC TRAINERS 161 Appendix I. DEMOGRAPHIC FORM 163 Appendix J. ATHLETIC INJURY QUESTIONNAIRE 164 Appendix K. RAW DATA 165 Appendix L. ADDITIONAL STATISTICAL TABLES 180 BIBLIOGRAPHY 190 Vlll List of Tables Table Page 1. Demographic Information for the Overall Sample . 50 2. Demographic Information for the Posttest Sample 51 3. Observed Means and Standard Deviations on the POMS Subscales for Injured and Noninjured Athletes Pre and Posttest . 52 4. Observed Means and Standard Deviations on the PVS Subscales and Total Hardiness for Injured and Noninjured Athletes 53 5. Description of the Specific Injuries for the Injured Group 180 6. Mean T Scores and Minimum and Maximum T Scores on the POMS Subscales for Injured and Noninjured Athletes Pre and Posttest . ... 181 7. Basic Assumptions for the Two-Way, Mixed Factorial MANOVA 182 8.2x2 MANOVA Comparing Scores on the 6 POMS Subscales for Injury Status and Time of Assessment for Intercollegiate Athletes 183 9. Posttest Univariate F Ratios Comparing Injured and Noninjured Intercollegiate Athletes on the Six Subscales of the POMS 184 10. Injured Group Univariate F Ratios Comparing Scores on the Pretest and Posttest Administrations of the Six POMS Subscales .... 185 11. 2x2 ANOVA with Repeated Measures on One Factor Comparing POMS Total Mood Disturbance Scores for Injured and Noninjured Athletes at Pretest and Posttest 186 12. Simple Effects Tests for Total Mood Disturbance Across Time of Assessment (A Factor) and Injury Status (B Factor) 187 IX List of Tables (continued) Page 13. Basic Assumptions for the One-Way, Independent Groups MANOVA 188 14. Independent Groups i-Test'Comparing Hardiness for Injured and Noninjured Intercollegiate Athletes-- 189 X List of Figures Figure Page 1. A line graph depicting the profile of POMS scores for injured and noninjured athletes at pretest and posttest 54 2. The interaction chart of the mean 'Vigor-Activity' scores 55 3. The interaction chart of the mean 'Anger-Hostility' scores 56 4. An interaction chart for the mean POMS Total Mood Disturbance Scores 57 5. A scattergram depicting the relationship between the baseline measurements of Total Mood Disturbance and Hardiness among athletes in the sample 58 6. A scattergram depicting the relationship between postinjury Total Mood Disturbance and Hardiness among injured athletes 59 7. A scattergram excluding the outlier data, depicting the relationship between postinjury Total Mood Disturbance and Hardiness among injured athletes 60 8. A line graph depicting the profile of POMS scores for the total pretest sample of athletes in the present study, compared to the typical iceberg profile 61 Athletic Injury 1 Running head: MOOD DISTURBANCES AND HARDINESS OF ATHLETES Athletic Injury: Mood Disturbances and. Hardiness of Intercollegiate Athletes William N. Miller Springfield College Athletic Injury 2 Abstract In a prospective study, postinjury mood disturbances, in, addition to levels of hardiness, and the relationship between hardiness and mood disturbances, were examined. Among 244 male and 92 female intercollegiate athletes from the sports of lacrosse and track and field, 24 sustained injuries lasting a minimum of 2 days. The participants completed a demographic form, the POMS, and the PVS during the early season. Following injury of at least two days in length, the POMS was completed again by the injured athletes in addition to noninjured athletes selected to serve as a comparison. Following a multiple comparison analysis for a significant 2x2 mixed factorial MANOVA interaction, injured athletes were found to incur decreased levels of 'Vigor-Activity' from pretest to posttest, in addition to lower levels than noninjured athletes at posttest. Injured athletes also incurred increased levels of 'Anger-Hostility' from pretest to posttest. However, the noninjured group reported similar scores on these constructs from pretest to posttest assessments. No differences were found in levels of hardiness, or the three subscales of hardiness of injured and noninjured athletes. Regarding the relationship between hardiness and mood disturbances, as individual levels of hardiness increased levels of mood disturbance decreased for the total sample (n = 336). Athletic Injury 3 Athletic Injury: Mood Disturbances and Hardiness of Intercollegiate Athletes Injury is common in sport with an estimated 12 million sport related injuries treated annually by physicians in the t United States (Steele, 1996). The prevention and care of athletic injuries has historically emphasized physical attributes (Petitpas & Danish, 1995; Rose & Jevne, 1993; Wiese-Bjornstal, Smith, & LaMott, 1995). The assumption has been made that when an athlete is physically rehabilitated, he/she is fully prepared to safely return to physical activity.
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