1446 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 140 Tornado Climatology of Finland JENNI RAUHALA Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland HAROLD E. BROOKS NOAA/National Severe Storms Laboratory, Norman, Oklahoma DAVID M. SCHULTZ Centre for Atmospheric Science, School for Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom, and Division of Atmospheric Science, Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, and Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland (Manuscript received 31 July 2011, in final form 8 November 2011) ABSTRACT A tornado climatology for Finland is constructed from 1796 to 2007. The climatology consists of two datasets. A historical dataset (1796–1996) is largely constructed from newspaper archives and other historical archives and datasets, and a recent dataset (1997–2007) is largely constructed from eyewitness accounts sent to the Finnish Meteorological Institute and news reports. This article describes the process of collecting and evaluating possible tornado reports. Altogether, 298 Finnish tornado cases compose the climatology: 129 from the historical dataset and 169 from the recent dataset. An annual average of 14 tornado cases occur in Finland (1997–2007). A case with a significant tornado (F2 or stronger) occurs in our database on average every other year, composing 14% of all tornado cases. All documented tornadoes in Finland have occurred between April and November. As in the neighboring countries in northern Europe, July and August are the months with the maximum frequency of tornado cases, coincident with the highest lightning occurrence both over land and sea. Waterspouts tend to be favored later in the summer, peaking in August. The peak month for significant tornadoes is August. The diurnal peak for tornado cases is 1700–1859 local time. 1. Introduction 2005), a case study of a severe thunderstorm outbreak (Punkka et al. 2006), micrometeorological measure- As late as the mid-1990s, Finnish meteorologists gen- ments of a microburst (Ja¨rvi et al. 2007), a severe hail erally assumed that severe convective storms or torna- climatology (Tuovinen et al. 2009), and several case studies does did not occur in Finland and, if they occurred, they of tornadoes (e.g., Teittinen et al. 2006; Teittinen and were rare. Tornado reports were not collected, and no Ma¨kela¨ 2008; Outinen and Teittinen 2008; Rauhala and research on severe convective storms was published Punkka 2008). Yet, no climatology of tornadoes exists from the 1960s until recently. However, since 1997, severe for Finland. thunderstorms, and especially tornadoes, have received Historically, in Italy and France, scientific papers on a lot of media attention in Finland. Thus, Finnish mete- tornado cases were published by the seventeenth cen- orologists have started to appreciate the occurrence and tury (Peterson 1982). The first research covering all of threat of severe weather. This appreciation has led to Europe was Wegener (1917). Estonia, the southern neigh- several studies on severe weather in Finland: a climatol- bor of Finland, has a long history in tornado research. Be- ogy of mesoscale convective systems (Punkka and Bister tween the wars, tornado research was done by Johannes Letzmann (Peterson 1992, 1995) and recently by Tooming et al. (1995) and Tarand (1995). In Sweden, several case Corresponding author address: Jenni Rauhala, Finnish Meteo- rological Institute, Erik Palme´nin Aukio 1, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101, studies have been performed (Peterson 1998). Helsinki, Finland. More recently, European tornado climatologies have E-mail: jenni.rauhala@fmi.fi been published for Ireland (Tyrrell 2003), the United DOI: 10.1175/MWR-D-11-00196.1 Ó 2012 American Meteorological Society Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/01/21 07:20 AM UTC MAY 2012 R AUHALA ET AL. 1447 Kingdom (Elsom and Meaden 1982; Reynolds 1999; with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud Holden and Wright 2004), Lithuania (Marcinoniene 2003), or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not and the former Soviet Union (Peterson 2000). The always) visible as a funnel cloud.’’ Forbes and Wakimoto climatology of French tornadoes has been studied by (1983) suggested that a vortex would be classified as Dessens and Snow (1989, 1993) and Paul (2001). Tornado a tornado if it were strong enough to cause at least F0 statistics for Germany and Austria have been pub- (Fujita 1981) damage. These definitions were adopted in lished by Dotzek (2001) and Holzer (2001), respectively. the United States where all tornadoes have been classi- Climatologies for the Czech Republic by Setva´ketal. fied by the Fujita scale (F scale), even if there were no (2003) and for Hungary by Szilard (2007) have been damage. Since 2007, tornado intensity has been rated constructed. In southern Europe, tornado climatologies in the United States with the Enhanced Fujita scale (EF have been documented in Greece (Sioutas 2003, 2011), scale; Doswell et al. 2009). On the other hand, water- the Balearic Islands (Gaya´ et al. 2001), Spain (Gaya´ 2011), spouts that do not hit land are not classified as torna- Portugal (Leitao 2003), and Italy (Giaiotti et al. 2007). does in the United States. This definition would be Despite a long history of observing tornadoes, not all a serious restriction for Finland, where almost 188 000 European countries have a database of severe weather lakes cover the landscape. In this work, the following reports. The European Severe Weather Database tornado definition is used: A tornado is a vortex be- (Brooks and Dotzek 2008; Dotzek et al. 2009) has im- tweenacloudandthelandorwatersurface,inwhichthe proved the collection of severe weather reports from connection between the cloud and surface is visible, or around Europe. Because many European national hydro- the vortex is strong enough to cause at least F0 damage. meteorological services are actively developing their This definition allows all waterspouts to be included in severe thunderstorm forecast and warning services the definition of a tornado. This is consistent with the (Rauhala and Schultz 2009), many countries have ac- Glossary of Meteorology (Glickman 2000) definition, knowledged that understanding the local climatology is which defines a waterspout as ‘‘any tornado over a body important for forecasting. of water.’’ Also, tornadoes over land that do not cause The purpose of this article is to create a tornado clima- damage, but have a visible connection between ground tology for Finland. The definition of a tornado, methods and the cloud base, are included. to collect reports, and the credibility evaluation process In this article, we will also make use of the concept of are discussed in section 2. Sections 3–4 summarize the a tornado case. In one tornado case, there might be many geographical and intensity distributions of tornado cases, tornadoes. For example, several tornadoes might occur and sections 5–6 summarize the monthly and diurnal dis- near each other (e.g., within the same storm, along the tributions. Section 7 concludes this article. same boundary, etc.), but this would be classified as one tornado case. This concept improves the database be- cause, in several waterspout cases, for example, the 2. Data exact number, location, or timing of each individual This section describes the development of the Finnish tornado is not known. Because waterspouts often occur tornado climatology. Because 10% of Finland is covered in groups of 5–20 single tornadoes, if each were recorded by freshwater and because Finland has a relatively low as an individual event, the monthly, diurnal, intensity, and population density, we take care in defining the criteria geographical distribution of waterspouts would dominate for tornadoes and waterspouts. Section 2a addresses this the database of all tornadoes. issue. Then, having described our definition for a tor- On the other hand, if tornadoes are known to occur in nado, the climatology is constructed in two steps. The separate storms, or the starting points of the successive first step was to collect historical reports of tornadoes tornadoes can be resolved, they are considered to be from archived sources such as newspapers. The second separate cases. There is often not enough information to step was to collect recent reports of tornadoes in near– split a report into several cases. Particularly in the his- real time through the Finnish Meteorological Institute torical dataset, the path length would often suggest a (FMI). Section 2b discusses the different methods em- series of tornadoes, but the event is still recorded as ployed to compile and evaluate tornado reports in these one case due to the lack of detailed information on two datasets. Finally, section 2c describes how the tor- damage tracks. The problem of distinguishing between nado intensities are assessed. long-track tornadoes and a series of short-track torna- does is discussed by Doswell and Burgess (1988). The a. Tornado definition and criteria starting point of the first tornado path in each event The Glossary of Meteorology (Glickman 2000) defines characterizes the case on geographical maps. In several a tornado as ‘‘a violently rotating column of air, in contact instances, the same tornado moves over both water and Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/01/21 07:20 AM UTC 1448 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 140 land surfaces. If a tornado is first observed over land, it is TABLE 1. Credibility categories of tornado reports. The report is classified as a tornado over land. If it is first observed attributed to the highest class where any of the criteria are satisfied. over water, it is classified as a tornado over water. From Category Criteria here on, ‘‘tornado over water’’ and ‘‘waterspout’’ will Confirmed A photograph or videotape of a tornado be used interchangeably. A tornado day in this article is Damage survey indicates tornado damage defined as a day with at least one tornado case. A tor- Probable Credible eyewitness observation of a tornado nado report is the original tornado observation (from Credible eyewitness report of typical tornado media, public, etc.); several tornado reports may exist damage for each tornado case.