CHAPTER 12

Status of Studies and Conservation in Bhutan

Jigme Tshelthrim Wangyal and Indraneil Das

I. Introduction VI. Conservation

II. Physiography VII. of Bhutan III. Climate and Vegetation VIII. Acknowledgements IV. Drainage Pattern IX. References V. Aspects of Bhutanese Attitudes

Abbreviations: asl = above sea level; CITES = Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora; FAO = Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations; NGO = non-governmental organization; RSPN = Royal Society for the Protection of Nature; WWF = World Wildlife Fund.

201 I. INTRODUCTION

The Himalayan Kingdom of Bhutan, referred to as ‘Drukyul’, or the Land of the Thunder Dragon, by the Bhutanese is a small (area: 38,394 sq km, or slightly larger than Switzerland) landlocked nation, situated between China (Tibet) and India, straddling the southern slopes of the eastern Himalayas. The Kingdom has an east-west extent of about 300 km and a north-south extent of 170 km, and comprises mostly evergreen forest- clad mountains. The country has a long (470 km) border with Tibet (China’s Xizang Autonomous Region) to the north and northwest and a longer combined one (605 km) with the Indian state of Sikkim to the west, Poschim Banga (formerly, West Bengal) to the southwest, Assam to the south and southeast, and Arunachal Pradesh to the east. Sikkim, a tiny state of the Indian union separates Bhutan from Nepal, while Poschim Banga separates it from Bangladesh. The traditional border with Tibet follows the Chumbi valley watershed in the northwest and the crest of the Himalayas in the north while the border with India in the south is dictated by a treaty with British India in the Nineteenth Century; that frontier essentially follows the contours made by the Himalayan foothills with the plains. The border with Tibet is traditional, following the watershed of the Chumbi Valley in the northwest and the crest of the Himalayas in the north. Estimates of forest cover in the Kingdom vary from about 81% (Anonymous 2011), to 55% (Meyfroidt and Lambin 2010). According to the latter source, closed or partially closed forests account for 22% of Bhutan, and about seven percent is under permanent snow and glaciers. About three percent is cultivated or or consists of agricultural land, while another four percent is counted as meadows and pastures. The rest of the land is either barren, rocky, or scrubland (Anonymous 2012).

II. PHYSIOGRAPHY

Bhutan is a mountainous country (Figs. 1 & 2) with elevations ranging from 160 m to above 7,000 m asl. Jhomo Lhari, the highest peak, overlooks Chumbi Valley towards the west and is 7314 m asl, with 19 other peaks exceeding 7000 m asl. The snow-capped Great Himalayan Range has peaks exceeding 7500 m asl and extends along the Bhutan-China border in the north and consists of many glaciated mountain peaks with an arctic climate at the highest elevations. Drained by snow-fed rivers, alpine areas in the north provide pasture for livestock tended by a sparse population that practices transhumance (described as seasonal human migration, with their livestock, between summer and winter pastures, especially in montane regions). The Inner Himalayas are the southward spurs of the Great Himalayan Range. Mount Jowo Durshing, The Black Mountains, in central Bhutan, form a watershed between two major river systems, the Mo Chhu and the Drangme Chhu. Peaks in the Black Mountains range between 1500 m and 2700 m asl and fast-flowing rivers have carved out spectacular gorges in the lower mountane areas. The woodlands of the central region provide most of Bhutan’s valuable forest production. Eastern Bhutan is divided by another southward spur. Western Bhutan has fertile, cultivated valleys and terraced river basins. In the south, the Southern Hills, or Siwalik Hills, forming the foothills of the Himalayas, are covered with dense deciduous forest; alluvial lowland river valleys are interspersed with mountains that reach ca. 1500 m asl. The foothills descend into subtropical plains.

III. CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

Bhutan’s climate is as varied as its elevations and, like most of tropical/subtropical Asia, is affected by the monsoons. Western Bhutan is particularly affected by monsoons that bring between 60 and 90 percent of the region’s rainfall. The climate is humid and subtropical in the southern plains and foothills, temperate in the inner Himalayan valleys of the southern and central regions, and cold in the north, with year-round snow on the main Himalayan summits. Temperatures vary according to elevation. In Thimphu, the capital city located at 2320 m asl in west-central Bhutan, temperatures range from approximately 14° to 25°C during the monsoon season (June to September) but drop to -3° to 14°C in mid-winter (January). Most of the central portion of the country experiences a cool, temperate climate year round. In the south, a hot, humid climate helps maintain a rather even temperature range of 15–30°C year-round, although temperatures sometimes exceed 35°C in the valleys

202 Fig. 1. Relief map of Bhutan.

Fig. 2. Type of landscape forming the habitat of species such as Duttaphrynus himalayanus (Günther 1864) in central Bhutan. during the summer. Annual precipitation ranges widely. In the severe climate of the north, there is ca. 40 mm of annual precipitation, primarily snow. In the temperate central regions, a yearly average of about 1000 mm is more common, and 7800 mm per year has been registered at some locations in the humid, subtropical south, thereby ensuring dense tropical forests. Low soil-moisture content appears to limit the downslope extension of broad-leaved trees below 1650 m asl, while low temperatures of the coldest month restrict the upslope extension

203 of evergreen broad-leaved species above 3000 m asl (Wangda and Ohsawa 2006). Thimphu experiences dry winter months (December through February) and almost no precipitation, until March, when rainfall averages 20 mm per month and increases steadily thereafter to a high of 220 mm in August, for a total annual rainfall of nearly 650 mm. Bhutan’s generally dry spring starts in early March and lasts until mid-April. Summer weather commences in mid-April, with occasional showers, and continues through the early monsoon rains of late June. The summer monsoon lasts from late June through late September with heavy rains from the southwest. The monsoon weather, blocked from its northward progress by the Himalayas, brings heavy rains, high humidity, flash-floods and landslides, and numerous misty, overcast days. Autumn, from late September or early October to late November, follows the rainy season. It is characterized by bright, sunny days and some early snowfalls at higher elevations. From late November until March, winter sets in, with frost over much of the country and snowfall common above elevations of 3000 m asl. The Winter (Northeast) Monsoon brings gale-force winds down through high mountain passes. There is a pronounced difference in the vegetation cover among three different zones and it is mostly due to the varied climatic conditions across the Kingdom. The southern foothills are mostly covered by dense deciduous trees, while the inner regions are dotted by a variety of plants, flowers, and trees including birch, pine, chestnut, oak, apples, peaches, and plums. The northern part with the tundra type of climate allows coniferous trees and other alpine growth, such as magnolia, rhododendrons, birch, fir, and spruce. The vegetation is an overall expression of various ecological factors, and offers a window to understanding the montane environment. The vegetation and flora of Bhutan have been described by Ohsawa (1987, 1991), Sargent (1985), Sargent et al. (1985) and Grierso and Long (1983–2000).

IV. DRAINAGE PATTERN

Fed by fresh snow each winter and slow melting in the summer, the glaciers bring millions of litres of freshwater to Bhutan and its downstream areas each year. Bhutan has four major river systems: the Drangme Chhu, the Puna Tsang Chhu, the Wang Chhu, and the Amo Chhu. Each flows swiftly out of the Himalayas, southerly through the Duars to join the Brahmaputra River in India. The largest river system, the Drangme Chhu, flows southwesterly from the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh and has three major tributaries, the Drangme Chhu, Mangde Chhu, and Chamkhar Chhu, forming the Drangme Chhu basin. In the Duars, where eight tributaries join, the Drangme Chhu is referred to as the Manas Chhu. The Puna Tsang Chhu (320 km long) rises in northwestern Bhutan as the Mo Chhu and Pho Chhu, which are fed by the snows and glaciers from the Great Himalayan Range. These rivers flow southward to Punakha, where they join to form the Puna Tsang Chhu, which in turn flows southward into India’s state of Poschim Banga. The Wang Chhu (370 km) flows in a southeasterly direction through west- central Bhutan, draining the Ha, Paro, and Thimphu valleys, continuing through the foothills before it enters India’s Poschim Banga State. The smallest river system, the Torsa Chhu, known as the Amo Chhu in its northern reaches, flows through western Bhutan, before broadening near Phuntsholing and then flowing intoIndia. Glaciers in northern Bhutan cover about seven percent of the total surface area of the country, and are important renewable sources of water for Bhutan’s rivers.

V. ASPECTS OF BHUTANESE ATTITUDES

Until recently, the human inhabitants of the Kingdom of Bhutan lived in relative isolation from the rest of the world, which presumably helped preserve its deep Buddhist traditions, importance of the family, and pristine landscapes. It is one of the last countries in the world to introduce television and the internet to its people (in 1999). Bhutanese manners dictate that you should refuse food when offered.m The tradition is to say the words, “meshu meshu”, and cover your mouth with your hands. You can give in, though, after two or three offers. Bhutan is also the only nation in the world where the sale of tobacco is banned. Further, Thimpu is one of just two capital cities in Asia that does not have traffic lights (the other being Pyongyang, North Korea) and Bhutan is the first country in the world with fits populace under specific constitutional obligation to protect the environment and maintain at least 60% of the nation under forest cover in perpetuity.

204 VI. CONSERVATION

In terms of conservation, about 51.4% of the Kingdom is under the protected area network in the form of five national parks, four wildlife sanctuaries, a strict nature reserve, a botanical garden, and seven biological corridors (Anonymous 2012). It is home to over 5,603 species of vascular plants (of which 105 are endemic), including 369 species of orchids and 46 species of rhododendrons; there are 90 species of mushrooms and 200 species of mammals (of which 27 are globally threatened). However, despite the country’s rich biodiversity, scientific studies have been scarce. Few individuals take interest in these subjects and no institutions are involved for studying amphibians. A greater protection of its species, relative to nearby countries, results as a matter of course from the influence of Mahayana Buddhism, followed by a majority of Bhutan’s human inhabitants. The Forest and Nature Conservation Act of Bhutan 1996 and the Forest and Nature Conservation Rules of Bhutan (2006) explicitly protect all wildlife in Bhutan, currently needing little further intervention vis-a-vis such activities as hunting and exploitation for timber. Special biological corridors have been established, linking the country’s protected areas into a contiguous network (Wikramanayake et al. 2001). Although primarily targeting the megafauna, the increase in the extent of protected areas is naturally relevant to Bhutan’s biodiversity. Nonetheless, challenges that remain include integrating the conservation of biodiversity with the wellbeing of the often-substantial human population dwelling within protected areas (Seeland 2000). Recent developmental activities altering habitats are now seen as threats to the biodiversity of Bhutan, and new legislations currently are being drafted. Regulated activities include collection of firewood, waste disposal, and industrial pollution, with use both of water and land raising concerns in the media (Pelden 2011). The form of agriculture referred to as ‘Tsheri’, as practiced by the Sharchops and Lhotshampa communities, and involving land clearance and intensive farming until it becomes unproductive, has been identified as a harmful practice, and banned since 1969 (Worden 1991; FAO 1987). Although widely condemned, and banned in Bhutan since the late 1990s, shifting cultivation has been argued to be linked to the maintenance of high biodiversity throughout the tropics. Namgyal et al. (2008) recommended that further studies be carried out on biological diversity and on historical anthropogenic disturbances, such as shifting cultivation. Mid-term environmental threats include the rapid melting of the country’s glaciers, and one model predicts their disappearance by the year 2035 (Nayar 2009). Active non-governmental agencies dealing with environmental matters include the only local NGO, the Royal Society for the Protection of Nature (RSPN), as well as the Bhutan chapter of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Significantly, the country has no natural history museums, herbaria, or repositories for biological material, thereby limiting inventories and other activities in resource management and conservation, and no data on population size or conservation status of the local amphibian species are available. Not surprisingly, no amphibian species are listed as protected in the Forest and Nature Conservation Act of Bhutan (Das and Palden 2001).

VII. AMPHIBIANS OF BHUTAN

The amphibian fauna of Bhutan remains poorly explored. At least one species, Scutiger bhutanensis, described by Delorme and Dubois (2001) is endemic to the Kingdom. Tylototriton verrucosus was confirmed by Palden (2003) from Thinleygang (formerly Thimphu) District. Das and Palden (2000) reported the presence of Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider 1799), Amolops marmoratus (Blyth 1855), Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Schneider 1799), Hoplobatrachus tigerinus (Daudin 1802), Fejervarya aff. limnocharis (Gravenhorst 1829), and a “Rana sp.” (currently equivalent to Hylarana sp.) from southern Bhutan. Deuti (2010) reported the presence of Nanorana liebigii (Günther 1860) from Haa District, based on the 1969 collection of the Zoological Survey of India. The record of Raorchestes annandalii (Boulenger 1906) in AmphibiaWeb (2012), is questionable, its source being unspecified. The most recent report on the amphibians of Bhutan is based on a survey of the Punakha-Wangdue Valley; the presence of six species, four of which appear to be either new records for Bhutan, or new species were documented (Wangyal and Gurung 2012). A checklist of the amphibians of Bhutan is shown in Table 1 and a few representative species are portrayed in Figure 3. Research needs for the country include continued

205 A B C

Fig. 3. Representative amphibian species from Bhutan. A. maximus Günther 1858; B. Nanorana liebigii (Günther 1860); C. Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson, 1871.

Table 1. Checklist of the amphibians of Bhutan. Current as of 14 January 2013.

ORDER ANURA

Family Bufonidae Duttaphrynus himalayanus (Günther 1864) Family Microhylidae Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Schneider 1799) Microhyla ornata (Duméril and Bibron 1841) Duttaphrynus cf. stuartii (Smith 1929)

Family Dicroglossidae Family Ranidae Fejervarya limnocharis (Gravenhorst 1829) Amolops formosus (Günther 1876) Hoplobatrachus crassus (Jerdon 1854) Amolops gerbillus (Annandale 1912) Hoplobatrachus tigerinus (Daudin 1802) Amolops himalayanus (Boulenger 1888) Nanorana arnoldi (Dubois 1975) Amolops marmoratus (Blyth 1855) Nanorana blanfordii (Boulenger 1882) Amolops monticola (Anderson 1871) Nanorana liebigii (Günther 1860) Clinotarsus alticola (Boulenger 1882) Nanorana parkeri (Stejneger 1927) Humerana humeralis (Boulenger 1887) Nanorana vicina (Stoliczka 1872) Hylarana nigrovittata (Blyth 1856) Ombrana sikimensis (Jerdon 1870) Hylarana tytleri (Theobald 1868) Occidozyga borealis (Annandale 1912)

Family Megophryidae Family Scutiger bhutanensis (Delorme and Dubois 2001) Polypedates cf. himalayensis (Annandale 1912) Scutiger boulengeri (Bedriaga 1898) Rhacophorus maximus (Günther 1858) Scutiger sikimmensis (Blyth 1855) Rhacophorus tuberculatus (Anderson 1871) Xenophrys major (Boulenger 1908) Theloderma andersoni (Ahl 1927) Xenophrys cf. nankiangensis (Liu and Hu 1966) Theloderma asperum (Boulenger 1886) Xenophrys parva (Boulenger 1893)

ORDER CAUDATA

Family Salamandridae Tylototriton verrucosus (Anderson 1871)

ORDER GYMNOPHIONA

Family Ichthyophiidae Ichthyophis sikkimensis (Taylor 1960)

206 inventories involving the collection of voucher specimens, studies of life histories, and of threats to conservation as development and change arrive in Bhutan.

VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank our respective departments, Bhutan Forest Department and the Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, for supporting our research.

IX. REFERENCES

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