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Home , Hypnotic, Mind at large, Psychedelic experience

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CLINICAL Volume VII, Number 2, October, 1964 Printed in U.S.A. THE HYPNOTIC TRANCE, THE , AND THE CREATIVE ACTl

Stanley Krippner, Ph.D.2

As long as men have reflected about their lated records of other people's experience, the world, a basic issue has divided them. Some victim in so far as it confirms him in the belief that reduced awareness is the only awareness and have regarded man's conceptual models as as it bedevils his of reality, so that he is all straightforward reflections of reality. Others too apt to take his concepts for data, his words have looked upon these models as a frag- for actual things." ment imposed by the limitations of man's General semanticists have also recognized consciousness upon the unlimited variations the necessity of language for human sur- of his internal and external world. vival but have warned against confusing The eminent philosopher, Henri Bergson concepts and data, words and things. Haya- (5), took the latter position, maintaining kawa (10, pp. 32, 58-60) has differentiated that the function of our brain is basically between the extensional world, which we eliminative. The attempts are capable of knowing through our experi- to protect-us from being overwhelmed and ences, and the intensional world of words, confused by the mass of irrelevant knowl- expressions, and "maps" which represent edge available to us. It shuts out most of extensional "territories." what we should otherwise perceive at any moment and leaves only that small and "If a child grows to adulthood with a verbal special selection which is useful in practical world in his head which corresponds fairly closely to the extensional world that he finds around situations. (11, p. 21) states him in his widening experience, he is in relatively that: small danger of being shocked or hurt by what he finds, because his verbal world has told him what, "According to such a theory, each one of us is more or less, to expect .... If, however, he grows potentially . But in so far as we up with a false map in his head ... he will con- are animals, our business is at all costs to survive. stantly be running into trouble, wasting his To make biological survival possible, Mind at efforts, and acting like a fool. He will not be ad- Large has to be funneled through the reducing justed to the world as it is; he may, if the lack valve of the brain and nervous system. What of adjustment is serious, end up in a mental comes out at the other end is a measly hospital." trickle .... " Agreeing with Hayakawa, and arguing Huxley (11, pp. 21-22) further describes that children are "naturally extensional," the set of verbal symbols that is needed to Campbell (6) suggests that more direct help us utilize this reduced consciousness. sensory experiences be used in school class- "To formulate and express the contents of this rooms and calls for a "deverbalization" of reduced awareness, man has invented and end- education; many other educators, such as lessly elaborated those symbol-systems and im- Maria Montessori and Julian Huxley have plicit philosophies which we call languages. likewise called for more nonverbal educa- Every individual is at once the beneficiary and tion of children. the victim of the linguistic tradition into which he or she has been born-the beneficiary inas- It has frequently been pointed out that much as language gives access to the accumu- the child's natural tendency is to experience his world directly. However, the child's parents and culture soon teach him to im- 1 Presented at the winter meeting of the Kent pose linguistic concepts upon extensional Area School Psychologists, December, 1963, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio. events. 2 Research Director, Department of Psychiatry, A few individuals in each culture, accord- Maimonides Hospital of Brooklyn. ing to many thinkers, have succeeded in 140 TRANCE, PSYCHEDELIC , CREATIVITY 141 altering consciousness to such an extent LSD, seem to expand awareness in such a that they have regained rapport with the way that the nervous system is flooded with extensional world. Their number includes new and unusual stimuli. the artists, the mystics, and the visionary Both hypnosis and psychedelic drugs can prophets who have broken through the cul- aid the breakthrough into the preverbal turally-imposed "word-game" to achieve realm where creative inspiration has its esthetic, spiritual, and intellectual goals. To origins.Many creative artists and scientists attain these states of altered consciousness, claim that their creative efforts exist as and to achieve a closer contact with both moods and feelings before they are ex- the inner and the outer reality, they have pressed in words and symbols. Aaron Cope- used Yoga, religious rituals, sensory depri- land states that a musical theme comes to vation, physical shock, relaxation, pro- him almost like automatic writing. For the longed starvation, sleeplessness, hypnosis, late Robert Frost, a poem began as "a lump and psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") in the throat ... a homesickness, or a love- drugs. sickness, a loneliness." It was "never a Altered states of consciousness have thought to begin with." Wagner is reported proved to be effective in fostering creativity to have heard music spontaneously, and because the creative act is basically pre- Brahms to have heard fragments of his verbal and unconscious in origin. Torrance themes as "inner harmony". The renowned (23, p. 16) recognizes the preverbal origins 18th century German chemist, August of creativity when he defines it as the proc- Kekule, produced a conceptualization of ess of sensing gaps or missing elements, the benzene ring which was inspired by a forming ideas or hypotheses concerning dream of a snake holding its tail in its them, testing these hypotheses, and com- mouth. municating the results. Freud (9, pp. 46-50) Some individuals, especially religious associates curiosity with unconscious drives mystics, attempt to foster this type of ex- which can "put themselves in the service of perience. Ben-Avi (3, p. 1819), while dis- intellectual interests" although they do not cussing Buddhism, counsels that tI ••• originate in the conscious state. "In the change, illumination, or growth, must be case of a creative mind," Freud states else- rooted in the immediate, the concrete ex- where, "... the intellect has withdrawn its perience of the individual" rather than be- watchers from the gate, and the ideas rush ing based on conscious abstractions and in- in pell-mell.... " He and many others have tellectual formulations. Zen Buddhism, with also stressed the necessity of breaking its emphasis on concentration, is often re- through the culturally-imposed language garded as a modification of autohypnosis. structure if creativity is to emerge. In autohypnosis, as in Zen, leads Under properly controlled situations, per- to increased concentration, a focusing of haps the safest and simplest methods of con- attention, and an increased receptivity to sciousness-alteration employ hypnosis and creative ideas. psychedelic drugs. The creative act goes The history of creative effort is filled with beyond the mere recombination of similar examples demonstrating the value of altered elements, and thus, altered consciousness consciousness.Rachmaninoff wrote his most can be of considerable assistance in ena- celebrated piano concerto while under hyp- bling an individual to conceptualize novel notic treatment. Coleridge was inspired to solutions to artistic, technological, and sci- write the poem "Kubla Khan" while half- entific problems.Hypnosis appears to focus asleep from the effects of an anodyne pre- consciousnessso intensely that subthreshold scribed for an illness. Poincare discovered stimuli are perceived; in fact, it is fre- a major class of mathematical functions quently defined in terms of a heightened while in a state between waking and - responsiveness to suggestion. Psychedelic ing. Estabrooks and Gross (8, p. 24), among drugs, such as , , and others feel that hypnosis can release crea- 142 KRIPPNER tive functioning among children as well as experience. The technique of progressive re- adults. laxation was used to induce the trance state. Among the recent research reports in Cues were introduced to provide the sub- hypnosis, the following four studies assun:e jects with the structure of algebraic prob- significance in delineating the relationship lems that they would be called upon to between the hypnotic trance and the crea- solve in the waking state. tive act. Upon awakening, the subjects insisted they could remember nothing that hap- THE HYPNOTIZABILITY OF CHILDREN pened in the hypnotic trance. Yet, in al- most every instance, all three subjects im- London (17) reports, after studying 57 mediately gave the correct answer when boys and girls aged five and older, ~hat the problems were presented. They were not children are significantly more susceptible aware of how they solved the problems so to hypnosis than are adul~. In stand.ar.d!z- quickly: "It just popped into my mind," ing the Children's Hypnotic Susceptibility was a typical report. Scale, he also found that the older children One of the subjects experienced the an- could "simulate" hypnosis with a great deal swer as a momentarily visual hallucina- of effectiveness. Furthermore, susceptibility tion; the other two experienced the answer and age had a curvilinear relationship. as a sudden flash of certain knowledge. Both London's study bears a striking resem- of these events suggest how hypnosis might blance to the findings of Torrance (23, p. increase and improve an individual's crea- 97-98). His subjects showed drops in origi- tive output. Tinnin's conclusion is consist- nality upon entering kindergarter:, fourth ent with creativity theory; he states that grade and junior high school, WhIChmay cognitive awareness can utilize cues with- be regarded as a tendency of individuals to out full awareness. This activity can run become less creative as they grow older. parallel to, but without intruding upon, In other words, the stereotyped thinking concurrent conscious activity. which is an inevitable result of acculturiza- tion makes the growing child less hypno- tizable as well as less original. As he con- ATTENTION AND DISTRACTIBILITY forms more and more to cultural strictures, The work of Arvid As (2) involved the he becomes less and less susceptible to hyp- hypnotized subject's ability to become se- notic induction. As a matter of fact, it has lectively attentive to the cues emanating frequently been demonstrated that the more from the hypnotist and to become selec- intelligent and more imaginative subjects tively inattentive to other stimuli. As ad- react more quickly to hypnotic suggestion; vanced two alternative hypotheses to ex- this fact refutes the notion that hypnosis plain these phenomena. involves the surrendering of personal in- 1. Basic in hypnosis is the subject's abil- dependence and conforming to the will of ity to withstand distracting and ir- others. relevant stimuli, thus leaving the field of attention open for capture by the COGNITIVE ACTIVITY WITHOUT AWARENESS hypnotist's cues and suggestions. Tinnin (22) recalls how common it is for 2. Basic in hypnosis is the subject's fo- an individual to put a difficult problem out cusing of attention and ensuing ab- of his mind and then, suddenly, to experi- sorption in the cues and suggestions ence a spontaneous flash of insight or even presented by the hypnotist. As a re- a correct solution. sult, other stimuli become the objects In his experiment, Tinnin used three male of less attention. college students who were able to attain An inventory of subjective experiences post-hypnotic suggestibility and who re- was prepared by As; the items dealt with ported complete for the hypnotic experiences of distractibility and attention. TRANCE, PSYCHEDELIC DRUGS, CREATIVITY 143

The inventory was administered to three state of extraordinary calm and seren- samples of subj ects totalling 152; their ity? hypnotizability was subsequently deter- All of these items correlated significantly mined by two objective hypnosis scales, the at the .01 confidence level with one or more Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale and samples of subjects on one or both of the the Consolidated Scale of Hypnotic Re- hypnosis scales. sponsiveness. As concludes that it is "the positive fo- Three items in the inventory were used cusing of attention with ensuing absorption to test the first hypothesis because these in its object that is of importance in hyp- items involved the withstanding of distrac- nosis." The subject, therefore, apparently tions. becomes oblivious or inattentive to irrele- 1. Do you find it difficult to forget fail- vant stimuli as an effect of this absorption, ures, mistakes, humiliation, etc., so not by actively warding off the distractions. that they tend to disturb you when This situation is remarkably similar to you are faced with new tasks? the experience of a fusion of subject and 2. When there are sounds that you do object which typifies the psychedelic state. not want to listen to, can you block Furthermore, it is this "openness," this fad- them from your mind so that they are ing of boundaries between the conscious self no longer important to you? and the unconscious self and the outer en- 3. Are you able to change easily from vironment that encourages the creative act. one task to another, excluding ideas, associations, and actions of the former HYPNOSIS, LSD, AND task, for the sake of the one you are now presently concentrating on? As hypnosis and the psychedelic drugs None of the correlations between the sub- represent the outer frontiers of scientific in- jects' responses to these items and their vestigation, it is important that their use hypnosis scale rating were significant at the be restricted to proper experimental and .01 level of confidence. clinical sessions and that only qualified Three items in the inventory were used to persons be permitted to supervise these ses- test the second hypothesis; they involved sions. For example, it is wise to have a the experience of "being completely im- knowledgeable physician on hand during a mersed in nature or in art, totally absorbed psychedelic experiment, and it would be in reading, enraptured by music or dance, preferred that practicing hypnotists be pos- etc., so that they became oblivious of them- sessed of a doctoral degree in medicine, selves and their surroundings." dentistry, or psychology, as well as being 1. Have you ever been completely im- adequately trained in hypnosis. mersed in nature or in art (e.g. in the The results of a carefully arranged series mountains, at the ocean, viewing of combined hypnosis and psychedelic ses- sculpture, painting, etc.) and had a sions have been reported by Levine, Lud- feeling of awe, inspiration, and gran- wig, and Lyle (16). Hypnosis was combined deur sweep over you so that you felt with LSD (a psychedelic ) to change as if your whole state of consciousness the behavior of addicts. During the was somehow temporarily changed? first session, a psychiatric interview was 2. Have you ever acted in a play and held after which the subjects were trained found that you really felt the emo- in entering a hypnotic trance. The second tions of the character, and "became" session, held a few days later, began with him (or her) for the time being, for- the oral administration of 100 to 150 micro- getting both yourself and the audience? grams of LSD. Before the drug took effect, 3. Have you ever focused at something the subjects were hypnotized. While in both so hard that you went into a kind of the hypnotic trance and the psychedelic benumbed state of consciousness or a state, the subjects were actively encouraged 144 KRIPPNER to examine and understand their addiction, thesis of the cactus; psilocybin, a of viewing it in the context of early life ex- synthesis of a Mexican . Psy- periences, exposure to traumatic events, and chedelic substances are generally regarded significant relationships with their parents as nonaddictive, physically safe, and psy- and siblings. Post-hypnotic suggestions chologically harmless when used properly. were given to remember what occurred and Research with LSD and mescaline is sev- to continue working on their problems. The eral decades old. Even before formal ex- subjects were then admitted to the medical perimentation was instigated, primitive ward until the following morning. tribes were investigated which had been Although adequate follow-up has not yet using the substances for centuries. Work taken place, immediate results included an with psilocybin, however, dates back only increase in affect, a greater responsiveness to 1960. and Richard Alpert to the therapist, greater personal insight, headed a team of Harvard University psy- and a more hopeful perspective. In this in- chologists who completed four major proj- stance it would appear that the "insight" ects before the controversial aspects of phase of the creative process had been suc- their program brought about its termina- cessfully stimulated by hypnosis and LSD. tion in 1963. These projects included: Several other clinical studies report how 1. An investigation into the relation of the creative potentials of brain damaged set and setting to the psilocybin ex- subjects (7), disturbed children (1), and periences of a large group of volunteer underachieving college students (13) have subjects (professors, students, house- been released by hypnosis.Despite the wives, etc.) many successes of hypnosis, its mechanical 2. An investigation into the rehabilita- processes are not completely understood. tive effects of psilocybin on inmates However, a proper setting for its effective- scheduled for release from prison. ness is described by Erickson (7) as one 3. An investigation into the effects of "inducing and compelling an open-minded- psilocybin on the creative efforts of ness or mental receptiveness to new, inex- writers, musicians, and artists. plicable, curiosity-evoking ideas.... " It is 4. An investigation into the effects of just such a setting which would be most psilocybin experiences upon the mys- likely to foster a creative act. tical lives of ministers and other pro- The action of psychedelic drugs is under- fessional workers in religion (15). stood no better than is the mechanism of The results of these research projects are hypnosis.It has been variously suggested in each case provocative and contain impli- that these drugs have some direct effect on cations for the study of creativity. The in- the chemistry of the brain: among other vestigators attempted to produce in every possibilities that they reduce the brain's case a setting that would be relaxed, con- supply of sugar, inhibit the production of genial, and non-task-oriented. All partici- cholinesterase, or interfere with the brain's pants took the drug in groups; collections capacity to utilize oxygen. Metzner (19), of total strangers were avoided (14). in surveying the literature, finds "no defi- The most general descriptive characteri- nite agreement as to the mode of action of zations which the subjects gave to their re- psychedelic substances at the biochemical actions were those of "increased awareness" level." Whatever the physiological process, and "transcendence of verbal thinking." It these drugs enable their users to see the was concluded by the investigators that customarily ignored aspects of reality if people, events, objects, one's self can be taken under proper guidance and in a sup- understood without either the need or the portive setting. ability to verbalize this understanding. Considerable research has been done with Positive expectations tended to produce three of these drugs:LSD, a chemical syn- pleasant and insightful experiences under thesis of the ergot fungus; mescaline, a syn- psilocybin. Mystical incidents and other TRANCE, PSYCHEDELIC DRUGS, CREATIVITY 145

highly specific expectations were not gen- "... some of their effects can elicit something erally fulfilled. This indicates that a state quite new from the human mind. They may have unpleasant effects if the subject is in a wrong of transcendency cannot be "willed." How- psychological state, and exceedingly pleasant and ever, many mystical experiences emerged rewarding effects if he is in a right one. But in spontaneously, even among the prisoners either case they may reveal possibilities of ex- who were studied. perience which the subject did not know existed An examination of situational variables at all. For this the term psychedelic, or mind- revealing, has been suggested for this type of indicated that women had more "ecstatic" psychotropic drug. and "religious" experiences than did men, "In psychedelic drugs we have a remarkable op- but were more likely to "fight" the oncom- portunity for interesting research ... on their ef- ing effects of the drug. Older subjects had fects on different types of psychologically normal people-people of high and low IQ, of different more historical and mythical visions than somatotypes, of different affective dispositions, younger subjects. The investigators con- on verbalizers and visualizers. This would be of cluded that the subjects' tendencies to cate- extraordinary interest: we might find out not gorize their experiences lessened under the merely how to cure some defect, but how to pro- drug's influence. mote creativity by enhancing the creative imagi- nation." Very few of the incidents reported were psychotic-like or hallucinatory in nature. Some writers have called these drugs "psy- CREATIVE ARTISTS chotomimetic" or "hallucinogenic"; these are improper terms because the break- Behavior involves learning, except for re- through seems to be into the "real" world flexes, instinctual reactions, and random rather than into an imaginary one. muscular movements. Behavior, being cul- It has been suggested that psychedelic turally determined, is basically a series of drugs might be useful in reconciling the game sequences. These game sequences in- emotionally disturbed person with the ex- clude six factors: roles, rules, goals, rituals, tensional world, at least on a temporary values, and language. basis. Bender (4) has described the progress Only rarely does a person break through which is being made along these lines with the game structure and experience his world children. The subjects in Bender's studies directly. Artists must do this if they are to remained remarkably free of adverse reac- innovate productions that will be original tions to the drugs. In addition, they became and creative. more alert, more responsive to their en- With this artistic struggle in mind, Leary vironment, and made greater efforts to re- and his associates administered psilocybin late with others. Eating and sleeping habits to 65 professional writers and artists. No improved, bizarre fantasies disappeared or statistical data were obtained, but written were denied, and a more mature type of reports were elicited from each subject. The thinking tended to emerge. great majority claimed to have had a "crea- Krippner and his co-workers have em- tive experience." One painter detected a phasized the importance of expectancy set "living glow" in his surroundings; a musi- (the readiness of the organism to make a cian heard the "music of the spheres." Leary particular response) in making either ac- found these subjects to revel "in the new curate or inaccurate references from "map" and intense and direct confrontation with to "territory." Because the Harvard group the world about them." took the drug in pleasant circumstances, The studies demonstrate the importance their experiences were generally pleasant. of the visual modality in the psychedelic Because feeling is an important determinant experience. When the eyes are closed, in- of set, those who felt positively about tak- ternal images are revealed; with the eyes ing psilocybin had more positive reactions open, external surroundings are seen more to it. Julian Huxley (12) concludes, vividly. 146 KRIPPNER

RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES notations. The extensional referent of that ~o~d or passage is suddenly made more Seamans (20) notes that the communica- VIVId and the linguistic symbol itself be- tion of religious ideas typically meets with comes clearer as a result. a number of serious impediments. There are The drugs experience, at best, lasts for barriers to religious discourse in the mo- only a few hours before the subject is re- tives and preferences of the communicants turned to the world of intensional meaning as well as in their environment, experience, and word-games. However, he is able to and language. To overcome these obstacles play the games better because he realizes several techniques are suggested, amon~ that they are games. In addition, he can them the development of additional non- substitute reality-oriented games for those verbal modes of religious communication. characterized by a lack of extensionality. Art, music, and ritual come readily to mind; The more emotionally disturbed an indi- psilocybin is an additional agent which may vidual, the less aware he is of the word- aid in the religious development of an in- game in which he is trapped. Schizophrenia, dividual. ~or example is often marked by an over- One of Leary's earliest discoveries (15, Investment in language rather than a re- p. 3) was the frequent occurrence of reli- treat from it (21, p. 935). gious experiences among his subj ects. Less than ten per cent of our original samples SUMMARY were orthodox believers or church goers, yet such It appears that psilocybin and the other terms as "God," "divine," "deep religious experi- ence," "meeting the infinite" occurred in over consciousness-altering drugs are able to half of the reports. provide a temporary reunion between man These results were so provocative that and the unconceptualized events in his cor- an investigation was inaugurated with 47 tex a~d in his surroundings. This experi- clergymen and other professional religious enc~,. In the proper setting, can produce workers. Although final results have not positive pe~sonality change and can permit yet been published, 90 per cent of the sub- the unleashmg of man's creative and mysti- jects reported mystical-religious experi- cal capacities. In much the same way, but by a some- ences. In commenting on the religious implica- what different process, hypnosis can alter tions of the psilocybin experience, Leary man's consciousness and permit him to pay and Clark (15, Pp. 10-13) note the depth closer attention to material that is basically of fellowship reported by the subjects and preverbal and unconscious. MacKinnon's the frequent comments that the psilocybin extensive research (18) on creative adults experience had changed their lives in posi- demonstrates that 97 per cent depend more on "intuition" and on unconscious tive ways. "hunches" than on direct awareness. Per- "The exact nature of the experience is usually haps hypnosis, psilocybin, mescaline and felt and reported to be ineffable, while the figure of sp~ech u.se.dto describe it and the language LSD will increase the number of individuals used IS rem;n.lscent of the mystics. Biblical pas- who are able to come into a more intimate sages or relIgIOUSterms formerly meaningless or contact with the totality of their external pale have suddenly acquired vivid meaning. Like environment and their internal resources the renegade who, through conversion experi- Julian Huxley (12) counsels that, . ences, suddenly finds himself in possession of the meaning of the term 'salvation,' so he who in- "The field of the psychiatrist and the psycholo- gests psilocybin may find this or similar terms gist today is nothing less than the comprehensive illuminated for him." study of hypnosis,. drugs, educations, mysticism, In other words, a breakthrough to the ex- and the subconscious, of mental disease and mental health, of the relation between ... all the tensional world sometimes has the effect of psychological forces operating in man's life- giving the subjects insight into the meaning emotional, imaginative, intellectual and moral- of a word or a passage with religious con- in such a way as to minimize conflict and to TRANCE, PSYCHEDELIC DRUGS, CREATIVITY 147 maximize creativity. In so doing, they will be in lution of man-a direction making for increased harmony with the only desirable direction that fulfillment of individual human beings and fuller our scientific vision indicates for the future evo- achievement of human societies."

REFERENCES

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