Les Caravanes De La Mecque Et L'avènement De L'islam

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Les Caravanes De La Mecque Et L'avènement De L'islam Les caravanes de La Mecque et l’avènement de l’Islam Patricia Crone Traduction Dr. Edouard Broussalian Ce livre doit son existence au fait que les conférenciers du début de l’his- toire islamique sont censés avoir des connaissances sur le commerce de La Mecque, même si cela ne les intéresse pas beaucoup. Je voudrais donc remercier les étudiants des matières islamiques à Oxford de m’avoir forcée à entrer dans le sujet, et aussi d’avoir gracieusement supporté par la suite un professeur exaspéré. Si, malgré beaucoup d’efforts, ce sentiment d’exaspé- ration se retrouve encore dans ce livre, tout ce que je peux dire, c’est que je ne l’aurais pas écrit sans cela. En outre, je voudrais remercier Adrian Brockett, Michael Cook, Gerald Hawting, Martin Hinds et Fritz Zimmermann pour avoir lu et commenté les ébauches à différents stades de réalisation. Je suis également redevable au professeur A.F.L. Beeston pour son aide sur les questions relatives au sud de l’Arabie, au professeur J. Baines pour ses réponses rapides et utiles aux questions égyptologiques, à F.N. Hepper du Royal Botanic Gardens à Kew pour ses vues sur un problème botanique, et au professeur M. G. Morony pour sa réaction au manuscrit dactylographié et qui m’a largement avertie de l’impopularité potentielle de son contenu. Patricia Crone. Table des matières 1. LES ÉPICES D’ARABIE 7 1. INTRODUCTION 8 Notes 14 2. LE COMMERCE CLASSIQUE DES ÉPICES 19 Le commerce de l’encens 19 Le commerce de transit 31 Notes 44 3. LE “COMMERCE MECQUOIS DES ÉPICES” 71 Les épices Arabes 71 1. Oliban 71 2. Myrrhe 72 3. Cancamum et tarum 73 4. Ladanum 73 5. Juncus odoratus (jonc sucré) 74 6. Aloès (médicament) 75 7. Cinabre 76 8. Cannelle et Casse 77 9. Calamus 77 10. Baume 77 11. Séné 80 12. Bdellium 80 13. Cardamome 82 14. Comacum 84 Les épices indiennes 84 15. Nard 85 16. Costum 85 17. Bois d’Aloès 86 18. Gingembre 87 19. Poivre 88 Les marchandises d’Afrique de l’Est 89 20. Ivoire 89 21. Or 90 22. Esclaves 91 Autres denrées de luxe 91 23. Soie 91 24. Parfum 93 Notes 93 2. L’ARABIE SANS ÉPICES 115 4. QU’ONT EXPORTÉ LES MECQUOIS ? 116 1. Argent 116 2. Or 121 3. Parfums 122 4. Cuir 124 5. Vêtements 127 6. Animaux 129 7. Denrées alimentaires diverses 129 8. Raisins 130 9. Vin 130 9. Esclaves 131 11. Autres biens 132 Notes 133 5. OÙ LES MECQUOIS ÉTAIENT-ILS ACTIFS ? 144 Tradition 144 Syrie 149 Égypte 151 Yémen 151 Éthiopie 153 Irak 157 Notes 159 6. CE QUE LE COMMERCE MECQUOIS N’ÉTAIT PAS 176 Le silence des sources 177 La Mecque en Syrie 181 La Mecque au Yémen 184 La Mecque en Éthiopie 187 La Mecque en Irak 187 Notes 190 7. CE QUE LE COMMERCE MECQUOIS AURAIT PU ÊTRE 199 Notes 214 8. LE SANCTUAIRE ET LE COMMERCE MECQUOIS 223 Ḥaram et commerce 224 Quraysh inviolables 231 Gardiens et commerçants? 236 Allah ou Hubal? 239 Le sanctuaire 244 Notes 246 3. CONCLUSIONS 267 9. LES SOURCES 268 Notes 292 10. L’AVÈNEMENT DE L’ISLAM 304 Notes 322 4. ANNEXES 329 1. LA PROVENANCE DE LA CANNELLE CLASSIQUE 330 2. CALAMUS 343 3. Étymologie et origine du mot Aloē 347 4. BIBLIOGRAPHIE 351 5. PTOLÉMÉE ET MACORABA 377 Notes 389 6. INDEX THÉMATIQUE 392 1 1 1 1. LES ÉPICES D’ARABIE 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 111 ÉPICES D’ARABIE 1. Introduction 8 2. Le commerce classique des épices 19 3. Le “commerce mecquois des épices” 71 7 1 NTRODUCTION 1 1. I 1 1 1 Tout étudiant de première année sait que La Mecque à l’époque du Pro- 1 1 phète était le centre d’un empire commercial de grande envergure, jouant 1 1 ainsi un rôle d’une certaine importance dans tous les récits orthodoxes de 1 l’avènement de l’Islam. En effet, le commerce international des Mecquois 1 1 a atteint une telle renommée que non seulement nos jeunes étudiants, mais 1 1 aussi les islamisants professionnels en sont venus à considérer la documen- 1 1 tation comme tout à fait superflue. Ainsi, Montgomery Watt, dont l’inter- 1 1 prétation bien connue de la vie de Muḥammad se concentre sur l’impact de 1 la richesse commerciale sur l’ordre social et moral à La Mecque, consacre 1 1 moins d’une page de son ouvrage en deux volumes à une discussion sur le 1 commerce dont la richesse en question est censée provenir ; et avec des réfé- rences dont il se dispense tout à fait.1 Mais que savons-nous réellement du commerce de La Mecque ? C’est Lammens qui a effectué le travail de base sur le sujet. C’est un érudit no- toirement peu fiable dont le nom est rarement mentionné dans la littérature secondaire sans une certaine prudence ou désapprobation, mais dont les conclusions semblent néanmoins avoir été acceptées par Watt.2 Plus récem- ment, divers aspects de la question ont été repris et richement documentés par Kister.3 Le travail de Kister passe pour corroborer l’image dessinée par Lammens ; il n’y a, au moins, aucune différence appréciable entre les por- traits du commerce Mecquois présentés par Watt sur la base de Lammens, par Shaban sur la base de Kister, et par Donner sur la base des deux.4 Mais, en fait, ni Lammens ni Kister ne fournissent de soutien au compte du récit conventionnel, le premier parce que son travail s’effondre lors de l’inspec- tion de ses notes de bas de page, le second parce que ses notes de bas de page impeccables sapent nos hypothèses de base concernant la nature du commerce. Ce qui suit est la preuve que le commerce de La Mecque pose un grave problème. Le récit conventionnel du commerce de La Mecque soulève une ques- tion simple : quelle est ou quelles sont les marchandises qui auraient per- mis aux habitants d’un site si peu prometteur d’édifier une entreprise à si 8 11 1NT1O1U1T1ON grande échelle ? L’empire commercial aurait grandi dans un endroit clai- 1 1 rement inattendu, bien que ce fait ne pas toujours connu du public. Il y a 1 1 eu, bien sûr, des centres commerciaux en Arabie qui se sont développés 1 1 dans des zones de stérilité comparable, notamment à Aden. Mais Aden et 1 1 d’autres villes côtières du sud de l’Arabie devaient toutes leur existence 1 1 à la mer, comme l’a noté Muqaddasī, alors que La Mecque était une ville 1 intérieure.5 Elle disposait d’un petit port, Shu‘ayba,6 et le Qur’ān parle 1 1 7 1 abondamment de la navigabilité miraculeuse de la mer. Les sources 1 1 concordent à dire que les Mecquois commerçaient avec l’Éthiopie, et il 1 existe même une tradition isolée qui affirme qu’ils faisaient du commerce 1 1 Rūm 8 9 10 maritime avec . Mais les Mecquois n’avaient ni bois , ni navires à 1 leur disposition ; ils n’utilisaient pas non plus leur port lorsqu’ils étaient 1 1 sous le blocus de Muḥammad,11 et la tradition ne porte guère d’attention à Shu‘ayba ou à la mer. Les centres de commerce caravaniers, par contre, étaient généralement situés dans des environnements moins hostiles et plus proches de leurs clients que ne l’était La Mecque, comme en témoignent la Minéenne Dedan, 9 11 1NT1O1U1T1ON 1 la Palmyre Romaine ou Ḥā’il d’Ibn Rashīd. En guise de compensation, on 1 1 attribue souvent à La Mecque l’avantage d’avoir été située au carrefour de 1 1 toutes les grandes routes commerciales en Arabie12, ou du moins d’avoir été 1 1 une étape naturelle sur la route dite de l’encens du sud de l’Arabie vers la 1 1 Syrie13. 1 1 Mais comme le souligne Bulliet, ces affirmations sont tout à fait inexactes. 1 1 La Mecque est cachée à l’extrémité de la péninsule : “ce n’est que par une 1 1 lecture de carte des plus torturées qu’on peut la décrire en tant que carrefour 1 1 naturel entre une route nord-sud et une route est-ouest”. 14 Et le fait qu’elle 1 1 soit plus ou moins équidistante du sud de l’Arabie et de la Syrie ne suffit pas 1 à en faire une halte naturelle sur la route de l’encens. 1 1 1) En premier lieu, les caravanes qui empruntaient cet itinéraire s’ar- rêtaient au moins six fois sur le chemin ; elles n’étaient pas contraintes de s’arrêter à La Mecque simplement du fait qu’elles se trouvaient à peu près à mi-chemin. “Sur un voyage d’une durée d’environ deux mois, le concept d’un point à mi-chemin comme lieu de repos naturel est plutôt contraint”. 15 2) D’autre part, les lieux stériles ne constituent pas de haltes naturelles où qu’ils se trouvent, et encore moins lorsqu’ils sont à une courte distance d’un environnement verdoyant bien connu. Pourquoi les caravanes auraient-elles dû effectuer une descente raide jusqu’à la vallée aride de La Mecque alors qu’elles auraient pu s’arrêter à Ṭā’if ? La Mecque disposait bien sûr d’un puits et d’un sanctuaire, mais Ṭāi’if aussi, qui possédait en outre de la nour- riture.
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