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Article Rethinking ’s Frontier: Archaeological Finds Show the ’s Rapid Emergence as a Regional Power

Heather Clydesdale

Department of Art and Art History, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, CA 95053, USA; [email protected]

 Received: 7 May 2018; Accepted: 22 June 2018; Published: 23 June 2018 

Abstract: The Chinese government’s expansion of infrastructure in province has led to the discovery of a number of important ancient tombs in the Hexi Corridor, a thousand kilometer stretch of the Roads linking China to Central . This study investigates recent finds in the context of older excavations to draw a more cohesive picture of the dramatic cultural and political changes on China’s western frontier in the Wei-Jin period (220–317 CE). A survey of archaeological reports and an analysis of tomb distribution along with structural and decorative complexity indicate that after the fall of the (206 BCE–220 CE), the nexus of regional power shifted from the eastern Hexi Corridor to and in the west. This phenomenon was related in the rise of magnate families, who emerged from Han dynasty soldier-farmer colonies and helped catalyze the ’s transformation from a military outpost to a semi-autonomous, prosperous haven that absorbed cultural influences from multiple directions. This dynamism, in turn, set the stage for the Hexi Corridor’s ascent as a center of in the fifth and sixth centuries.

Keywords: Silk Roads; Hexi Corridor; Dunhuang; Jiuquan; Han dynasty; Wei-Jin period; Northern Dynasties; tomb; art; China

1. Piecing Together a Regional Picture of the Past At the turn of the millennium, the Chinese government launched its Great Western Development Strategy to spearhead economic development and lift living standards in the western part of the country. In Gansu 甘肃 province, this initiative spurred the construction of high-speed railways, freeways, airports, and gas pipelines and, as this infrastructure has expanded across deserts and mountains, archaeological sites have been unearthed at an unprecedented pace along the Silk Roads thoroughfare known as the Hexi Corridor (Hexi Zoulang 河西走廊). This rush to the future, in fact, has revitalized the commitment to exploring the past as the central government along with provincial and local cultural bureaus support research and display artifacts in palatial museums. Even while new excavations have been studied in isolation or small groups, the work of integrating them with older excavations to form a regional picture of the Hexi Corridor remains incomplete. This study investigates recent finds in the context of older excavations to better understand the Hexi Corridor’s sudden transformation from a frontier outpost in the Han 汉 dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) to a prosperous and largely autonomous region in the tumultuous Wei-Jin 魏晋 period (220–317 CE), when northern China was subject first to the kingdom of Wei 魏 (220–66) and then to the Western Jin 晋 dynasty (266–317). A survey of archaeological reports and an analysis of tomb distribution along with structural and decorative complexity indicate that dramatic social and political changes coincided with the shift of regional power from the eastern Hexi Corridor to Jiuquan and Dunhuang in the west. In these two locations, vibrant artistic centers materialized and these were pivotal to the region’s ascent as a

Humanities 2018, 7, 63; doi:10.3390/h7030063 www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 11 pivotal to the region’s ascent as a center of Buddhist art in subsequent centuries during the Sixteen StatesHumanities (Shiliu 2018Guo, 7 ,十六国 63 304–439) and Northern Dynasties (Bei Chao 北朝 386–581) periods.2 of 11

2. Readingcenter ofthe Buddhist Archaeological art in subsequent Record centuries in the duringHexi Corridor the Sixteen States (Shiliu Guo 十六国 304–439) and Northern Dynasties (Bei Chao 北朝 386–581) periods. The Hexi Corridor is a natural bridge connecting the Chinese heartland ( 中原)1 (Dien 2007, 2.p. Reading 80) to the both Archaeological Record and in the the Hexi eastern Corridor Eurasian . Its topography forced the convergenceThe of Hexi a network Corridor of is atrade natural routes bridge today connecting referred the to Chinese as the heartland Silk Roads. (zhongyuan Stretching中原 )nearly1 one thousand(Dien kilometers 2007, p. 80) from to both Wuwei Central 武威 Asia in and the the southeast, eastern Eurasian through Steppe. Its topography 张掖 and forced Jiuquan 酒泉 to Dunhuangthe convergence 敦煌 ofat athe network far northwest of trade routes end, todaythe Hexi referred Corridor to as the is pressed Silk Roads. between Stretching the nearly harsh climates of theone thousand- kilometers Plateau from (Qingzang Wuwei 武 威Gaoyuanin the southeast, 青藏高原 through) to the Zhangye southwest张掖 and and Jiuquan the Gobi酒泉 Desert to 敦煌 the northeastto Dunhuang (Figure 1).at the A farrain northwest shadow end, cast the by Hexi the CorridorHimalayas is pressed on the between southern the harshedge climates of the plateau is of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (Qingzang Gaoyuan 青藏高原) to the southwest and the to responsiblethe northeast for the (Figure arid 1climate). A rain of shadow the Gobi cast Desert, by the which extends on the southern across the edge northern of the plateau border is of China. The Hexiresponsible Corridor, for the however, arid climate was of theinviting Gobi Desert, to settlers which and extends wayfarers across the in northern part because border of the China. runoff from the escThearpment Hexi Corridor, of the however,Qinghai was-Tibet inviting Plateau to settlers irrigates and wayfarers a string inof part oases. because Since the the runoff Han from dynasty, the these were escarpmentconnected ofalong the Qinghai-Tibet the path of Plateaumilitary irrigates expansion, a string settlement, of oases. Since and the trade. Han dynasty, these were connected along the path of military expansion, settlement, and trade.

Figure 1. Oasis cities of the Hexi Corridor in Gansu province.2 Figure 1. Oasis cities of the Hexi Corridor in Gansu province.2 The dry climate and, until recently, lack of industrial development has left the archeological Therecord dry in theclimate Hexi Corridor and, until remarkably recently, intact, lack providing of industrial a breadth development of data difficult tohas match left elsewherethe archeological recordin in China. the Hexi It allows Corridor for close remarkably inspection of intact, the placement providing and design a breadth of graveyards, of data asdifficult well as to match elsewherethe relationship in China. betweenIt allows aboveground for close inspection and subterranean of the placement plans. This enablesand design broad of comparisons graveyards, as well as theto relationship be made and between conclusions aboveground about historical and patterns subterranean to be drawn. plans Relying. This onenables the archaeological broad comparisons record, however, has some inherent limitations. First, the excavations to date are not a representative to be sampling made and of the conclusions vast pool of about sites. Each historical was usually patterns identified to be by drawn. chance, commonlyRelying on in the the course archaeological recordof, however, building (though has some at least inherent one tomb limitations. was discovered First, after the localexcavations police arrested to date modern-day are not a representative tomb sampling of the vast pool of sites. Each was usually identified by chance, commonly in the course of building (though at least one tomb was discovered after local police arrested modern-day tomb raiders1 attemptingDefined as the middle to sell Yellow its Riverpainted Basin and bricks neighboring on the areas. black market) (Shi 1997, p. 44). Often, a cursory 2 Maps, drawings, and photographs by H. Clydesdale. examination of a large number of tomb mounds determines which ones will be subject to thorough excavations. This means that, while the archaeological record does not reflect a scientific sampling, it is not entirely random.

1 Defined as the middle Basin and neighboring areas. 2 Maps, drawings, and photographs by H. Clydesdale.

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Humanitiesraiders attempting 2018, 7, x FOR to PEER sell REVIEW its painted bricks on the black market) (Shi 1997, p. 44). Often, a cursory3 of 11 examination of a large number of tomb mounds determines which ones will be subject to thorough excavations.Of the excavated This means sites, that, many while have the detailed archaeological reports that record measure, does not describe, reflect catalog, a scientific and sampling, diagram architecture,it is not entirely decoration, random. and burial goods. Over the last decade, archaeologists have been increasinglyOf the excavated diligent sites, in describing many have aboveground detailed reports features that measure, and formations describe, catalog, of tombs, and but diagram this informationarchitecture, in decoration, earlier reports andburial is inconsistent. goods. Over Since the burials last decade, are vulnerable archaeologists to vandalism, have been theft, increasingly and the elements,diligent in and describing because aboveground of the ongoi featuresng expansion and formations of residential, of tombs, commercial, but this information agricultural, in earlier and industrialreports is zones, inconsistent. the archaeological Since burials report are isvulnerable often the last to chance vandalism, to preserve theft, information and the elements, about these and tombsbecause before of the they ongoing are permanently expansion erased. of residential, commercial, agricultural, and industrial zones, the archaeologicalChanges in the report formation is often of thetombs last from chance before to preserve and after information the fall of aboutthe Han these dynasty tombs point before to they the Weiare permanently-Jin period as erased.a crucial turning point, more than a hundred years before the magnificent Buddhist cave Changestemples and in the related formation art first of tombsappeared. from A before comparison and after of excavations the fall of the in Hanthe easter dynastyn and point western to the sectorsWei-Jin of period the Hexi as a crucialCorridor turning further point, indicate more that than the a hundrednexus of yearspower before shifted the westward, magnificent away Buddhist from thecave heartland, temples and as the related region art asserted first appeared. its own Aidentity comparison amid ofthe excavations widespread in chaos the eastern and rapid and rotation western ofsectors rulers of in the north Hexi China Corridor following further the indicate fall of thatthe Han the nexus dynasty. of power shifted westward, away from the heartland, as the region asserted its own identity amid the widespread chaos and rapid rotation of 3. The Eastern Hexi Corridor rulers in following the fall of the Han dynasty. Surveying tomb distribution, size and degree of ornateness in the eastern Hexi Corridor confirms3. The Eastern its establishment Hexi Corridor as a strategic bulwark and launchpad for expansion to what was called the “WesternSurveying ” tomb distribution, (Xi Yu 西域 size) over and the degree course of of ornateness the Han dynasty in the eastern. Most Hexi Han Corridordynasty tombs confirms in theits establishmenteastern Hexi Corridor as a strategic are situated bulwark in and or close launchpad to the city for expansionof Wuwei, to which what in was 121 called BCE was the “Westernfounded asRegions” one of the (Xi Yufirst西 prefectural域) over the-level course cities of the in the Han Hexi dynasty. Corridor. Most HanOne dynastytomb, dat tombsed to inthe the late eastern second Hexi or earlyCorridor third are centuries situated inand or believed close to the to citybelong of Wuwei, to a general, which instands 121 BCE apartwas for founded its size asand one impressive of the first decor.prefectural-level Archaeologists cities in in 1969 the Hexi discovered Corridor. the One tomb tomb, mound dated encased to the in late a Ming second 明 or dynasty early third (1368 centuries–1644) tampedand believed earthen to belongplatform to and a general, estimat standsed that apart it initially for its reached size and a impressiveprodigious decor.six meters Archaeologists in height. As in is1969 typical discovered in Chinese the tomb tombs, mound the size encased of the in hummock a Ming 明 reflectdynastyed (1368–1644)the proportions tamped of the earthen configuration platform beneathand estimated the surface, that it which initially are reached accessed a prodigious via a long, six ramped meters corridor. in height. Three As is underground typical in Chinese chambers, tombs, eachthe size with of a the tall hummock conical ceiling, reflected were the aligned proportions across of nearly the configuration twenty meters beneath (Figure the 2). surface, Crude whichpaintings are ofaccessed stylized via plant a long, motifs ramped adorned corridor. the corridor Three undergroundwalls, while alternating chambers, black each withand white a tall- conicalpainted ceiling, bricks onwere the aligned chamber across walls nearly formed twenty abstract meters patte (Figurerns. 2Scores). Crude of paintingsskillfully cast of stylized bronzes plant including motifs adornedwarriors mountedthe corridor on so walls,-called while heavenly alternating horses black and multiple and white-painted chariots were bricks among on the the rich chamber burial wallsgoods formed of this tombabstract (Gansusheng patterns. Scores Bowuguan of skillfully 1974, castpp. 87, bronzes 90–97 including, 105–7). The warriors fact that mounted the tomb on so-calledcleaves closely heavenly to hhorseseartland and conventions multiple chariots and is werespectacular among in the both rich dimension burial goods and of d thisecor tomb is a testament (Gansusheng to the Bowuguan growing status1974, pp.of Wuwei 87, 90–97, in the 105–7). late Han The factdynasty that theas diplomatic, tomb cleaves trade, closely and to military heartland campaigns conventions flourished and is alongspectacular the Silk in Roads. both dimension and decor is a testament to the growing status of Wuwei in the late Han dynasty as diplomatic, trade, and military campaigns flourished along the Silk Roads.

Figure 2. Plan, and cross-section of tomb at Wuwei Leitai, brick, Han dynasty, late second-early third

centuries, drawing after Gansusheng Bowuguan(1974, Figure 1). Figure 2. Plan, and cross-section of tomb at Wuwei Leitai, brick, Han dynasty, late second-early third centuries, drawing after Gansusheng Bowuguan (1974, Figure 1).

Small-scale burials surrounding Wuwei, meanwhile, provide insights into broader demographic changes at this time. Scores of tombs of varying size have been found grouped and arranged within

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Small-scale burials surrounding Wuwei, meanwhile, provide insights into broader demographic changes at this time. Scores of tombs of varying size have been found grouped and arranged within a sixty-kilometer radius of Wuwei city center. At the site of Mojuzi 磨咀子, nestled next to the foothills of the Qilian 祁连 Mountains, archaeologists in the 1950s conducted preliminary excavations on seventy such tombs and determined that they were built during a three-century span after the founding of Wuwei. Importantly, the archaeologists found no clear evidence of tombs aligned on parallel trajectories, which would indicate burials of extended-families. Instead, the informal burials suggest that they accommodated soldiers or newly arrived soldier-farmers (and their immediate family members) who came to colonize and defend the region. As with other Han dynasty tombs around Wuwei, larger ones were modeled on the standard design consisting of a ramped corridor leading to one or more underground chambers. Compared to their counterparts in the heartland, however, the construction of these tombs was not sophisticated: most consisted of a single dugout chamber that accommodated husband-and-wife burials. The tombs were furnished with typical burial goods including wood figurines and models of stoves, domestic animals and farm equipment. Only one, thought to be later than all the others and dated to the very , had two chambers and even this was only dugout, not brick, fabrication (Du 1992). The large number of tombs along the 240-km stretch between Wuwei and Zhangye traces the westward expansion of control over the course of the Han dynasty. Extensive damage from tomb robbers and natural elements makes it difficult to date these tombs precisely and evaluate architectural details, though in general they seem to be larger in scale and more sophisticated in execution than the bulk of their counterparts around Wuwei. One grouping at a cemetery in Minle 民乐 County, roughly midway between Wuwei and Zhangye, is believed to date to the late Han dynasty. Here nineteen tombs were aligned along an arc-shaped trajectory, and each had a notably large mound, one measuring twenty meters in diameter. Excavations of the chambers yielded large numbers of burial goods, including a plethora of utensils involved in the preparation and consumption of liquor (Du 1992, pp. 80–82). Zhangye split off from Wuwei to become a prefectural seat in 111 BCE and the subsequent appearance of large tombs in deliberate groupings and with more burial goods attests to the area’s economic development and growth of the civilian population. The consolidation of authority over the eastern Hexi Corridor was the result of a political strategy that led to the opening of the Silk Roads in the second century BCE. The Emperor 武 (r. 141–87 BCE) had grown exasperated with his predecessors’ policies for dealing with the formidable confederation of 匈奴 tribes who lived in the Gobi Desert. Eschewing the so-called “peaceful and friendly relations” ( 和亲), essentially a “diplomatic smoke screen which disguised the payment of large bribes” (Barfield 1989, p. 4), Emperor Wu leaned toward an aggressive stance. He dispatched the general 张骞 on two missions to traverse the Hexi Corridor and forge an alliance with other pastoral groups, the 月氏 and 乌孙. While Zhang Qian failed in his assignment, his journey proved to be the initial thrust that cleared the way for fortification and colonization of the Hexi Corridor and eventually enabled the Han government to exert control over the kingdoms surrounding the (Talimu Pendi 塔里木盆地) in the present day province of 新疆. The large and elaborate tombs around Wuwei and Zhangye imply that government influence was escalating, while the loose dispersal of small tombs in surrounding areas suggest that colonies were spreading. In tombs both large and small, close to the city centers and peripheral, funerary decor remained faithful to established traditions, indicating a persistent cultural allegiance among a population made up mainly of soldiers, conscripts, and pioneers. The trend towards more abundant and elaborate tombs abruptly ended with the fall of the Han dynasty in 220 CE. The only tomb of note is a brick-chambered tomb in Wuwei and dated to the third or early fourth century. It features designs made with two-toned bricks but is much smaller than its massive counterpart dated to the late Han dynasty. Additionally, it lacks extra details like side chambers and “pinched waist” corridors between rooms (Zhong 1987). This mirrors the trend in the heartland, where lavish structures above and below ground dwindled as China succumbed to civil war Humanities 2018, 7, 63 5 of 11 and repeated invasions along the northern frontier. Extravagant funerals were derided as symptoms of moral degeneration and economic excess that precipitated the downfall of the dynasty, and they fell prey to popular iconoclasm and imperial proscriptions (Wu 1995, p. 120).

4. The Western Hexi Corridor The archaeological record in the western Hexi Corridor, on the other hand, shows a hard turn towards artistic vibrancy and autonomy. In the century after the fall of the Han dynasty, tombs become more numerous and elaborate. Further, they display cohesive and innovative features and styles, especially around Jiuquan, about 450 km to the west of Wuwei, and at Dunhuang, four hundred kilometers further west. This signals that, while nominally under the control of rulers in the heartland, the western Hexi Corridor emerged as an independent and prosperous region in the Wei-Jin period.

4.1. Jiuquan While Jiuquan was designated a prefectural seat in 121 BCE, the same year as Wuwei, excavations suggest it remained a hardscrabble outpost throughout the Han dynasty. In fact, it appears that building projects emphasized the building of signal towers and defensive walls over tombs. While Han dynasty tombs are still numerous in the surrounding region, they are randomly arranged, suggesting that they were informal graveyards for soldiers (Du 1992, p. 81). The Han government dispatched soldier-farmers to the Hexi Corridor as part of what was called the tuntian 屯田 system. Originally intended to provide grain for government envoys traveling to the , the program quickly expanded to encompass twin goals of defending and colonizing the frontier (Yu 1967, pp. 147–50). In the period immediately after the demise of Han dynasty, however, large-scale tombs in organized formation and with a high degree of uniformity and ornamentation suddenly appeared. Detailed reports on two sets of Wei-Jin tombs have been published, but they have not been considered in the context of less widely known reports that shed light on what is Jiuquan’s surprising emergence as an economic and cultural center. One report from 1979 cataloged aboveground features from three tombs outside of Jiuquan. The tombs shared an enclosure about seven meters thick that delineated an area measuring nearly eighty square meters. The entrance to the enclosure was flanked by rectangular earthen mounds, believed to have been platforms for models of watchtowers that in the Han dynasty commonly bordered what were called “spirit roads” (shendao 神道) leading to tombs. At this site, low walls bordered the spirit road and extended almost 130 m from the entrance. This immense scale was rivaled by a sacrificial platform over seventeen meters in length (Wu 1979). The sheer proportions of the spirit road and platform mean that they were intended to impress as well as to facilitate large gatherings and public displays of ritual. Underground, each tomb had two chambers. Since the earliest tomb was dated to the second half of the third century and the latest to the fourth century, it appears that the restrictions on ostentatious burials were not observed in the western Hexi Corridor as they seem to have been around Wuwei and Zhangye. Additionally, two groups that together encompass eleven large-scale burials were found in an area between Jiuquan and the nearby city of Jiayuguan 嘉峪关, and this cluster represents a purposeful and consistent program of artistic approaches in burials.3 Found within an expansive graveyard that included basic pit graves and modest two-chambered burials, the tombs date to the Wei-Jin period and are published in two detailed reports (Gansusheng Bowuguan et al. 1985; Zhao and 1996). Eight of the tombs are uniformly oriented north, and six were built in pairs that shared enclosures (Gansusheng

3 Today, these tombs are usually treated as two separate groups since they straddle the municipal boundary separating Jiuquan from Jiayuguan and hence fall under different jurisdictions. I treat them as a single group due to their mutual proximity (all within five kilometers) and consistent design. Humanities 2018, 7, 63 6 of 11

BowuguanHumanities et2018 al., 7 1985, x FOR, pp. PEER 3–5). REVIEW The aboveground features of some tombs remain intact today and6 canof 11 be observed firsthand (Figure3). Uniformly, aboveground features were modest, consisting of packed sand and earthen mounds surrounded in some cases by low earthen walls. This could be construed as evidence that some people in and around Jiuquan complied with imperial ordinances calling for austerity, however, this interpretation is belied by the novel architecture and décor below ground. Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11

Figure 3Figure. Tomb 3. Tombmound, mound, gravel gravel and sand, sand, Jiuquan, Jiuquan, Wei-Jin Wei period,-Jin 220 period,–317 CE . 220–317 CE. Figure 3. Tomb mound, gravel and sand, Jiuquan, Wei-Jin period, 220–317 CE. The overallThe layout overall oflayout the of tombs the tombs follow follow Han dynasty dynasty models models with an with extended an rampedextended corridor ramped corridor leading to two or three underground chambers, yet in other aspects, the tombs incorporate significant leadingThe overall to twoingenuity. layoutor three Arriving of underground the at the tombs threshold follow chambers, to the Han chambers, dynastyyet inthe othervisitor models encountersaspects, with thea towering an tombs extended fa çincorporateade made ramped significant corridor leadingingenuity. to two Arrivingof or painted three andat underground thecarved threshold bricks and chambers, toevoking the chambers, a watchtower. yet in other the Soaring visitor aspects, up one encounters the plane tombs of an aairshaft, incorporate towering this fa significantçade made of painted andfeature carved is between bricks eight and twelve evoking meters a tall, watchtower. and nearly reaches Soaring the surface up oneof th eplane earth above. of an airshaft, this ingenuity. ArrivingCalled a at “screen the threshold wall” (zhaobi to 照壁 the) chambers, by archaeologists, the visitor a mixture encounters of apotropaic a and towering auspicious façade made of paintedfeature and is carvedbetweenimagery bricks endows eight and itand with evoking twelvemagical apurpose,meters watchtower. while tall, the and Soaringpresence nearly of up areaches miniature one plane the door ofsurface suggests an airshaft, thatof thit e this earth feature above. is 天门 betweenCalled eight a “screenfunctions and twelve wallas a tianmen” meters (zhaobi tall, or照壁 celestial and) nearly by gate archaeologists, (Sun reaches 2008, pp. the 33– surface34 a). While mixture of the the screen of earth apotropaicwall above.appearedCalled in and auspicious a “screen imagery endowstombs across it with the Hexi magical Corridor purpose, and built through while the the third presence and fourth ofcenturies, a miniature it is at Jiuquan door that suggests that it wall” (zhaobi 照it coalesces壁) by archaeologists, into a uniform and a original mixture spatial of program. apotropaic It heralds and the auspicious entrance to imagery the chambers endows it with 天门 magicalfunctions purpose, asbeyond a tianmen while, whichthe are presence accessed or celestial through of a miniature gate a low, (Sun barrel door200-vaulted8, suggests pp. passageway 33–34 that). While it(Figures functions the 4 andscreen as 5). a The walltianmen appeared天门 or in chambers themselves employ a multi-layered interplay of brick architecture, paintings, and burial celestialtombs gateacross (Sun the 2008 Hexi, pp. Corridor 33–34). and While built the through screen the wall third appeared and fourth in tombs centuries, across it the is Hexiat Jiuquan Corridor that it coalescesgoods into to a uniform replicate a and central original courtyard, spatial surrounded program. by a manor It heralds and attenda the nt entrance farms, with to the chambers and built throughwildernesses the third beyond. and In fourth these settings, centuries, painted it servants is at Jiuquan cheerfully thatprepare it andcoalesces serve banquets, into a uniform and originalbeyond spatial, whichpeasants program. are sow accessed andIt heralds reap throughharvests, the entrance and a images low, to barrel ofthe male chambers- vaulted and female beyond, passageway tomb occupants which (Figures are feast, accessed play 4 and through 5). The a instruments and gallivant across the countryside (Clydesdale 2016, ch. 3). low,chambers barrel-vaulted themselves passageway employ (Figuresa multi-4layered and5). interplay The chambers of brick themselves architecture, employ paintings, a multi-layered and burial interplaygoods of to brick replicate architecture, a central paintings, courtyard, and burial surrounded goods to by replicate a manor a central and courtyard,attendant surrounded farms, with wildernesses beyond. In these settings, painted servants cheerfully prepare and serve banquets, by a manor and attendant farms, with wildernesses beyond. In these settings, painted servants cheerfully peasants sow and reap harvests, and images of male and female tomb occupants feast, play prepare and serve banquets, peasants sow and reap harvests, and images of male and female tomb instruments and gallivant across the countryside (Clydesdale 2016, ch. 3). occupants feast, play instruments and gallivant across the countryside (Clydesdale 2016, ch. 3).

Figure 4. Cross section, Jiayuguan M6, brick, Wei-Jin period, 220–317 CE, after Gansusheng Bowuguan et al. (1985, Figure 15).

Figure 4. Cross section, Jiayuguan M6, brick, Wei-Jin period, 220–317 CE, after Gansusheng Bowuguan Figure 4. Cross section, Jiayuguan M6, brick, Wei-Jin period, 220–317 CE, after Gansusheng et al.(1985, Figure 15). Bowuguan et al. (1985, Figure 15).

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Figure 5. Split view rendering of through screen wall and into front chamber, Jiayuguan M6, Wei-Jin Figure 5. Split view rendering of through screen wall and into front chamber, Jiayuguan M6, Wei-Jin period, 220–317 CE. period, 220–317 CE.

The style of these eleven tombs is both consistent and singular. The form and decoration of the The style of these eleven tombs is both consistent and singular. The form and decoration of the screen walls are regimented across the tombs, while the chambers beyond combine similar principles screen walls are regimented across the tombs, while the chambers beyond combine similar principles with original variations seen in the interplay of architectural space and painted depictions of the tomb with original variations seen in the interplay of architectural space and painted depictions of the occupants. The importance of Jiuquan as an artistic center is underscored by the fact that tomb occupants. The importance of Jiuquan as an artistic center is underscored by the fact that contemporaneous tombs at the town of Gaotai 高台, about 150 km to the east, hew to both contemporaneous tombs at the town of Gaotai 高台, about 150 km to the east, hew to both architectural architectural and painted prototypes found at Jiuquan. They are smaller, however, use less and painted prototypes found at Jiuquan. They are smaller, however, use less sophisticated technology sophisticated technology (dried bricks instead of fired), and display coarse brushwork along with (dried bricks instead of fired), and display coarse brushwork along with rudimentary figural rendering, rudimentary figural rendering, all of which suggests that Jiuquan was the origin of the influence (Shi all of which suggests that Jiuquan was the origin of the influence (Shi 1997; Gansusheng Wenwu 1997; Gansusheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo and Gaotai Bowuguan 2003). One tomb at Gaotai, Kaogu Yanjiusuo and Gaotai Bowuguan 2003). One tomb at Gaotai, however, is both stately and however,groundbreaking. is both stately While and comparable groundbreaking. in size and While arrangement compara toble other in size chambered and arrangement tombs, the to front other chamberedchamber encases tombs, athe large front portico chamber and encases gate with a large columns, portico struts, and gate brackets, with columns, and beams, struts, all detailedbrackets, andimitations beams, ofall wooden detailed architecture, imitations of but wooden made of architecture, carved earth but (Gansusheng made of carved Wenwu earth Kaogu (Gansusheng Yanjiusuo Wenwuand Gaotai Kaogu Bowuguan Yanjiusuo 2008 and). Future Gaotai excavations Bowuguan may 2008). divulge Future further excavations information may about divulge the origin further or informationdevelopment about of this the style. origin or development of this style.

4.2.4.2. Dunhuang Dunhuang TheThe city city of of Dunhuang Dunhuang is is situated situated at at the the western western end end of of the the Hexi Hexi Corridor. Corridor. Here, Here, excavations excavations at twoat twograveyards, graveyards, Qijiaw Qijiawanan 祁家湾祁家湾 andand Foyemiaowan Foyemiaowan 佛爷庙湾佛爷庙湾,, have yieldedyielded significantsignificant caches caches of of tombs.tombs. As As at at Jiuquan, Jiuquan, a a range range of of formats, formats, from from simple verticalvertical pitspits toto tombstombs with with ramped ramped corridors corridors leadingleading to to either either dugout dugout chambers chambers or or single single and double brick-chambersbrick-chambers indicatesindicates aa high high degree degree of of socialsocial stratification, stratification, while while the the regular regular presence presence of enclosures shows shows a a propensity propensity towards towards family family formationsformations (Figure (Figure 6).6). A Aboveground,boveground, the mounds andand enclosuresenclosures are are similar similar to to those those at at Jiuquan, Jiuquan, but but departuresdepartures in in architecture architecture and and décor décor belowground belowground demonstratedemonstrate thatthat artisansartisans at at Dunhuang Dunhuang developed developed a adistinctive distinctive style. style.

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Figure 6. Tomb mounds and enclosures at Foyemiaowan, gravel and sand, Dunhuang, Western Jin Figure 6. Tomb mounds and enclosures at Foyemiaowan, gravel and sand, Dunhuang, Western , 265–317 CE. dynasty, 265–317 CE.

At Qijiawan, although burials vary in size and orientation, many are organized in groups, alignedAt Qijiawan,on the same although axis and burials sharing vary grave in size enclosures. and orientation, These tombs many also are have organized screen in walls groups, faced aligned with onplain the adobe same bricks axis and or sharingleft bare grave and earthen. enclosures. The Thesechambers tombs themsel also haveves, screennumbering walls between faced with one plain and adobetwo, are bricks not constructed or left bare and of brick earthen. but Theare chamberscatacombs themselves, dug out of numberingthe earth. While between they one lack and paintings two, are notand constructedcarved ornamentation, of brick but their are catacombs construction dug approximates out of the earth. the shapes While theyof the lack brick paintings-chambered and carvedtombs ornamentation,at Jiuquan (Dai et their al. 1994 construction, pp. 3–12 approximates). The second theDunhuang shapesof site the of brick-chambered Foyemiaowan is tombsa few kilometers at Jiuquan (eastDai of et al.the 1994 city,, pp.around 3–12). and The within second the Dunhuang grounds of site what of Foyemiaowan is now the airport. is a few Tombs kilometers here date east to of the city,end of around the third and and within early the fourth grounds centuries, of what during is now the the Western airport. Jin Tombs dynasty here, datewhich to tenuously the end of and the thirdbriefly and unified early China. fourth In centuries, the eastern during section the Westernof the site, Jin tombs dynasty, are which of dugout tenuously construction and briefly and unifiedappear China.more makeshift In the eastern than section those of at the Qijiawan site, tombs (Sun are and of dugout Ma 1974, construction pp. 191–97 and). Tombsappear more in the makeshift western thanquadrant, those athowever, Qijiawan have (Sun tall, and ornament Ma 1974, pp.ed screen 191–97). walls. Tombs The in the intricate western pictorial quadrant, organization however, have and tall,elegant ornamented brushwork screen depicting walls. protective The intricate guardians pictorial and organization auspicious beasts and elegant suggest brushwork that the screen depicting wall protectivewas the most guardians important and focus auspicious in the beastsburial, suggest even surpassing that the screen its significance wall was theat Jiuquan most important (Gansushen focusg inWenwu the burial, Kaogu even Yanjiusuo surpassing 1998, its pp. significance 8–40). at Jiuquan (Gansusheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 1998, pp. 8–40). 5. From Frontier to Safe Haven 5. From Frontier to Safe Haven In the Wei-Jin period, both Jiuquan and Dunhuang were titularly subject to sovereigns in the In the Wei-Jin period, both Jiuquan and Dunhuang were titularly subject to sovereigns in the heartland, yet their remote locations enabled locals to consolidate power. A survey of tombs built heartland, yet their remote locations enabled locals to consolidate power. A survey of tombs built over this period exhibits an expansion of scale, alignment of formation, surge in refinement, and the over this period exhibits an expansion of scale, alignment of formation, surge in refinement, and establishment of two distinct styles at Jiuquan and Dunhuang. These are signs that, even as other the establishment of two distinct styles at Jiuquan and Dunhuang. These are signs that, even as parts of China roiled under what was widespread mayhem and acute deprivation during the third other parts of China roiled under what was widespread mayhem and acute deprivation during the and fourth centuries, the western Hexi Corridor emerged as a region of political stability and artistic third and fourth centuries, the western Hexi Corridor emerged as a region of political stability and inspiration. artistic inspiration. Since the Han dynasty, burials in China served a public purpose by increasing a family’s prestige Since the Han dynasty, burials in China served a public purpose by increasing a family’s prestige and helping its members amass social currency as they demonstrated filial virtue through funerary and helping its members amass social currency as they demonstrated filial virtue through funerary and sacrificial rituals. The confluence of belief and society represented by tombs and attendant burial and sacrificial rituals. The confluence of belief and society represented by tombs and attendant burial rituals does not appear in the western Hexi Corridor until the Wei-Jin period when parallel rituals does not appear in the western Hexi Corridor until the Wei-Jin period when parallel alignments alignments of family graves buttressed or elevated the social position of forebears and the newly deceased alike. The size of graves, proclaimed by the mound and ridge of sand and gravel running

Humanities 2018, 7, 63 9 of 11 of family graves buttressed or elevated the social position of forebears and the newly deceased alike. The size of graves, proclaimed by the mound and ridge of sand and gravel running above the length of the corridor, signaled hierarchies within groups and also between them, thus establishing the status of the occupant or occupants in relation to the extended family and larger community. Enclosures set specific graves apart from the thousands of others in the desert, further distinguishing people by social class and relationships. On the blank canvas of the Gobi Desert, even piles of sand and gravel could communicate ideas of status and relationships. This, coupled with increasing numbers of large and elaborate rooms underground, show that Jiuquan and Dunhuang harbored formidable families with a certain amount of wealth. The metamorphosis of the western Hexi Corridor was both rooted in its military past and stimulated by events elsewhere in China. Families of means and influence began moving from the heartland to settle in the Hexi Corridor during the late Han dynasty. By the third century, they were able to take advantage of well-developed irrigation and defense systems that had been installed as part of the tuntian system (You 1991; You 1992, pp. 80–81). The Han dynasty fragmented at the precise time when the Hexi Corridor was reorganizing from a collection of military-farming colonies into communities in which farming and animal husbandry were augmented by sericulture and trade ( 2006, pp. 87–88). As rebellion, warfare, and famine wracked populations in the heartland, waves of refugees sought sanctuary in south China and also in the western Hexi Corridor western frontier where the economy was thriving (Li and Zhu 2012, pp. 117–18). A description of the Hexi Corridor from the Hanshu 汉书 may have characterized the region as an exotic frontier when it was written in the second century CE, but amid the upheavals after the fall of the dynasty, it likely beckoned as a sanctuary of peace and prosperity:

West of Wuwei...the land is vast, and people are few. The water and grass are suitable for animal husbandry, and livestock in old Liangzhou 凉州 is the most plentiful under heaven...Officials and the people have mutual affection. Bandits are few; there is an atmosphere of harmony and virtue compared to administrations in China’s interior (Ban 1995, pp. 1644–45).4

Archaeological evidence shows that the allure of the Hexi Corridor beckoned to peoples from the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, the Gobi Desert and the Western Regions. Scores of paintings from tombs at Jiuquan and Jiayuguan, along with one tomb from Gaotai, depict pastoral groups like the Qiang 羌, 氐, and Tufa 秃发鲜卑, as well as peoples from the Western Regions such as Qiuci 龟兹 and Sogdians. Many are shown living harmoniously and even farming and practicing sericulture alongside ethnic , the majority group in ancient and present-day China (Gansusheng Bowuguan et al. 1985, pp. 49–50 and 99, plates 46–47, 53 and 86; E Jun and Gao 2009, p. 138; Zheng 2012, pp. 137–38). Textural records from the time also document increasing diversity in the region. The Jinshu 晋书 contends that among the peoples in the region “between the passes” ( 关中), more than half were not ethnic Han Chinese (Fang 1995). The paintings, however, give a view of ethnic relations that conflicts with the one presented by official histories of the time. Those chronicle recurring uprisings, suppressions, land grabs, invasions and enslavement campaigns among ethnic groups (Bai 2011). The openness to cross-cultural interactions on display in the idealized world of the tomb may have helped foster the artistic innovations seen in later Buddhist art. The importance of the Hexi Corridor along the Silk Roads is widely recognized when it comes to diplomatic and economic exchanges in the Han dynasty, as well due to remarkable artistic developments when the region later burgeoned into a center of Buddhist art and culture. The influence of the Wei-Jin period, however, is often overlooked.5 Appreciating the forces that catalyzed the

4 Liangzhou is an ancient name for the region. This quote is from the Dilizhixia 地理志下. My translation. 5 An exception is Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt’s examination of the adaptation of tomb architecture into cave temples (Steinhardt 2001). Humanities 2018, 7, 63 10 of 11 development of funerary art in the western Hexi Corridor, around Jiuquan and Dunhuang, sheds light on the conditions that laid the foundations for subsequent artistic innovation in the and Northern Dynasties periods.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Acknowledgments: My research draws upon my dissertation, which was funded by a Weinig Research and Travel Grant and a Mellon Fellowship for Dissertation Research. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest.

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