humanities Article Rethinking China’s Frontier: Archaeological Finds Show the Hexi Corridor’s Rapid Emergence as a Regional Power Heather Clydesdale Department of Art and Art History, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, CA 95053, USA; [email protected] Received: 7 May 2018; Accepted: 22 June 2018; Published: 23 June 2018 Abstract: The Chinese government’s expansion of infrastructure in Gansu province has led to the discovery of a number of important ancient tombs in the Hexi Corridor, a thousand kilometer stretch of the Silk Roads linking China to Central Asia. This study investigates recent finds in the context of older excavations to draw a more cohesive picture of the dramatic cultural and political changes on China’s western frontier in the Wei-Jin period (220–317 CE). A survey of archaeological reports and an analysis of tomb distribution along with structural and decorative complexity indicate that after the fall of the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the nexus of regional power shifted from the eastern Hexi Corridor to Jiuquan and Dunhuang in the west. This phenomenon was related in the rise of magnate families, who emerged from Han dynasty soldier-farmer colonies and helped catalyze the region’s transformation from a military outpost to a semi-autonomous, prosperous haven that absorbed cultural influences from multiple directions. This dynamism, in turn, set the stage for the Hexi Corridor’s ascent as a center of Buddhist art in the fifth and sixth centuries. Keywords: Silk Roads; Hexi Corridor; Dunhuang; Jiuquan; Han dynasty; Wei-Jin period; Northern Dynasties; tomb; art; China 1. Piecing Together a Regional Picture of the Past At the turn of the millennium, the Chinese government launched its Great Western Development Strategy to spearhead economic development and lift living standards in the western part of the country. In Gansu 甘肃 province, this initiative spurred the construction of high-speed railways, freeways, airports, and gas pipelines and, as this infrastructure has expanded across deserts and mountains, archaeological sites have been unearthed at an unprecedented pace along the Silk Roads thoroughfare known as the Hexi Corridor (Hexi Zoulang ³西pÊ). This rush to the future, in fact, has revitalized the commitment to exploring the past as the central government along with provincial and local cultural bureaus support research and display artifacts in palatial museums. Even while new excavations have been studied in isolation or small groups, the work of integrating them with older excavations to form a regional picture of the Hexi Corridor remains incomplete. This study investigates recent finds in the context of older excavations to better understand the Hexi Corridor’s sudden transformation from a frontier outpost in the Han I dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) to a prosperous and largely autonomous region in the tumultuous Wei-Jin OK period (220–317 CE), when northern China was subject first to the kingdom of Wei O (220–66) and then to the Western Jin K dynasty (266–317). A survey of archaeological reports and an analysis of tomb distribution along with structural and decorative complexity indicate that dramatic social and political changes coincided with the shift of regional power from the eastern Hexi Corridor to Jiuquan and Dunhuang in the west. In these two locations, vibrant artistic centers materialized and these were pivotal to the region’s ascent as a Humanities 2018, 7, 63; doi:10.3390/h7030063 www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 11 pivotal to the region’s ascent as a center of Buddhist art in subsequent centuries during the Sixteen StatesHumanities (Shiliu 2018Guo, 7 ,十六国 63 304–439) and Northern Dynasties (Bei Chao 北朝 386–581) periods.2 of 11 2. Readingcenter ofthe Buddhist Archaeological art in subsequent Record centuries in the duringHexi Corridor the Sixteen States (Shiliu Guo Am国 304–439) and Northern Dynasties (Bei Chao 北朝 386–581) periods. The Hexi Corridor is a natural bridge connecting the Chinese heartland (zhongyuan 中原)1 (Dien 2007, 2.p. Reading 80) to the both Archaeological Central Asia Record and in thethe Hexi eastern Corridor Eurasian Steppe. Its topography forced the convergenceThe of Hexi a network Corridor of is atrade natural routes bridge today connecting referred the to Chinese as the heartland Silk Roads. (zhongyuan Stretching-原 )nearly1 one thousand(Dien kilometers 2007, p. 80) from to both Wuwei Central 武威 Asia in and the the southeast, eastern Eurasian through Steppe. Zhangye Its topography 张掖 and forced Jiuquan 酒泉 to Dunhuangthe convergence 敦煌 ofat athe network far northwest of trade routes end, todaythe Hexi referred Corridor to as the is pressed Silk Roads. between Stretching the nearly harsh climates of theone Qinghai thousand-Tibet kilometers Plateau from (Qingzang Wuwei f 威Gaoyuanin the southeast, 青藏高原 through) to the Zhangye southwest 掖 and and Jiuquan the GobiR泉 Desert to fL the northeastto Dunhuang (Figure 1).at the A farrain northwest shadow end, cast the by Hexi the CorridorHimalayas is pressed on the between southern the harshedge climates of the plateau is of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (Qingzang Gaoyuan RÏ高原) to the southwest and the Gobi Desert to responsiblethe northeast for the (Figure arid 1climate). A rain of shadow the Gobi cast Desert, by the Himalayas which extends on the southern across the edge northern of the plateau border is of China. The Hexiresponsible Corridor, for the however, arid climate was of theinviting Gobi Desert, to settlers which and extends wayfarers across the in northern part because border of the China. runoff from the escThearpment Hexi Corridor, of the however,Qinghai was-Tibet inviting Plateau to settlers irrigates and wayfarers a string inof part oases. because Since the the runoff Han from dynasty, the these were escarpmentconnected ofalong the Qinghai-Tibet the path of Plateaumilitary irrigates expansion, a string settlement, of oases. Since and the trade. Han dynasty, these were connected along the path of military expansion, settlement, and trade. Figure 1. Oasis cities of the Hexi Corridor in Gansu province.2 Figure 1. Oasis cities of the Hexi Corridor in Gansu province.2 The dry climate and, until recently, lack of industrial development has left the archeological Therecord dry in theclimate Hexi Corridor and, until remarkably recently, intact, lack providing of industrial a breadth development of data difficult tohas match left elsewherethe archeological recordin in China. the Hexi It allows Corridor for close remarkably inspection of intact, the placement providing and designa breadth of graveyards, of data asdifficult well as to match elsewherethe relationship in China. betweenIt allows aboveground for close inspection and subterranean of the placement plans. This enablesand design broad of comparisons graveyards, as well as theto relationship be made and between conclusions aboveground about historical and patterns subterranean to be drawn. plans Relying. This onenables the archaeological broad comparisons record, however, has some inherent limitations. First, the excavations to date are not a representative to be samplingmade and of theconclusions vast pool of about sites. Eachhistorical was usually patterns identified to be by drawn. chance, commonlyRelying on in thethe coursearchaeological recordof, however, building (though has some at least inherent one tomb limitations. was discovered First, after the localexcavations police arrested to date modern-day are not a representative tomb sampling of the vast pool of sites. Each was usually identified by chance, commonly in the course of building (though at least one tomb was discovered after local police arrested modern-day tomb raiders1 attemptingDefined as the middle to sell Yellow its Riverpainted Basin and bricks neighboring on the areas. black market) (Shi 1997, p. 44). Often, a cursory 2 Maps, drawings, and photographs by H. Clydesdale. examination of a large number of tomb mounds determines which ones will be subject to thorough excavations. This means that, while the archaeological record does not reflect a scientific sampling, it is not entirely random. 1 Defined as the middle Yellow River Basin and neighboring areas. 2 Maps, drawings, and photographs by H. Clydesdale. Humanities 2018, 7, 63 3 of 11 Humanitiesraiders attempting 2018, 7, x FOR to PEER sell REVIEW its painted bricks on the black market) (Shi 1997, p. 44). Often, a cursory3 of 11 examination of a large number of tomb mounds determines which ones will be subject to thorough excavations.Of the excavated This means sites, that, many while have the detailed archaeological reports that record measure, does not describe, reflect catalog, a scientific and sampling, diagram architecture,it is not entirely decoration, random. and burial goods. Over the last decade, archaeologists have been increasinglyOf the excavated diligent sites,in describing many have aboveground detailed reports features that measure, and formations describe, catalog,of tombs, and but diagram this informationarchitecture, in decoration, earlier reports andburial is inconsistent. goods. Over Since the burials last decade, are vulnerable archaeologists to vandalism, have been theft, increasingly and the elements,diligent in and describing because aboveground of the ongoi featuresng expansion and formations of residential, of tombs, commercial, but this information agricultural, in earlier and industrialreports is zones, inconsistent. the archaeological Since burials report are isvulnerable often the