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( Volume 50 No.3· 1989 ) -.-

United States Department of Fire Agriculture Management Forest Service An international quarterly periodical Volume 50, No.3 Notes devoted to forest fire management 19B9

Contents Special Features

4 Computerized Infrared System for Observation of 19 With a Lot of Help From a Friend-the Civilian Con­ Prescribed Fires servation Corps c.J. Ogilvie and R. Fitch Doris Celarier

7 Could the 1988 Fires in Yellowstone Have Been 34 The 1988 Greater Yellowstone Area Fires: A Slide­ Avoided Through Prescribed Burning? Tape Story James K. Brown Robert Swinford

14 Workforce Diversity: A Mosaic for the Future Fire Management Notes is published by the Forest Service of tne United States Department 01Agriculture. Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined Jerilyn Levi and Kimberly Brandel . that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department. 24 Protecting the Interface: A New Training Program Subscriptions may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. Mark R. Reynolds Send suggestions and articles to Chief, Forest Service (Attn: Fire Management Notes), P.O. Box 96090, U.S. Department of AgriCUlture,Washington, DC 20090-6090. 26 Conflagration Prevention Systems at the Urban­ Clayton K. Yeutter. Secretary Francis R. Russ Wildland Interface U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager

James L. Murphy and Troy Kurth F. Dale Robertson, Chief Doris N. Celarier Forest Service Editor 29 CFES-a PC-Based Fire Planning Tool for the 1990's LA Arnicarelia, Director Fire and Aviation Management Wayne Mitchell and Glen Lee

Disclaimer: The use of trade, firm. or corporation names in this publication is for the 43 Mobile Food Service in Remote Areas information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individual Jeannette Wright authors are responsible for the technical accuracy of the material presented in Fire Management Notes. 46 Smokey and the American Cowboy Gene Dowdy

Short Features

3 To Gordon Reinhart-the Director's Award for Work­ force Diversity Achievement Kimberly Brandel

13 Thanks, Earl Nelson

25 Sexual Harassment-What's It All About? Harry Croft

33 Olive-Drab Federal Property Enrollees gathered around campfire on the Lassen National Forest in California. 285SYJ Francis R. Russ

Front Cover: eee enrollees during rest period at Povertv Ridge Fire camp on the, Back Cover: Region 1 highway lire prevention signs manufactured by cee sign shop. Siskiyou National Forest in Oregon (E. lindsay, 1936). 391965 Tenant, E. 1941. Highway fire-prevention signs. Fire Control Notes. 5(2}: 98-99.

2 Fire Management Notes Upcoming Workforce To Gordon Reinhart....,...the Director's. Diversity Projects Award for Workforce Diversity Achievement Here is an update on workforce diversity projects on the agenda for fiscal year 1990: At the Workforce Diversity in Fire and Aviation Management conference • Publication and distribution of recruit­ held in April in Denver. CO, Gordon Reinhart was awarded the first-ever ment desk guide for fire management Director's Award for Workforce Diversity Achievement. This was a "van­ officers. guard" award. made to a' leader who takes risks and by doing so shows • Compilation and publication of actions others the way. Director Lawrence (Mic) Amicarella instituted this special and plans for the "Model for Workforce award to identify and recognize outstanding achievements in promoting diver­ Diversity." • Development of an action plan based on sity in the Fire and Aviation Management workforce. input and recommendations from the Gordon Reinhart, fire management officer on the Umatilla National Forest, "Workforce Diversity in Fire and Avia­ is recognized by his peers for his exemplary leadership and attitude. His tion Management: A Mosaic for the exceptional commitment to furthering workforce diversity goals is evident in Future" conference in Denver, CO. all clements of his activities as a national Incident Commander and as a leader • Kickoff of a promotional campaign on in numerous workshops and training sessions at the national. regional, and appropriate behavior. forest level. • Selection for funding of special Through Reinhart's influence, the Umatilla National Forest has achieved a diversity project proposals submitted by healthy, diverse fire organization with over 20 percent women at the 05-5 the regions. through 05-9 grade level. The lower grades are represented by an even higher percentage of females and minorities. Through Reinhart's influence, the first female district fire management officer in the Nation was placed on the Umatilla. At a national Incident Command level, Reinhart's teams have always had a well-balanced workforce mix that included females and minorities in nontradi­ tional positions such as division supervisor. His support for trainee positions, unique among national Incident Commanders, has helped qualify many women and minorities for nontraditional fire jobs. On one incident, 61 trainee assignments were carried out and documented. Feedback from nonteam mem­ ber women and minorities reveals the fair treatment and opportunities provided for special training and advancement on large incident assignments. His 1989 team (including trainees) was made up of approximately SO percent women and minorities. In an effort to ensure that all forms of discrimination and harassment on large fire incidents were identified and dealt with in a positive manner. Reinhart suggested and obtained approval to assign an Equal Employment Opportunity specialist/training officer permanently to his team. The specialist was used by his team on several large incidents to resolve smoothly and effectively occurrences of inappropriate sexual and ethnic behavior. Reinhart has taken the initiative to set up workshops to give women and minorities the opportunity to come and talk with him and others on how to Fire u.id Aviation Management Director Law­ become involved in fire management, both as a career and as an emergency rence (Mic) Amicarelta presenting the fire participant. He also has spoken at several workforce diversity conferences Director's Award for Workfora Diversity about the importance of mentoring. Achievement to Gordon Reinhart. Reinhart has demonstrated unique leadership among fire managers by per­ sonally committing himself to workforce diversity. His is an example of the type of leadership and attitude that will successfully lead us to meeting the 1995 workforce diversity goal for Fire and Aviation Management. •

Kimberly Brandel, fire planning assistant and conference coordinator. USDA Forest Service. Fire and Aviation Management. Washington. DC

CCC Photographs: Courtesy of National Agricultural Library, Forest Service Photo Collection

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 3 ------

Computerized Infrared System for Observation of Prescribed. Fires . Forestry Forets C.J. Ogilvie and R. Fitch .+. Canada Canada Respectively. fire research technician, Northern Forestry Centre. Forestry Canada, Edmonton, AB, and director, Compuheat Services Canada, /I1C., Calgary, AB

Smoke from forest fires has always tern with the main components $171,040 ($200,000 Canadian).' The presented a barrier to efficient fire described below. The scanner is rental costs were $4,256 ($5,000 detection, mapping, and behavior manufactured by Barr and Stroud, Canadian)' per week. The computer research. Thermal infrared (lR) sen: Ltd., of Glasgow. Scotland, with the analyzer is manufactured by Com­ sors mounted in fixed- or rotary-wing following specifications: puhear Services, lnc., of Calgary, aircraft have been used for more than • Field of view-38' x 25.5' (other AB, and is designed to convert con­ 25 years to overcome the informa­ lenses are available). tinuously any standard video signal tion-gathering barrier in a smoke • Resolution-I.73 milliradians. to digits during flight as well as per­ environment (Artsybashev et al. • Spectral band width-8 to 13 form a number of specialized 1971; Green ct al. 1984; Hanks et al, micrometers. functions and calculations such as 1986; Lacey and Friedrich 1984; • Dctcctor-Mulland sprite. follows; Lawson 1975; Warren and Wilson • Video output-standard. • Calculating geographic areas and 1981). Further technological distances on single video frames improvements and developments will and geographic areas continuously no doubt continue (Nichols and War­ The results of the 1987 trial clearly on successive frames. ren 1987). In response to our show the potential for gathering • Storing video frames in random immediate need for a flexible, rela­ infrared data, using a high-quality, access memory and on floppy tively inexpensive and reliable forward-looking infrared (FLIR) disk. method of monitoring the behavior of scanner interfaced with a computer • Density slicing digital images to large-scale prescribed fires (McRae analyzer mounted in a Bell 206L allow the selection of a single and Stocks 1987), a new system was helicopter. intensity level or range of intensity evaluated in northeastern Ontario levels (the analyzer is-capable of during August 1987. The prescribed fires were conducted by the Ontario The scanner is cooled by com­ JForeign Exchange, New York prices Ministry of Natural Resources with pressed air and costs approximately ($0.8552), as of August 9, 1989. Forestry Canada's Great Lakes For­ estry Centre (GLFC). carrying out some of the instrumentation and Time VCR monitoring of the fires as well as the generator for live C- live signal coordination of the numerous U.S. signal agencies gathering data from the I fires. Forestry Canada's Northern Infrared I Forestry Centre (NoFC) and Com­ VCR detector Altitude Displays; I-- analyzed puheat Services Canada, Inc., Lens: input -- images; gathered IR data from the fires, using signal kannotated x1 Compuheat a high-quality, forward-looking 6 analyzer data x 1.5 infrared (FUR) scanner interfaced 6 Latitude with a computer analyzer mounted in I-- x2.5 longitude a Bell 206L helicopter. The objective input of this paper is to present a system x9 overview and describe results I : Z I obtained from the trial. Image Data de 28v Aircraft printer printer inverter

Figure I is a schematic of the sys- Figure I~Schem(lfic of computerized infrared system.

4 Fire Management Notes differentiating 128 intensity levels ground reference to the pilot to assist ncar Timmins, ON, in August 1987. and calculating the area covered him in holding a steady hover. At the time of ignition, there were by each). virtually no upper-level winds. As a • Recording positional data continu­ Performance to Date result, the condensation cap formed ously (longitude and latitude). directly over the fire area, which • Recording the time and date The system was first tested on a necessitated operating the aircraft continuously. 1,483-acre (600-ha) prescribed fire beneath the cap on the very edge of. • Manipulating the images in mem­ ory or on disk (by reducing, enlarging, superimposing, and pre­ senting two images on the same screen). .~ • Annotating the images.

Operating Procedures :J 10"" IR t· cornero The scanner was mounted ver­ , tically on a steel plate fastened to the rear seat platform of the helicopter. The plate protruded far enough through the door opening to allow a clear field of view between the fuse­ lage and the landing skid (fig. 2). The computer analyzer was mounted on the rear-facing seat platform of the aircraft and secured with seat Figure 2-P!acemel1t of scallner in the helicopter. belts. After the initial preparations were made, installation of all equip­ ment could be made in 30 minutes. The requirements for monitoring fire behavior called for hovering the helicopter within its capabilities at whatever altitude was necessary to keep as much of the actively burning area as possible in the viewing screen at one time. The scale of the displayed image was therefore con­ trolled by aircraft altitude. lt was assumed that the fire-generated con­ densation cap that would attenuate the IR signal would be offset from the fire due to winds aloft and that these same upper-level winds would assist in stabilizing the hovering air­ craft. The live imagery was to be used by the lR team to provide Figure 3-lmaging of ignition patterns. fire growth. and interactive fire behavior,

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 5 the smoke column. The strong up­ aspect ensures that no activity is McRae, D.J.: Stocks, BJ. 1987. Large-scale and-down drafts close to the fire con­ missed, while the analyzer can be convection burning in Ontario. In: Proceed­ vection column made it somewhat used to thoroughly investigate any ings of the ninth conference on fire and forest meteorology; 1987 April 21-24; San difficult to hold the aircraft station­ moment in time. For 1988, the Diego. CA. Boston, MA: American Mete­ ary. It was therefore necessary to equipment and methods were orological Society: [postprint vol.]: 23-30. record altitude changes constantly developed further by incorporating a Nichols, J.D.; Warren. J.R. 1987. Forest Fire and to brief the pilot on aircraft posi­ aeronautically approved camera pod Advanced System Technology (FFAST): a tion. In spite of these problems the and a radar altimeter (Hall and Walsh conceptual design for detection and map­ ping. In: Davis. LB.: Martin, R.E .. tech. helicopter was operated in a hover of 1986; Spencer and Hall 1988), an coords. Proceedings of the symposium on up to 9,500 feet (2,900 m) above 87° lens, and a separate monitor for wildland fire 2000; 1987 April 27-30: ground level over the active fire area, the pilot. • South Lake Tahoe. CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. permitting the continuous imaging of PSW~IOJ. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department ignition patterns, fire growth, and of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific For­ Literature Cited eSI and Range Experiment Station: 85-91. interactive fire behavior (fig. 3). Warren. J.: Wilson. R.A. 19!H. Airborne During postprocessing of the imag­ Artsybashev. E.S.: Mel'nikov, V.F.: Shilin, infrared forest fire surveillance-.-a chronol­ ery, rates of spread were calculated, B.V. 1971. Infrared aerial photography of ogy of USDA Forest Service research and which when related to fuel loads and forest fires from high flying aircraft and developmenl. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-115. artificial earth satellites. [In Russian.] condition will be instrumental in pre­ Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agricul­ Lesnoye Khozyaisrvo. 5:60-64. [Transla­ dicting the growth rates of prescribed ture, Forest Service. Intermountain Forest tion OOENV TR-71. Onawa. ON: and Range Experiment Station. 8 p. fires in the future. Ignition patterns Fisheries and Environment Canada Library. Hall, RJ.; Walsh. 1.J. 1986. The Yukon and were accurately chronicled in order II p.] Canadian Forestry Service large-scale aerial to provide data on the most efficient Green. AI: O'Brien. M.; Roberts, G.: Church­ photo camera system: general description, ill. J.; Cheney, P. 1984. Infrared linescan configuration. Relative fire intensities installation. operation. and maintenance techniques for monitoring the spread of were calculated for selected times manual. [File Report.] Canadian Forestry bushfircs (Project Aquarius). In: Walker, Service, Northern Forestry Centre, Edmon­ and locations and were related to the Eric. ed. Proceedings of the third Austral­ ton. AB. 32 p. smoke content monitoring that was asian remote sensing conference; 1984 May Spencer. R.D.: Hall, RJ. 1988. Canadian also taking place during the fire. This 21-25; Gold Coast. Queensland. Brisbane. large-scale aerial photographic systems involved isolating and determining Queensland: Organizing Committee LAND­ (LSP). Photogrammetry Engineering SAT 84: 282-293. Remote Sensing. 54(4):475--482. the extent of the areas that were Hanks, R.: Warren, J.: Pendleton. D. 1986. actively flaming, smoldering, or Alaska Division of Forestry goes TROLL­ unlit. In addition, a large fire whirl­ ing. Fire Management Notes. 47(1):32-36. wind tracking through the tire for up Lacey, G.M.; Friedrich, J. 1984. Detection to 1.5 minutes was noted on the and mapping of fires using an airborne ther­ mal infrared scanner. In: Walker. Eric. ed. imagery during postprocessing. Proceedings of the third Australasian remote sensing conference: 1984 May 21­ Conclusion 25; Gold Coast. Queensland. Brisbane. Queensland: Organizing Committee LAND­ The 1987 trial was of an explora­ SAT 84: 294-303. Lawson, B.D. 1975. Forest fire spread and tory nature and has clearly shown energy output determined from low altitude that the system and method of infrared imagery. In: Proceedings of sym­ application has great potential for posium on remote sensing and photo applications such as calculating rate interpretation: 1974 October 7-11: Banff. of spread, recording ignition pattern, AB. Ottawa. ON: Canadian Institute of Surveying and International Society for determining change in fire intensities, Photogrammetry, Commission VII: 363­ and evaluating fire suppression 378. Vol. I. activity. The continuous real-time

6 Fire Management Notes Could the 1988 Fires in Yellowstone Have Been Avoided Through Prescribed Burning?

James K. Brown:

Research project leader, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula. MT

Could a program of planned­ The potential for using prescribed We have limited experience using ignition, prescribed fires have elimi­ fire in these fuel groups varies prescribed fire in this cover type in nated the undesirable consequences substantially, the absence of tree harvesting. Dry­ of wildfire in Yellowstone National site, Douglas-fir stands occupy a Park in 1988? Planned ignitions are small portion of Yellowstone, Fires prescribed fires ignited by managers The answer hinges on an analysis in this cover type bum readily of fuel characteristics, fire rather than by uncontrolled sources beneath tree canopies in grass and such as lightning. The question can behavior potentials, fire prescrip­ small twig fuels, be better answered as two parts: tion, logistics, and prescribed­ High elevation forests of whitebark burning costs. • Would the threat to major visitor pine and spruce or fir hummocks are facilities and wilderness or admin­ typically of low flammability due to istrative boundaries have been The sagebrush-grass type occurs in sparse fuels and high fuel moisture, reduced? the northern portion of Yellowstone, Prescribed fire would be impractical • Would the fires have been of It is composed of fine fuels and sup­ in most of this type because burning smaller size and less intense? ports rapid rates of fire spread when conditions occur infrequently and The answer to this question hinges the grasses are cured, Fire intensities hazardous fuels are seldom a prob­ on an analysis of fuel characteristics, are intermediate among wildland lem. The major wildfire threat fire behavior potentials, fire prescrip­ fuels and depend partly on the to villages, improvements, and tion, logistics, and prescribed­ amount of sagebrush present. The wilderness boundaries lies with the burning costs. practice of prescribed fire is well lodgepole pine forest. developed in this type of cover Fuel Types and Fire Behavior Opportunities to use prescribed fire Lodgepole Pine Fuels occur annually, except where inten­ Major cover types from low 'to sive grazing has markedly depleted Fuels and potential fire behavior high elevation in Yellowstone include the herbaceous fuels, Grass fuels change dramatically over the lifespan sagebrush-grass, Douglas-fir, recover after one growing season. of lodgepole pine, depending upon lodgepole pine, spruce-subalpine fir, Benefits of hazard reduction arise establishment, growth, mortality, site and whitebark pine. These cover primarily from reduced fire intensity, characteristics, and fire frequency. types can be grouped into three fuel because fire can still spread rapidly The major fuel components are nee­ classes that possess different fire in areas burned the previous years, dle litter (01 horizon) and duff (02 behavior potentials: Continuous forest, primarily of horizon); downed woody material; • Sagebrush-grass, lodgepole pine, occupies nearly 80 and understory herbs, shrubs, and • Continuous forest. percent of Yellowstone. Potential for small conifers. These components • Open forest at high elevations, development of high-intensity fire increase and decrease differently over and spread of fire vary greatly, time. Following stand-replacement "This paper was presented at the annual meet­ depending upon the amount of dead fire, grasses and forbs are the pri­ ing of the American Association for the vegetation present and vertical con­ mary ground cover until a new stand Advancement of Science in San Francisco, tinuity of live fuels, particularly of trees is established and crowns CA, January 19, 1989. The help of the follow­ understory conifers, Fires typically ing individuals in developing this paper is begin to close. Herbaceous vegeta­ greatly appreciated: Dave Thomas, Lola spread very slowly in lodgepole pine tion then declines, Shrubs appear National Forest: Steve Frye, Yellowstone and spruce or fir types until severe slowly and are never abundant. National Park; John Krebs, Idaho Panhandle burning conditions resulting from Understory herb and shrub biomass National Forests; John Chapman, Bridger­ long-term drying and sustained winds Teton National Forest: Dennis Quintilio. in Yellowstone lodgepole pine stands are reached. Then fire behavior Alberta Department of Energy-Forestry, Lands is several times less than that found and Wildlife; Rod Narum, National Park Serv­ changes abruptly, and fires spread by in otber lodgepole pine stands of the ice; and Ron Pierce, Kootenai National Forest. high-intensity crowning and spotting. northern Rocky Mountains (Brown

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 7 and Bevins 1986). A sparsity of rivity, and longevity. site. Engelmann spruce and subalpine herbaceous and shrub fuels is charac­ The following classification of suc­ fir seedlings and saplings are fre­ teristic of most lodgepole pine in cession in lodgepole pine based on quently present. The forest floor is Yellowstone. In mature-to-ovcnna­ Don Despain's work (Despain 1989), well covered with herbaceous vegeta­ ture lodgepole pine, spruce and with some deviation in the immature tion and grouse whortleberry. Litter subalpine fir often develop in the stage, illustrates fire behavior at dif­ and duff are continuous. Downed understory and contribute to torching, ferent time periods in lodgepole woody fuels are normally sparse. crowning, and spotting. In climax forests. Fire spread is slow and potential for stands of overmature lodgepole pine, Young stands (0 to 40 years). crowning is slight. Occasional young lodgepole pine trees become Herbaceous plants comprise the pockets of understory fuels will sup­ understory fuel. major plant cover. Seedlings aod sap­ port torching and crowning. In the Needle litter and duff begin to lings are present. Fire-killed trees latter part of this period, mountain accumulate after trees dominate the from the previous forest have fallen pine beetle may kill many trees aod site. The forest floor layer gradually throughout the period. Litter and duff increase flammability. thickens and reaches an average of I are absent. Fire spread through this Overmature stands (300 plus to 1.5 inches (2 to 4 ern) in depth in type is rare, although some downed years). The overstory is pre­ older stands. Downed woody mate­ logs, partially rotten, will bum. dominately occupied by lodgepole rial increases substantially following Immature stands (30 to 150 pine but some Engelmann spruce, fire as the old fire-killed stand falls years). Dense stands of small­ subalpine fir, and whitebark pine are to the ground. Most of the trees fall diameter lodgepole pine occupy the present. The canopies are ragged; within 20 years. The quantity of site. Understory vegetation is sparse. understory fuel components are usu­ downed woody material and related Needle litter is nearly continuous. A ally well developed. Large-diameter flammability decline over the next duff layer is developing but is shal­ downed woody fuels from recent 100 years or so as the woody mate­ low during most of this period. mortality have accumulated. Duff is rial decays and settles into the forest During the early portion of this I to 2 inches (2 to 5 cm) deep. Lad­ floor. After lodgepole pine matures, period, downed woody material from der fuels are present, namely it becomes increasingly susceptible to the previous stand ignites readily. understory spruce and fir and lichens mortality from mountain pine beetle Uoder dry conditions it supports fire in older trees. Fuels ignite readily and other natural agents. Woody spread on the surface and initiates and support torching, crowning, and fuels begin accumulating again as crowning in the young stand. A wild­ spotting. Extreme fire behavior trees die. Downed woody fuel mostly fire that occurs now (a so-called occurs typically in this successional larger than 3 inches (8 em) in diame­ double burn) eliminates the woody stage. ter is probably the most significant fuels, and the next stand develops Although the successional stages fuel component in lodgepole pine through the immature stage free of of lodgepole pine vary in flam­ forests. It accumulates to large quan­ large woody fuels. In the latter part mability, crowning fires spread with tities, ignites easily, provides heat to of this period, the downed logs from little regard to fuel types during peri­ ignite other fuels, generates high­ the previous stand have largely ods of extreme dryness and high­ intensity fire behavior, and holds fire decayed, the trees are taller with wind velocities, such as experienced for extended time periods. This crowns well above the ground, and in 1988. Fuels become more impor­ results in crowning, spotting, and flammability is reduced. The chance tant in determining fire behavior large fire growth. The dynamics of of crowning supported by surface when fire weather is less extreme. fuel accumulation in Yellowstone dif­ fuels is nil. The successional scenario described fer somewhat from lodgepole pine in Matnre stands (150 to 300 here occurs much more rapidly in other areas due to factors such as years). Closed canopy stands domi­ lodgepole pine in most other parts of degree of cone serotiny, site produc- nated by lodgepole pine occupy the the United States and Canada.

8 Fire Management Notes Fire Prescription will greatly reduce surface fuels and near villages by mechanical thinning high-intensity fire behavior potential. and fuel removal. A fire prescription is a statement But under extreme dryness and high­ Fire treatment. Areas for burning of objectives for the fire and a velocity winds, crown fires will should be chosen where high­ description of the required fire and spread even without well-developed intensity wildfire could lead to environmental conditions under surface fuels. To lessen the threat of threats on villages or escapes across which the ohjectives can be mel. The crown fire under these conditions, park boundaries. Areas of overmature following sections set forth a reason­ crown canopies must be opened up lodgepole pine, particularly support- able fire prescription approach for Yellowstone. Objectives. The reason for using planned-ignition, prescribed fire in Yellowstone is to reduce greatly or eliminate threats to villages and park boundaries. These planned-ignition, prescribed fires to reduce hazard in critical areas so that lightning fires may be allowed to burn should mimic a natural biological process. These goals are compatible with Yel­ lowstone management objectives to maintain a wilderness quality by allowing natural processes to occur as long as they do not threaten lives or property. Under the fire manage­ ment plan, prescribed fire is Fire ill Yellowstone National Park ill /988. permissible to reduce hazardous fuels. To meet these management goals, prescribed fires should sub­ stantially reduce the potential for high-intensity fire behavior, including I crowning and spotting. To reduce this potential, prescribed fires should accomplish the following: • Consume 80 percent or more of I­ to 3-inch (2- to 8-cm) downed woody fuel and 50 percent or more of 3-inch (8-cm) and larger downed woody fuel. • Consume at least 70 percent of the litter and duff. • Kill at least 60 percent of under­ story spruce, fir, and lodgepole pine. Accomplishing these objectives Area with reduced fuel load was recently burned by prescribedfire.

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 9 ing understory fir or lodgepole pine, prescription, duff moisture contents conditions 2 out of 3 years. and areas having fuel loadings that will be acceptable also. Early sum­ The number of days from August exceed 15 tons per acre (34 tlha) for mer fires are not considered because I to September 30 that relative material averaging 6 inches (15 COl) of the risk of prolonged wildfire con­ humidity, IO-hour timelag moisture in diameter (Aldrich and Mutch ditions as experienced in 1988 and content, and wind speed were simul­ 1973) are good candidates. Treatment because cured herbaceous vegetation taneously in prescription averaged 4 areas of 2,000 to 5,000 acres (800 to is needed to assist in fire spread. days or 9 percent of that period for 2,000 hal should be identified and The fire prescription was assem­ preferred conditions and 12 days or ignited using helicopter application of bled by integrating conditions 24 percent of that period for accept­ alumagel. The areas should be suggested by seven fire behavior able conditions. The probability of approximately I mile (1.6 km) wide experts and conditions derived from all prescription parameters being in and several miles long. The I-mile several fuel consumption equations prescription simultaneously could not (1.6-km) width is recommended to (Brown et al. 1985, Ottrnar 1984, be calculated with the available com­ eliminate risk of spotting, which Sandberg 1980). puter programs. But the probabilities commonly occurs over a 11z_ to 314­ Probability of Meeting Prescrip­ obviously would be less than calcu­ mile width (0.8 to 1.21 km) and tion Conditions. Weather records lated just for the probability given in occasionally further under high wind covering the period from 1965 to table 2. Although exact probabilities speeds. 1987 from the weather station at Old of meeting all prescription conditions A massive ignition effort will be Faithful were analyzed to determine remain uncertain, it is apparent that required to achieve ignition and good the probability of being in prescrip­ successful prescribed burning could burnout of woody fuels. Within the tion. Although records for one year, only be carried out on an average of general fire perimeter, ignition can 1971, were missing, 22 years of data once every several years. probably be bypassed in old imma­ were available. This is a rather short ture stands and young mature stands period of time, but enough to provide Burning Plan because sparse woody fuels are an idea of weather probabilities. expected. Although precipitation and related What are the logistics to carry out Fires will spread slowly in the sur­ fuel moisture vary substantially from a program of prescribed fires and face fuels. Considerable torching and the relatively wet southwest corner to how much would it cost? To answer occasional crowning of clumps of the dry northern portion, Old Faithful this, first, the number of prescribed trees and entire areas of several acres weather should represent fire weather fires, approximately 3,500 acres or in size will occur. Spotting can be reasonably well for the lodgepole 1,416 hectares (l x SOli or 1.6 x expected up to '/4 to '/2 mile (0.4 to pine forest. The number of years in 8 km) in size, needed to protect vil­ 0.8 km). which 3 or more consecutive days in lages and park boundaries was Environmental conditions. The the specified time period satisfy the estimated. To protect Old Faithful important environmental conditions prescription by NFDRS 1000-hour Inn, Lodge, and Visitor Center, to be met in conducting the pre­ moisture content within the time peri­ Grant Village, Lewis Campground, scribed fires are listed in table I. ods are set forth in table 2. and Canyon Village from spread of Moisture content of large fuels and The frequency of being in pre­ fire by crowning and spotting, related National Fire Danger Rating scription from the middle of August approximately 10 prescribed fires System (NFDRS) 1000-hour timelag to the end of September and NFDRS located to intercept prevailing winds moisture content are considered to be 1000-hour moisture content is I in 4 would be needed. To reduce heavy the most critical conditions affecting years for preferred conditions and 3 fuel accumulations within 1 to 2 whether objectives can be met, in 4 years for acceptable conditions. miles (l.n to 3.2 km) of ~" hDl.lnd­ because they control consumption of If the prescription was restricted to aries, approximately 40 fires would large woody fuel. In all likelihood, if September, preferred conditions were be needed. Not all boundaries are large fuel moisture contents meet the met 3 out of 20 years and acceptable equally vulnerable to escapes, so this

10 Fire Management Notes Table I~Preferred and acceptable conditions for prescribed-fire burning completely around the villages and vulnerable campgrounds. A fuel­ Parameter Preferred Acceptable break strip at least 0.1 mile (0.16 Moisture content of fine fuel (1- and 10-h timelag fuels) (percent) 5 to 8 5 to 12 km) wide and preferably 0.2 mile Moisture content of large fuel (1000-h timelag fuel) (percent) 10 to 15 8 to 20 (0.32 km) wide is needed. Within the National Fire Danger Rating System (1000-h timelag moisture) strip, all standing and downed dead (percent) <16 <19 woody fuels larger than about I inch Lower duff moisture content (percent) <60 <80 Wind speed (20-ft height) (mi/h) 2 to 10 1 to 15 (3 em) should be removed. The live Relative humidity (percent) 18 to 30 15 to 35 trees should be thinned to break up Time of year After 8/15 After 8/1 continuity of the 'crown canopy. Thinning can be feathered into the Table 1.-Number of years in which 3 or more consecutive days in specified period satisfied the stands with the widest tree spacing NFDRS IOOO-hour moisture content prescription condition occurring toward the protected areas. Approximately one-third to occasion­ ally one-half of the trees would Frequency of satisfying NFDRS 1000-h mois­ ture content in specified time period require removal. Costs of fuel reduction could vary Preferred «16%) Acceptable «19%) greatly depending upon the method Aug. 1- Aug. 15- Aug. 1- Aug. 15- used and constraints imposed to pro­ Item Sept. 30 Sept. 30 Sept. 30 Sept. 30 tect the environment. Costs would Number of years satisfying prescription 8 5 20 16 probably range from $400/acre ($162/ha) for a mechanized operation Percentage of total years 36 23 91 73 to $1,500/acre ($607/ha) for hand Ratio of years in prescription 1:3 1:4 9:10 3:4 labor. To construct fuel breaks around the three major villages with number could be reduced by con­ fire experts consulted in this exercise minimal disturbance to the site prob­ centrating prescribed fires on the agreed that some fuel reduction ably would cost $300,000 to most likely boundaries to be threat­ around villages would be necessary $500.000. To treat fuels in the ened. Still 25 to 30 prescribed fires before conducting any prescribed vicinity of all facilities and would be needed. fires near them. The prescribed fires powerlines would cost substantially Two or three prescribed fires are would involve some high-intensity more. These costs could be offset probably all that could be conducted fire behavior that could also threaten somewhat by selling trees from the in a single season without risking too the villages unless fuels are mechan­ thinnings. much fire. Assuming fires could be ically reduced. Fuel Reduction Through Burn­ concccted ever third year, which is Fuel reduction without the addi­ ing. For an individual bum, it was probably optimistic, 30 to 50 years tional program of prescribed fires assumed that two helicopters would would be required to safeguard vil­ would, itself. greatly mitigate the be used for ignition, -each igniting lages and boundaries. The program threat of wildfires. Mechanical fuel 500 acres (202 hal per day. A mas­ could be carried out in about 10 reduction is free of the risks associ­ sive ignition effort would be required years 'to safeguard just the villages. ated with uncontrolled fire behavior because surface fire could not be Speeding up the program by conduct­ and can be carried out at any time, relied upon to ignite critical fuels ing many bums in a single season is such as during low-use visitor peri­ adequately. Surveillance with a small possible, but logistically very diffi­ ods. It can be used effectively to airplane would be necessary during cult and risky. reduce crown fire potential. and after the ignition period until the Fuel Reduction Other Than Pre­ A recommended fuel reduction is fire was no longer active. A 20­ scribed Fire. All of the prescribed construction of shaded fuel breaks person holding crew should be avail-

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 1-1 able for a 10-day period. Under these conducting individual prescribed fires throughout the West. Can planned assumptions, cost for a 3,500-acre could be reduced by one-half or ignitions be effectively used to (1,416 hal burn was estimated to be more, once experience is gained, par­ reduce hazard in subalpine forests $67,350 (about $19/acrc or $7.69/ha). ticularly for low-risk fires near such as lodgepole pine? Prescribed­ An acceptable contingency plan for boundaries. In this case, the program fire programs do appear to be each prescribed fire would be neces­ could be carried out for a minimum feasible to achieve such results but sary to cover the likely possibility of of $2.5 million. But the costs could would require substantially more fire moving beyond its expected be considerably greater if fire sup­ funding than currently available to perimeter. Passage of one or two dry pression was required to quell agencies. Such programs would prob­ cold fronts with highspeed winds, unexpected threats from the pre­ ably require a specially trained and crowning, and spotting for three­ scribed fires. Nonetheless, compared experienced interagency tcam to quarters of a mile (1.2 km) or more with the fire suppression costs in assist in planning and conducting the should be assumed. The prescribed 1988 of nearly $100 million within burns. Meeting objectives of these fire could easily grow to several Yellowstone, the cost of this program prescribed fires could be difficult and times its planned size and even con­ would be relatively small. tricky because severe burning condi­ siderably larger. To guard against tions are required. The threshold this event, prescribed fires should not Conclusion between surface fire and crowning be ignited before September in fire behavior is narrow. Skillful and drought years such as 1988. Presum­ What are the answers to the ques­ experienced prescribed burners are ably. a severalfold increase in fire tions we started with? The 1988 fires necessary to manage this type of fire size would be acceptable in most in Yellowstone could not have been potential successfully. The irregular areas of Yellowstone. But on some avoided with a program of prescribed burning opportunities in anyone fires, suppression action involving a burning. But assuming the program location make it difficult for local large fire organization may be had been initiated in 1972, with con­ managers to maintain needed skills. required. This could add several mil­ siderable additional funding in the An interagency team able to provide lion dollars to the cost. Yellowstone fire management assistance throughout the West could The estimated direct operational budget, threats to villages may have overcome this problem. An informed costs for a program of prescribed been prevented or greatly reduced. and supportive public would also be burning and presuppression fuel treat­ Some escapes across park boundaries needed. ment needed to mitigate the wildfire may have been avoided but not to a The effectiveness of a prescribed­ threat to villages and boundaries is as significant degree, because the pro­ burning program depends on achiev­ follows: gram could not have been completed ing the desired reduction of fuels, by 1988 even with adequate funding. selecting the right areas for burning, Item Cost The amount of area burned also controlling the fires, and later Fuel breaks around would not have changed signifi­ reburning some of the heavy fuel villages $ 500,000 cantly. If the program had been accumulation created by the first pre­ Prescribed fires near compJeted, however, escapes on the scribed fires. Because current fire villages 675,000 east and west sides of the park would managers lack substantial experience Prescribed fires probably have been significantly with this type of prescribed burning, near boundaries reduced but not eliminated. Less area a research and development program (40 fires) 2,695,000 outside of the park would have is needed if managers are to meet Total $3,870,000 burned. natural fire objectives and to avoid It is important to consider the orig­ the undesirable consequences of fire inal question more generally because seasons similar to 1988. The pro­ Nearly $4 million would be it is relevant to managing fire in wil­ gram would need to be undertaken required for this program. Costs of dernesses and the national parks soon to provide guidance for manag-

12 Fire Management Notes , '.

ing fire in the national parks and Ogden. UT: U.S. Department of Agricul­ Oumar. Roger D. 1984. Predicting fuel con­ wildernesses. _ ture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest sumption by fire stages to reduce smoke and Range Experiment Station. 9 p. from slash fires. In: Proceedings of the 1983 Brown, James K.: Marsden, Michael A.; Literature Cited annual meeting of the Northwest Forest Fire Ryan, Kevin C.'; Reinhardt. Elizabeth D. Council; 1983 November 21-22; Olympia, Aldrich, David F.; Mutch, Robert W. 1973. 1985. Predicting duff and woody fuel con­ WA. Olympia, WA: Northwest Forest Fire Wilderness fire management planning sumed by prescribed fire in Northern Rocky Council: 87-106. guidelines and inventory procedures. Mis­ Mountains. Res. Pap. INT-337. Ogden, Sandberg, David V. 1980. Duff reduction by soula, !ViT: U.S. Department of Agriculture. UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest prescribed underbuming in Douglas-fir. Res. Forest Service, Northern Region. 36 p. Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Pap. PNW-272. Portland. OR: U.S. Depart­ Brown, James K.; Bevins. Collin D. 1986. Experiment Station. 23 p. ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Surface fuels loadings and predicted fire Despain, Don G. 1989. Unpublished data. Northwest Forest and Range Experiment behavior for vegetative types in the Northern U.S. Department of the Interior. Yellow­ Station. 18 p. Rocky Mountains. Res. Note. INT-358. stone National Park.

printing through coursework (personally during my presidency, through long­ Thanks, Earl Nelson financed-this was before employer-paid standing NFFE efforts and Pilot Eagle training) at the USDA Graduate School impetus, has been the establishment of the On December 30. Earl Nelson, Fire and the Washington School of Printing, a work schedule." For the legacy Management Notes' printing specialist, maxiflex well-known printing school now tied to of his efforts, each Forest Service retired from the Forest Service, drawing to Montgomery County Community College. employee owes Earl a measure of a close a 35-year career in the Federal Forest Service employees also know gratitude. workforce, 29 of them with the Forest Earl for his tenure of service (since 1978) Thank. you, Earl Nelson, for helping the Service. He also served in the U.S. Anny as president of the National Federation of fire community keep in touch. Thank you infantry during the Korean War and later Federal Employees (NFFE), otherwise for caring about your coworkers enough to with a unit in Alaska. known as the "union." Reflecting on his have devoted so much time to help them During 16 of those years, Earl worked work with the NFFE, he states: "The create a better workplace. You be on Fire Management Notes production in will major accomplishment for employees missed. _ many capacities: printing, layout and design, reviewing contracts, and serving as a liaison between the USDA printing and design offices and the editors and Fire and Aviation Management general managers. Earl sees Fire Management Notes, a publication he has spent so much time helping to produce, this way: "It keeps people in the fire community communicat­ ing; new ideas are disseminated to everyone involved in fire protection-from those on the ground to those who make decisions," Earl was not a printer before joining the Forest Service, but his experience in the Forest Service printing shop, first as a platemaker and then as an operator of an offset press, whetted his interest. He Earl N.dson, printing specialist (center), discusses The printing of.Fire Management Notes with rounded out his on-the-job training in Francis Russ, general manager, and Doris Cetarier. editor. .

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 13 Workforce Diversity: A Mosaic for the Future

Jerilyn Levi and Kimberly Brandel

USDA Forest Service, respectively, fuels/recreation forester, Siuslaw National Forest, A/sea, OR, Gildfire planning assistant, Fire and Aviation Management, Washington, DC

Diversity! Mosaic! Change! Chal­ ments of individuals who have free of harassment, hazing, and inap­ lenge! These words came alive for worked to increase the participa­ propriate behavior. Introducing each over 400 people from across the tion of women and minorities in Regional Fire Director, Deputy Chief Nation this past April at the "Work­ Fire and Aviation Management. West issued a challenge to them: Be force Diversity in Fire and Aviation the first to sponsor a woman as a for­ Management: A Mosaic for the A Diverse and Energetic Group est fire management officer. Future" conference in Denver, CO. This event, a component of Fire and Energetic and positive, participants Aviation Management's Model for came from all levels of the Fire and "Workforce diversity is not the: Workforce Diversity, gave Fire and Aviation Management organization, problem. It is the solution." . Aviation Management employees from managers at the national, -s-Lawrence (Mic) Amicareffa. Director of Fire from every Jevel of the Forest Serv­ regional. and forest levels to on-the­ and Aviation Management ice workforce and others in the fire ground personnel and seasonal management community a forum to employees. Representatives from discuss how to achieve workforce other Government agencies-State Workforce Diversity Topics parity by 1995. forestry agencies and USDl's Bureau of Land Management and National Over 50 speakers, 9 panel discus­ What the Conference Wanted to Park Service-and colleges and uni­ sions, and 20 issue-workgroups, in Accomplish versities also joined this mix. general and concurrent sessions, Interagency participation was integral explored difficult, sensitive, or com­ The conference was organized to to the work of the conference since plicated topics such as recruitment make progress toward building a fire management is a cooperative diverse workplace in Fire and Avia­ effort of many agencies and all mem­ tion Management. To do this, the bers of the fire community must conference planners and organizers work closely together. Interaction established some very specific goals: between individual participants and • Reenforce national commitment to among all segments of this represent­ the value of a diverse workforce in ative group was vigorous and Fire and Aviation Management. extensive. • Increase awareness of career opportunities in Fire and Aviation Management's Commitment Management. • Promote interaction and communi­ Al West, Deputy Chief for State cation between all levels of the and Private Forestry, opened the con­ organization necessary to meet ference by emphasizing his personal today's management challenges. commitment to workforce diversity. I • Develop national and regional rec­ Deputy Chief West asserted in his ommendations for improving the remarks that "what we permit, we ~ recruitment, retention, and promote." He stressed that by not development of a diverse work­ taking action on controversial or dif­ force in Fire and Aviation ficult matters regarding inappropriate Management. behavior in the workplace, we con­ done such actions by default. He • Provide the expanded fire com­ Dr. Byron Kunisawa, Director of Operations munity with "toots for success." further stated that we are ail respon­ for the San Francisco tdulticuhurai Training • Recognize outstanding achieve- sible for maintaining a workplace Resource Center.

14 Fire Management Notes and retention, career considerations Gordon Reinhart, Fire Management After preparing problem, vision, and opportunities, cross-cultural Officer, Umatilla National Forest, and solution statements for each human relations, training, coworker Pendleton, OR. issue, the workgroups recommended backlash, family considerations, the action for achieving this vision. All challenges of diversity, working with Issues and Action of the participants at the conference difficult people, the Region 5-Pacific had the opportunity to vote on the Southwest Forest and Range Experi­ Participants spent the third day of action that they felt would most help ment Station Consent Decree, and the conference in small groups work­ achieve diversity goals by 1995. Not the "how-to" of getting the job you ing on issues. Before the conference, surprisingly, due to high representa­ want. the conference organizers or "cadre" tion from Region 5, the actions that Dr. Byron Kunisawa from the surveyed individuals in Fire and Avi­ received the most support concerned Multicultural Training Resource Cen­ ation Management to identify issues advertising fire positions as ter in California delivered a hard­ that are barriers to women and OS-4011460/462 interchangeable. hitting keynote address. Dr. minorities. The cadre compiled the This would have the effect of making Kunisawa spoke about the changing survey results into II categories: more women and minorities eligible composition of our Nation's work­ training, dealing with diversity, to apply for vacancies. They also force. He pointed out that by 1995, recruitment, retention, career and placed a priority on resolving the pay 85 percent of those entering the family, inappropriate behavior (ethnic disparity that currently exists between workforce will be minorities and harassment), inappropriate behavior State and county firefighters and Fed­ women. Workforce diversity is here (sexual harassment), coworker back­ eral firefighters and establishing a for us to deal with now. Our future lash, career advancement (self­ separate wildland firefighter series. success depends on it. Dr. Carla initiated), career advancement The recommendations, currently Gary, Assistant Director of Minority (agency commitment), and self­ being reviewed by Personnel Man­ Education at the University of esteem. agement in the Washington Office, Oregon, focused her remarks on "appreciating diversity," and Dr. Henri Mann Morton, Director of Native American Studies, University of Montana, expanded and reen­ forced Drs. Kunisawa's and Gary's observations, Of the panel discus­ sions, the session, "Career Considerations and Opportunities," evoked an extraordinarily active response with many questions. The panelists were Mary Jo Lavin, Dep­ uty Regional Forester, State and Private Forestry, Portland, OR; Chip Cartwright, Forest Supervisor, Jeffer­ son National Forest, Roanoke, VA; DeNise Cooke, District Ranger, Tuskegee Ranger District, National Forests in Alabama; Mike Edrington, Director Lawrence (Mic) Amicarella with members ofGordon Reinhart's Incident Management Deputy Forest Supervisor, Willamette Team during awards presentation. National Forest, Eugene, OR; and

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 15 will be tracked by an ad hoc Workforce Diversity: Los Padres National Forest took a cre­ committee. Special Recognition ative approach to broadening their job applicant pool by targeting high Recognition for a Leader Besides presenting the Director's school students before they enter the award, the conference recognized job market. They initiated a wildland firefighting training course for high A highlight of the conference was many employees for their work in building a more diverse workforce. A school students through the County the presentation of the Director's Superintendent of Schools Regional Award for Workforce Diversity plaque with the inscription "In recog­ nition of contributions to achieving Occupational Program. The course Achievement. Lawrence (Mic) Ami­ involves 139 hours of class and field workforce diversity in Fire and Avia­ carclla, Director of Fire and Aviation cion Management" was given to the work. Students who complete the Management, presented the award to Region 1 Aviation and Fire Manage­ class are eligible for employment with Gordon Reinhart, fire management ment Staff: Rick Belnap, Ed Allen, the Forest Service. The ranger district officer on the Umatilla National Glenn johnston from the Payette "fire shop" went all out to recruit women and minorities into the pro­ Forest. National Forest in Region 4; Fred Roach, AI Driesbach, Dana gram. They showed up at participating The Final Word D'Andrea, Doug Aversano, and Wes high schools after school hours with a Shook from the Los Padres National model 51 engine and a diverse crew Forest in Region 5; Jerry Stephens of employees to discuss and explain The conference helped change atti­ the program to potential applicants. tudes. It was a step forward. One of from the Daniel Boone National For­ est in Region 8; and the Region 9 Women and minorities have made up the participants observed, "It was a Aviation and Fire Management Staff. half the student enrollment in the pro­ great opportunity to share informa­ gram. Several of the top graduates tion and interact. It changed my have been placed in seasonal positions Occupational Training Course attitude 100 percent! Go for it!" In and one has accepted a TAPER (Tem­ for High Schoolers closing the conference, Director porary Appointment Pending Amicarella made the direction ahead Establishment of a Register) appoint­ Fred Roach, Dana D'Andrea, clear when he stated that at the ment, The program was funded by the Wes Shook, Al Driesbach, John ranger district the first year. The national, regional, and local level, he Crotty, and Doug Aversano from the school district is now reimbursing the is confident that we will aggressively Santa Lucia Ranger District on the Forest Service for teaching the class. and creatively meet the workforce ~------. challenges at hand and those ahead. "Workforce diversity is not the prob­ lem," he said; "it is the solution!" _ ~. ·I£~ , 9e ~ - •\..

Al Driesbach, Dana D'Andrea, Fred Roach, Doug Aversano, and Wes Shook of the LOJ Padres National Forest holding award. .

16 Fire Management Notes ,.....------: Smokejumper Career Day women applied to be smokejumpers, The Helitack Program and with one woman successful in passing Workforce Diversity The Region 1 Aviation and Fire rookie training. Since the dropout rate Management Staff implemented a i was high. the region sponsored a Rick Belnap, Ed Allen, and Glenn smokejumpcr recruitment day targeted physical fitness clinic that focused on Johnston from the Krassel Ranger for women and Native Americans. giving direction to attain the physical District on the Payette National Forest Kim Maynard, a Missoula smoke­ I fitness level required of a jumper. have made concerted efforts toward jumper, was assigned as regional The second career day, held in achieving workforce diversity in their smokcjumpcr recruiter. She organized 1988. was expanded to include hclitack program without cornpromis­ the first Smokejumpcr Career Day in recruitment of Native Americans For ing the quality or safety record of the 1987. Activities included a tour of the the past 4 years, the Aerial Fire Depot base. In 1987, 50 percent of the 17 Aerial Fire Depot, jump demonstra­ I outreach program has been using Pub­ helitack positions on the ranger district tions. and mini-workshops on the i lie Law 94-148 as the authority for were filled by women or minorities; in application process, physical training. training Native Americans from Mon­ 1988 the figure increased to 64 per­ and experience requirements. As a tana to be smokejumpcrs. cent. The base recorded record-setting result of the day's activities, 15 hours and days on fires during both I seasons without a single accident. Belnap, Allen, and Johnston have used many different methods to recruit quality candidates. They have used Public Law 94-148 as the authority under which Native Americans were recruited and hired. This process has heavily involved the tribes in recruit­ ing, screening, and recommending individuals for employment. They have contacted potential Hispanic employees through the local State Job Service and migrant councils. Several Hispanics have been employed under a contract until they have enough experience to compete under regular Government Civil Service. employment. They have established "trainee" positions at lower than traditional grades that allow women and minorities to be more competitive and have converted some positions Fire and Aviation Management Director Lawrence (Mic) Amicarella with Leslie Anderson. Kim from temporary to short-term WAE's Maynard, Margarita Phillips, and James Mann of the Region I Fire and Aviation Management Staff (when actually employed) and recruited and filled them with women and minorities.

Training for Cherokee Nation Firefighters

Jerry Stephens from the Somerset Ranger District on the Daniel Boone National Forest took the initiative in

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 17 recruiting and training members of the Recruiting and Training Western Band of the Cherokee Nation as emergency firefighters. Stephens Region 9 employees, under the presented the tribe, whose members leadership of the Regional Office reside in an economically depressed Coordinating Organization, recruited area, with the possibility of an addi­ and trained inner-city residents of Mil­ tional source of income. Through his waukee as emergency firefighters. In efforts, the relationship between the addition to developing 12 crews of Cherokee Nation and the Forest Serv­ firefighters. the effort increased com­ ice has significantly improved. A munity awareness of the Forest contract was signed by the Chief of Service's work. improved community the Western Band and the Director of spirit. boosted the local economy and Aviation and Fire Management in introduced inner-city residents to Region 8 that provided fire training resource management activities. Of for tribal members and emergency the 215 people who completed train­ firefighters for the Forest Service. ing and were used on western fires, Stephens made sure that Cherokee 88 were minorities. crews were trained, equipped, and After the fire season was over, the used on fires in Region 8 and in the regional office sponsored a "Celebra­ western States. Since the original tion of Success" to which all crew agreement was signed. three Cher­ members were invited. Presentations okees have served on the Region 8 were given on how to apply for tem­ hotshot crew, Cherokee contractors pomry or seasonal employment with Jerry Stephen), oj the Daniel Boone National have successfully bid on timber con­ Forest. the Forest Service. In addition. four tracts, and the agreement has been other potential employers. including extended to five other tribes in the Milwaukee City Fire Department, Region 8. were invited to the event and talked to interested johseekers. Several fire­ 1 fighters have found employment as a result of the references that the Forest r- ~'" Service provided. -~', ,~! The Region 9 leadership also prom­ c. .:), ised the firefighters that the Forest "\, Supervisors in the region would be encouraged to hire the 30 top per­ \ / formers for seasonal jobs. Many forests have requested these people. As a result of the efforts of Region 9 employees. disadvantaged minorities / have been introduced to the possibility I, of working in natural resource management. •

Kimberly Brandel, fire planning assistant and conference coordinator, USDA Forest Service, Fire and Avia­ tion Management, Washington, DC

Glen Johnston, Ed Allen, and Rick Belnap ojthe Payette National Forest.

18 Fire Management Notes Wutlln a ]L((J)t ((J)r JHIeII jp) JFIr((J)mrn a JFIruellull-tllne Cuvulliall1l / Liti'e,"; I C ((J) ll1l ser Vatu((J)!ill C ((J)Irjp)s Dr;:IJI~~D'~' The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), Roosevelt's Tree Army, tree troopers, 70 7ME soil soldiers-the names tell the story: the conservation of our natural resources­ Cii./!:.@. the forests, the soils, the rivers and streams, and, in a real way, the people them­ selves. As President Roosevelt said in a 1933 radio address.t'i..I think of you as a 501.(;:OAO CAMP , visible token of encouragement to the whole country." CCC histories faithfully F'I;38 00.1350 , report its legacy of tangible accomplishments: forest trees planted (2.4 billion), 1934 trails and minor roads constructed (126,000 miles), telephone lines laid (89,000 ANGt:LES llJA710NAL miles), firefighting (6.5 million mandays), erosion control and check dams (6.7 I"OR(S7 million, number), and tree and plant disease and pest control (21 million acres).

Less easy to quantify, however, but nevertheless real, was the CCC's broader impact. For instance, in its 9 years of existence, 1933 to 1942, the CCC changed the way the Forest Service fought fire. Stephen Pyne in Fire in America con­ cludes: "It was amid this unprecedented outpouting of men and material that the Forest Service launched a complete modernization of its fire program. In the three Road monument on the Angeles National Forest years between 1935 and 1937 the Service sought to complete in full the program in California (C.A. Lagerstrom, /935). 308472 with which it had struggled piecemeal for three decades."

In reporting on fire events, issues, techniques, and equipment, Fire Control Notes' reflected this change and infonnally-in this article and that one-passed \ along the story of the CCC's enormous contribution to forest protection from fire: CCC's participation in firefighting, fire prevention and presuppression work (tractor trail building, cutting snags, building firebreaks, fire patrol, and lookout building), fire research such as experimenting with new techniques, materials, and organization (the progressive step-up and the one-lick methods of line construc­ tion and the use of foam), testing for physical effects from firefighting, and law enforcement. Contributors also exposed controversies: the effect of the CCC firefighting crews-ready, trained, and organized--on the cooperators who had usually manned the Forest Service firelines and of the CCC-built fire protection trail and road system reaching into the backcountry. In 1942, nearing the sunset of the CCC, the questions surface in print: How much fire protection is justifiable? What is the cost?

But most unforgettable by far is the quiet, unfailing courage and commitment of Enrollee ringingfire alarm on the White these young men, economically hard-pressed and far-removed from their families Mountain National Forest in New Hampshire (B.W. Muir, 1939) 379945 and communities, in the face of harrowing danger. Fire Control Notes, a spokes­ man, so to speak, for the entire Forest Service, paid tribute to this courage. Nowhere was the undaunting spirit of the CCC more dramatically manifested than at the Blackwater Fire on the Shoshone National Forest on August 21,1937. There 10 CCC men along with a Bureau of Public Roads and 3 Forest Service crew members lost their lives in a surprise blowup. There also, as Forest Supervisor John Sieker reports (see reprint), CCC firefighters, fatigued and saddened, returned the next day to the fireline to corral the fire that had extracted such a high cost and eluded control the day before, C

Doris Celarier, editor, Public Affairs Office, Washington, DC

eee firefighters on a Malibu Fire fire/ine near 'Article, in Fire Control NOles from 193710 1942. Angeles National Forest (FE. Dunham, 1935) 342636

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 19 - r

Forest Service radio technician and enrollees Enrollee driving truck carrying 25 firefighters to a forest fire on the Boise National Forest in idaho installing anemometer to measure wind velocity (Paul S. Bieler, 1941), 407331 nearforest[ire base camp on Lolo National Forest in Montana (WJ Mead ( a CCC photographer), 1941). 413892

CCCfire crew ~l.'! its !-!'!?)' W afire on Boise National Forest, near Idaho City, ID (Paul S. Bieler, Enrollees felling snags on a firebreak at Wind /94/) 407335 River on Gifford Pinchot National Forest in Washington (G,A. Bright, /933). 280392

20 Fire Management Notes (-~ r­ ~- [.'.':t.. -~ . ."'.- - ,-:>...../' ~:~_~.' ,- -;;--._"-,, ",' '.- <:1 eee fire patrol'- -~-. ,~~~d:~';J Campground on mspecungM Eagle Creek Oregon (Ernest u;jHood National Forest' say, 1940). 392902 tn :!/ r-',-.:

.'.~ ~ ~ t,~~;?'

~:-.~," . ~~;-~J~~~, ~~iii~, ...,,,•.~~'i;; '" . ~ CCCfi .' ~.,4 Ch irefigtuers on 'he H - ",,-' e~uamegonNatio ughey Fire on the gettingfed (R. D ale Sandersnal Forest 1 in W'~sconsm .

~r'r- 040), 396173 I~\--. ' I ,,-;'1 _ ,!/ . ,',''iP f .;.jj fh~,v,"~~'~' ~ ~r~~";' ....,?-.~~- I j; r'£';;< ,'. -'1: ~~., -',j '- " ~~...~~7"~,"'':.~*{W~.~r ~-<1' o' r~.,'it ',~"., ,_ ""~. ~ ..:(~, I tJ ! ~~';j~,:.: :~. ~ ~,...S~_· ll'Yk... r>l: C;:,::J -~ .",of-::.. • ~.... . '-" r ,I ~7 ~ CCCfire ~ " .. -~ crew restir • - _. Deadwood C Ig after work 0 I Nati reek Forest Fir n t tc i5 ional Forest in Jd h e on the Challis . 4022 a ()(W.H. Shat:!:'Jjel,. I 937).

1989 Volume 50. Number 3 21 , _io.:'v ",'J >' " .. ~ .... ' .... /' ,. '-::, z? .-'" ..._- ." i '

Enrollees arriving at and waiting for orders at Dutchman Gulch sawmill camp where September 20, 1933,fire on the Black Hills National Forest started (Fred R. Johnson. 1933). 283144

I / i.··· nJA . -",-- ,,:&.'tr:-.

Lyons Valley CCC field kitchen in Barber Mountain in California (1934). 289370

Sharpening are at Camp Roosevelt on the Enrollees building Mt. Bradley Lookout on the Shasta National Forest in California with Mr. Shasta George Washington National Forest in Virginia in the background (Capt. Daniel Sheehan. 1933). 285294 (WH Shaff", 1933!- 277007

22 Fire Management Notes One bright memory in the midst of all the tragedy surrounding the Blackwater Fire was the response of the CCC crews the morning following the blow-up.

Naturally, all fire suppression work had ceased during the night. All available foremen and men were on searching parties looking for injured men. At daylight a 1SO-man crew was again out searching for any that might have been missed during the night, and arranging for removal of the dead. But tragedy or not, there was still 1,200 acres of fire running around loose, and the humidity was below 10. Scouting and line construction had to be done, and there were only tired, de­ pressed men left to do it.

The CCC men rose to the occasion like veterans, and at daylight three crews were on the fire line carrying on---detennined to whip the fire that had beaten them so terribly the afternoon before. These boys put through difficult line that day and held it through a very critical afternoon. Most of them had seen horrible bums the night before, and many saw corpses packed out during the day, but they did not let that deter them in their attack on a stubborn fire.

The CCC responded to an emergency in a very noble and courageous manner, and the Shoshone and the entire Forest Service appreciated it. View up Rock Gulch (Clayton Gulch) where John Sieker, supervisor, Shoshone National Forest, Cody, WY Ranger Alfred Clayton, James Saban, Rex Hale andfour CCC enrollees died on the Blackwater 'Reprinted from December 6, 1937,issue ofFire ContrOl Notes. Fire on the Shoshone National Forest in Wyoming (W.H. Shaffer, /937). 35/254

\,

",~~~, :~,

Another view ofRock Gulch/rom below (WH. Wind still blowing toward the more easterly direction. Time oftaking definitely known to have Shaff". /937). 35/257 been 4:30 p.m. on August 2/, 1937. Note fires on Plateau on Double (Clayton) Mountain and persistence ofwind in more easterly direction (Gibson, /937). 355903

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 23 Protecting the Interface: A New Training Program

Mark R. Reynolds'

Chief project officer for contractor, Federal Emergency Management Agency, National Fire Academy, Emmitsburg, MD

The 1988 fire season ranks as one fires. The program, "Wildland/Urban Course Content of the most costly in the Nation's Interface Fire Protection: A National history. By October 1988, almost Problem with Local Solutions," is The content of the new course 70.000 wildfires had burned well designed as a self-study course that includes the following major areas: over 4 million acres (1.618,800 hal individuals or departments can com­ • Assessment. across the country. The cost to the plete in the field at their own pace • Solutions or options. Federal Government for fire suppres­ and apply specifically to the needs of • Support building. sion efforts alone totalled almost their own communities. • Action planning. $400 million-this does not include Assessment. A critical component the billions of dollars lost in prop­ involves assessing the fire threat in erty, business, and natural resources. The National Fire Academy's new your local wildland-urban interface. No one appreciates the truth training program is specifically Historically, the wildland-urban inter­ behind these statistics more than tailored to provide small and vol­ face problem has been associated those in the fire service who have a unteer fire departments with the with the western United States where professional responsibility and per­ resources they need to protect their interface fires are an annual threat. sonal commitment to avert the loss of communities from wildland fire. However, statistics show that inter­ life and property. The fire service is face fires respect no such geographic on the front lines in these emergen­ distinctions. Serious wildfires in the cies. They see the destruction and the Course Goal wildland-urban interface are now a loss firsthand. They also feel the problem in virtually every State-the frustration when their training, expe­ The goal of the new course is threat exists anywhere people and rience, and commitment are no increased protection in the wildland­ businesses exist within or adjacent to match for a major wildland fire urban interface-that point where wildlands. In designing this course, event. Charged with the respon­ manmade structures meet flammable the National Fire Academy recog­ sibility for protecting lives and vegetation. The increasing number of nized that, while interface fires are a property, firefighters too often find people moving to wildland areas and national concern, solutions must be themselves in the no-win situation of the continual expansion of cities and geared to specific local problems. A having to decide which houses to other communities out into traditional solution that may work in California protect and which to abandon to an wildland areas have led to a con­ may not be appropriate for Virginia approaching wildfire. comitant increase in wildland-urban or New Hampshire. This portion of interface fires. By stressing a pro­ the curriculum offers effective tools Focus of New Course active protection approach, the for assessing the risks, hazards, and National Fire Academy hopes to values in local jurisdictions as a crit­ In 1989, the National Fire Acad­ build awareness that traditional sup­ ical first step in tackling the problem. emy offered a new training program pression efforts frequently arc not Solutions or Options. The core of specifically tailored to provide small enough to combat interface fires. The the curriculum offers a wide variety and volunteer fire departments with fire service must take the lead to of activities, approaches, and strat­ the resources they need to help pro­ alert leaders and citizens to potential egies that local fire service agencies tect their communities from wildland dangers, to educate the public about can employ to reduce the potential the need for fire safety, and to imple­ for wildland-urban interface fires. ment community programs that can The chapter focuses on five major stop these disasters from ever areas: structural options, vegetation IMr. Reynolds of University Research Corpo­ ration, Bethesda, MD, assisted NFA in the occurring. management, elements of the development and production of this new train­ infrastructure, public education, and ing program. enforcement. In each of these sec-

24 Fire Management Notes tions, the course offers examples, work in a participant's community, options that have proved effective in advice, and resources that can be tai­ based on solutions and mitigation other parts of the country.• lored to the needs of individual communities or agencies. the materials for reproduction was Building Support. Effective fire Release of National Wildland-Urban Interface enclosed in each package. protection involves not only members The American Council on Educa­ of the fire service, but also a wide Training Package tion will award one semester hour of variety of individuals and agencies credit upon successful completion of that have an interest in the wildland­ the final examination. urban interface. The curriculum iden­ The National Fire Academy (NFA) Copies of the kit are also available tifies the key organizations, agencies, began a nationwide distribution of its through the National AudioVisual and individuals that can help in new wildland fire protection training Center (NAC), 8700 Edgeworth designing and implementing an inter­ course in mid-April. This innovative, Drive. Capitol Heights, MD face fire protection program. self-paced, self-study course is 20743-3701. The NAC can be reached designed to assist local fire service on 1-800-638-1300. A complete kit Particular emphasis is given to identi­ and forestry personnel in combating costs $30 with discounts available for fying the interests and motivations of destructive wildland fires occurring quantities over six copies. Compo­ these groups as a first step toward more and marc frequently in the nents of the kit are for sale indi­ gaining their support. wildland-urban interface. vidually. All materials are in the pub­ Action Planning. The whole pur­ To ensure national distribution of lic domain and may be copied or pose of the Academy's new program the much needed course, NFA has reproduced as desired. is to support protection initiatives at sent copies of the training package to For further information on the wild­ the local level. Thus, the last stage in fire service training and forestry orga­ land course. call Mary Ellis, National the course assists participants in nizations in each State. The training Fire Academy, (202) 646-2692 or defining their specific problems. package contains a textbook, a work­ write the Office of the Superintendent, National Fire Academy, 16825 South Again, the focus is on building a book. and a video tape. A mailback form requesting a copy of the final Seton Avenue, Emmitsburg, MD problem-solving strategy that will examination and camera-ready copy of 21727.•

Sexual Harassment­ such a way that people pay attention the videos and discuss the issues and What's It All About? and learn-getting through their initial situations presented. defensiveness or resistance. The infor­ Copies are available for short-term What is it? What are the costs of mation is complete, thorough, and loans from the employee relations sec­ sexual harassment? What does the law accurate. The presentation is for all tions of the Forest Service regional say? What should I do? These are but employees, including managers and offices and the Northeastern Area a few of the questions answered by a supervisors. The goal of the video State and Private Forestry office in set of five video tapes and accom­ tape series is simple: To provide all Broomall, PA. Additional copies arc panying guidebooks that the USDA the information necessary to stop and available through direct purchase with Forest Service, Fire and Aviation prevent harassment. the Pacific Development Group, Inc.. Management, has made available to The purchase and distribution of 4044 Northeast 58th Street. Seattle. all Forest Service regions and the these videos completes another slated WA 98105; telephone number (206) Northeastern Area State and Private action item of "A Model for Work­ 782-7015.• Forestry office. In the videos. titled force Diversity," a proactive. end "Shades of Gray," Susan L. Webb of results-oriented plan to increase and Harry Croft, budget coordinator, the Pacific Resource Development improve workforce diversity. All USDA Forest Service, Fire and Avia­ Group, lnc., presents the material in employees are strongly urged to see tion Management, Washington, DC

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 25 COD1l~lagll"al~iol11l IPlI"eveD1l~DoD1l Systems at the UlI"roalD1laWildUall11ld lntertace

James L. Murphy and Troy Kurth

Respectively, president, Fire Science Systems Corporation, Benicia, CA, and forester, USDA Forest Service, Aviation and Fire Management, Missoula, MT

The conflagration potential is 200 When conflagration potential is the occurrence of large disaster wild­ percent above normal for the time of high, will saturation prevention fires-the conflagrations. • year! action prevent conflagration poten­ This was the situation on the four tial wildfire from starting? Conflagration Early Warning southern California national forests in System September 1979 when the first ever conflagration prevention plan was assigned to fire suppression duty. implemented. Saturation prevention Preventing fires is then nearly Each of the four southern Califor­ action was taken as the fire danger impossible. nia national forests was separated worsened to prevent conflagration One reason for this lack of into areas classified low, moderate, potential wildfires from starting. emphasis on fire prevention is that, high hazard, and exempt areas. Conflagrations or large disaster in the past, predicting the chance of Exempt areas were those that were fires arc a primary concern of wild­ a wildfire starting has not been possi­ relatively "fire safe" such as large land firefighting organizations ble with any reliability. As a result, expanses of rock or barren ground. everywhere. Suppression costs on efficient operational systems for fire Hazard areas were classified on the wildland fires in California, for prevention have not been developed basis of the following: example, are frequently in excess of and applied. o Predicted rate of spread. $150,000 for a 300-acre (l21-ha) fire This paper describes a first-time o Spot fire potential. and can exceed $2.5 million for a test of a conflagration forecasting o Presence of fine ground fuels, 10,000-acre (4,047-ha) fire. Con­ system and the application of the easily ignited. flagration fires occur all too total mobility concept to the preven­ o Continuity of fuels that would per­ frequently in high-value watershed tion of conflagration fires; that is, the mit spread over large areas. and areas of urban development total fire management personnel and o Presence, or absence, of manmade where losses of $3,500 per acre are equipment are made available to barriers. not uncommon. problem areas. o Resistance to suppression factors, Conflagration fires in southern such as machine operability or dif­ California most often occur during Conflagration Fire Prevention ficulty in accessing. conditions that are predictable, such Coordiuatiou Plan o First-run damage potential of a as low fuel moisture and high­ fire. velocity dry winds. These conditions In August 1978, the USDA Forest are associated with well-understood Service's Pacific Southwest Regional Criteria for Plan Activation weather and other physical phe­ Forester approved the Conflagration nomena. This same predictability is Fire Prevention Coordination Plan. Criteria for activation were based true for the Intermountain West. The plan focused on the four on the hazard areas, previously dis­ Experienced fire managers know southern California national forests: cussed, the two principal southern that the surest way to control con­ o Angeles National Forest. California fuel models, rate-of-spread flagration fires is to prevent them in o San Bernardino National Forest. potential, and the computer-based the first place. Yet, wildland fire pre­ o Cleveland National Forest. analysis of fire report data. vention is given only token emphasis o Los Padres National Forest. The potential rate of spread was in terms of allocation of resources The plan outlined the criteria for set at 80 chains (1,609 m) per hour. and financing in most wildland man­ its implementation and the action to This spread rate could be expected to agement agencies in the United be taken by intensified fire pre­ result in a 300-acre (l2l-ha) fire in I States. vention systems during periods of hour when average slope percent and Historically, when conflagration extreme fire danger. The overall spotfire.potential was included. conditions occur, some fires start and objective of the plan and proposed The two computer-assisted pro­ the prevention organization is quickly action was to reduce the likelihood of grams are as follows:

26 Fire Management Notes • "Crosstabs" -allows for cross­ Prevention Task Forces behavior officer and weather fore­ tabulated analysis of Forest Serv­ caster). The team of analysts using ice fire report data. A constant The 98 prevention specialists were special computer programs forecasts (number of smoker fires) is ana­ organized into task forces and units. fire occurrence by national forest, Ii lyzed using several variables such A task force consisted of five fire ranger district, and cause. The team as time of day, fuel type, or loca­ prevention units. In each fire preven­ of strategists then prepares a problem tion. The analysis is helpful for tion unit were two prevention summary and recommends a preven­ longer range planning purposes. specialists in a pickup/pumper with tion action. Tables I and 2 and the o "Prevent Query"-allows for con­ radio communication and fire sup­ analysis on the following page illus­ tinuous monitoring of day-to-day pression tools. trate a fire occurrence forecast and fire occurrence within each of 300 problem summary. fire prevention units in the national Risk Forecasting Center forests in California. "Prevent Fire Prevention Task Force Action Query" makes possible the com­ The Risk Forecasting Center was parison of current fire occurrence based at Riverside Fire Research The task force teams were trends with the historic trends Laboratory. The forecasting operation assigned to prevention activities on obtained from "Crosstabs " anal­ consisted of a team of analysts (sta­ the basis of the occurrence forecasts ysis of individual fire reports. tistical and computer specialists) and and carried out saturation prevention a team of strategists or tacticians (fire measures. These teams augmented Implementation of the Prevention Action Plan Table I-Fire occurrence forecast summary for the week of September 29 to October 6, 1979, on On September 15, 1979, worsen­ the San Bernardino National Forest* ing fire danger conditions in southern California resulted in high hazard Item national forest areas meeting the cri­ Probability or cause teria for the implementation of the Chance of one or more fires 0.947 conflagration prevention plan. Chance of one or more fires on Saturday or Sunday 0.812 Ninety-eight prevention specialists Chance of one or more fires on a weekday 0.732 from the Forest Service's Pacific Most likely number of occurrences of fire 1 to 5 Southwest Region North Zone (north­ ern California) and the Pacific "Most likely causes of fire: equipment, smoking. campfires, incendiary, or children. Northwest Region (Oregon and Washington) and from the Bureau of Table 2--Chance offire occurrence (percent) b~v cause ill ranger districts of the San Bernardino Land Management were dispatched National Forest for week ofSeptember 29 to October 6. 1979 to southern California for saturation wildfire activities. Cause Arrowhead Big Bear Cajon San Gorgonio San Jacinto Prevention Coordination Center Equipment 10 30 Smoking 59 32 10 A Prevention Coordination Center Campfires 35 13 12 was set up by the South Zone coordi­ Debris nator in the Pacific Southwest Region Railroad 14 Incendiary 46 42 43 10 at Riverside. CA. National forest fire Children 56 55 prevention officers requested preven­ Miscellaneous 20 tion task force units through the All causes 86 76 70 45 ~~ coordinator.

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 27 Fire Prevention Problem Analysis Summary; San Bernardino National Forest for Week of September 29 to October 6, 1979

Problem Summary

The chance of one or more fires starting on the forest during the following week is almost certain. There is a high probability of incendiary fires based upon trends of the last week. Equipment-use fires and smoker fires show moder­ ately high chances of occurrence. Incendiary fires will most likely occur on the the regular forest prevention crews in San Jacinto and Arrowhead Ranger Districts and the Santa Ana River drainage these areas: of the San Gorgonio District. The chance of equipment-usc fires is highest on the Cajon District. Campfires and smoker fires may occur on the Arrowhead. • Saturation patrol. Big Bear, San Gorgonio, and San Jacinto Districts. • Public contact in high risk areas. Analysis of historical data indicates: • Road closure. • The chance for an incendiary fire over 300 acres (I21 ha) is greatest on the • Contact with local newspapers and San Jacinto District. television. • Transients cause 58 percent of all incendiary fires. Local permanents and visi­ tors each cause 17 percent. The Program Payoff • The odds are that most incendiary fires will start between 1100 and 1700. The chances arc 3 out of 10 that an incendiary fire will be started between What was the payoff from this 0300 and 0600, however. first-time conflagration prevention • Though 84 percent of all incendiary fires had little or no "degree of preven­ program? tability," 16 percent of them might have been prevented. Personal contact • Arson fires, which were of high was the recommended activity. frequency on at least two ofI the Prevention Action forests, were eliminated during the high fire danger period. Fires caused by equipment use, cigarettes, and campfires can be prevented by • The prevention units had an the usc of the following: "implied enforcement" effect on • Check stations on the San Gorgonio and San Jacinto Districts. all four of the forests, as reported • Campground patrol. by the forest prevention officer. • Personal contact on all industrial operations. • On one national forest, the preven­ Some incendiary fires can be prevented through the following measures; tion units discovered three • Intensify patrols between the hours of 1100 and 1700 and 0300 and 0600. incipient wildfires and carried out • Contact local permanents, especially on the San Jacinto and San Gorgonio successful initial attack. On Districts. e Establish check stations with the help of the local sheriff's office. !I another forest, fire prevention units made successful initial attack Ifyou don't have a spark arrester, we have a spark arrester. on 10 wildfires. Each prevention unit could act as a fire suppression unit also. • The estimated suppression costs saved by the intensified prevention action totaled $2.3 million. The cost of this first-time experimental conflagration prevention project was $235,000.•

28 Fire Management Notes CFE5-a PC-Based Fire Plannlnq Tool for the 1990's

Wayne Mitchell and Glen Lee

Respectivetv, [ire protection analyst andfire economics analyst, California Deportment (~l Forestry and Fire Protection, Sacramento, CA

Introduction fire policy, asked COP managers to automate fire reports and obtain cred­ develop a Statewide analysis capa­ ible historical fire behavior data The California Department of For­ bility (2). The Board asked for an during the test period. Second. the estry and Fire Protection (CDP) in analysis tool that would integrate the COF did not have the computer hard­ cooperation with the University of effectiveness of various firefighting ware, database software, or training California is developing a fire plan­ resources such as engines, bull­ capabilities to implement IAA. Even ning model called the California Fire dozers. hand crews. and uirtankcrs when the Department settled on a Economics Simulator (CFES). At this and evaluate COP's ability to meet microcomputer-based system, Sl;'lgC. an initial attack simulator. the its legal mandate to provide equal database application development and California Fire Economics Simula­ protection to lands of similar type. supporting software development lor-Initial Attack Module (CFES­ Using this capability. the Board and problems remained to be solved. lAM) has been developed. The the Department would develop strate­ Headway has been made to resolve CFES-IAM version 1.2 is a deriva­ gic plans for resource allocations these difficulties, The COF has now tion of the USDA Forest Service's beginning in the early 1990's. successfully automated its fire inci­ Initial Attack Assessment model The COF first elected to test the dent reporting system. This has been, (IAA) and is being implemented in usc of the National Fire Management to say the least a heroic effort. The CDF's 23 administrative units. Analysis System's fAA model in six CDF is also using recently acquired National Fire Weather Data Library Historical Perspective weather data to provide fire behavior In California. the COF is respon­ The California Department of For­ information necessary for initial sible for vegetation fire protection on estry and Fire Protection managers attack modeling. roughly 30 million acres (12.141.000 involved with Initial Attack Assess­ For the second problem. COF hal of private property. To carry out ment quickly realized that initial managers decided to seek assistance irs work. the COF supports over 470 attack simulation would be a very from researchers at the University of engines. 225 handcrcws. and 70 bull­ valuable management tool, both at California at Berkeley. The COF dozers and manages a fleet of over the local and State level. needed an initial attack simulator that 30 fixed- and rotary-wing fire sup­ would run on microcomputers, could pression aircraft with a budget of be taught to personnel without any over $200 million annually. of its administrative units. CDF man­ computer experience within 8 hours Despite this impressive collection agers involved with IAA quickly of training, and would have an of resources. the CDF has not realized that initial attack simulation immediately interactive user-interface :1' developed a comprehensive planning would be a very valuable manage­ (for both input and output data). process for the allocation of these ment tool. both at the local and State resources since the 1940's. Changes level. The Simulator-What It Is and I· in resource allocations arc rare and Unfortunately, the six units imple­ What It Does usually based on local managers' menting lAA faced two significant intuition and experience. The CDP difficulties. First and foremost. the Recognizing the need for a micro­ was involved in the development of COF had not automated its fire computer-based, easy-to-use Fire Operationa! Characteristics reports and couJd not correJate fire simulator that could be designed Using Simulation (FOCUS) (/) in the activity with fire behavior. Without around CDF's mandate to provide mid-1970·s. but this analysis tool automated fire activity or fire equal protection for lands of similar was never used in CDF's budget behavior data, these units were not type. the CFES-IAM was created. planning process. able to generate information neces­ The first step was to re-write the In !985. the California Board of sary to operate !AA. Only three of !AA FORTRAN computer code in Forestry, responsible for forest and the original six test units were able to Turbo PASCAL and build a modern

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 29 user-interface. In adapting the IAA • model, the internal equations and many analysis concepts were Create dispatch list. retained. Figure I describes the CFES-IAM simulation process. The CFES uses the Fire Management Analysis Zone (FMAZ) and Repre­ Dispatch next (or first) sentative Fire Location (RFL) firefighting resource. systems and the basic fire contain­ ment production rate of various Yes firefighting resources. The CFES program is designed around two closed loops of data screens. The first set is a series of interactive data entry screens. In this Does the fire's perimeter Yes Are there any more series, the fire manager describes the increase rate exceed the fireline firefighting resources? fire management unit, the fire his­ productivity of all firefighting tory, and the firefighting resources. resources at the fire? A sample resource description screen No is shown in figure 2. By pressing a single key, the [F2] function key, the No program runs the analysis and dis­ plays the output screen series. The output screens display summaries of Compute time of containment Fire escapes. fire activity by RFL (fig. 3) by size and final fire size. ( ) class (fig. 4), and by cost breakdown. Pressing the [F2] function key a second time returns the fire manager Yes to the input screens. "What-if" changes can then be made and the Are there any more No analysis can be run again. The proc­ firefighting resources? essing time is very short, running from a few seconds to a couple of minutes. The time depends on the Are simulation size and time exceeded? computer hardware being used and the complexity of the analysis. Would the next In the data entry screen series, the resource cursor keys move from data entry arrive before Yes No No box to data entry box within a containment? screen, whereas the page-up [ 1 I and page-down [ J I keys move from screen to screen. This allows for Fire is contained; compute maximum user flexibility while enter­ area burned and costs. ing data. It is easy to go back and change earlier entries. This helps the Figure l~/!1jrial attack simulation process. less computer-proficient fire man­ agers feel more comfortable at the

30 Fire Management Notes keyboard. They quickly realize that Using the Model shall be assigned the same intensity they can't "break" the program, and of protection" (3). To accomplish they can change any entries that are The CFES-IAM is designed to be this analysis, the CDF is developing incorrect. used as an operational planning tool. a relative "level of protection" anal­ In addition to the comprehensive The general function will be to help ysis process rather than a "cost plus user's manual (4), on-line help is the CDF analyze its legislated man­ net-value change" analysis. always available. By pressing the date where"all land of each type Operationally, similar FMAZ's IFlJ function key, a help message

appears and describes the current Fire Management Analysis Zone: YAW CFES-tAM Entry Screen No.12 screen. After reading the help mes­ sage. a single key stroke returns the Resource Description fire manager to his or her previous place in the program. Resource No.1 Description: Corralitos Engine NO.1 (8) The CFES-IAM has other features that enhance its usc. Input data can Identity code: CZUB4180 Size code: G be saved to files and re-used in later Are values same RFL NO.1 RFL No.2 RFL No.3 RFL No.4 RFL No.5 RFL No.6 analyses. Output reports can be writ­ for all representative RFL No.7 RFLNo.8 RFL NO.9 AFL No. 10 RFL No.11 RFL No. 12 fire locations (RFL)? ten to a data file or printed on paper. I Production rate I 12 12 12 12 Function keys are used to move (chains! hour) y quickly through the program and to Responsetime 45 0 0 0 perform other utility chores. An aud­ (minutes) ible siren has been included in the j N 69.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 program for the crusty fire managers Mission cost ($) who suffer from "compuphobia." If it sounds like a fire engine, it can't [PgDnJ, [PgUpj-Next, Previous screen; {F2)-Simulate; (F1)-Help. be all bad. The siren can be turned Figure '1r---Data entry for suppression resources. (CFES-IAM = California Fire Economics off when it gets on your nerves. Simulator-Initial Attack Module; Y = yes; N = /10; G = 5,000 acres or more.)

CFES-IAM Output Screen No. 100 11 Event list for Representative Fire Location NO.1

Fire dispatch level/ Rate of spread Perimeter Time Acreage Number of Uncontained Aggregate Number Suppression rate of spread (chains/hour) increase to final resources perimeter production of costs (percentage) rate containment or used/ on arrival on fires ($) (chains/hour) (minutes) on arrival available of last arrival per of last resource of last year resource resource L/50 4.8 11.6 64 1.77 31 3 7.1 $ 254.00 Ll90 7.8 18.9 76 5.17 31 3 1.8 771.16 M/50 10.5 25.4 69 7.41 9/13 1.9 6,125.49 M/90 14.4 34.9 90 21.35 12/13 0.5 15,29308 H/50 17.1 41.4 101 36.58 15/15 3.7 22,849.45 H/90 22.0 53.3 Escape@ 95 47.69 15/15 24.3 86.0 0.9 Unknown

[PgDn], [PgUp]-Next. Previous screen: IF21-Edit Data:IF1)-Help.

Figure 3-Dala output screen for analysis zolle (CFES-IAM = California Fire Economics Simuta­ lor-Initial Attack Module: L = low; M = medium; H = high.)

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 31 will be grouped and relative levels of CFES-IAM Output Screen No.112. • protection will be examined. High Expected annual acreage burned in contained fires for all representative fire levels of protection. or "peaks." and locations low levels of protection, or "val­ Average Total leys," will be identified. These Fire dispatch 0-0.25 0.25-10.0 10.0-25 25-50 50-100 level fire size acres peaks and valleys can then be studied in greater detail. L 0.00 38.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 1:12 38.21 0.00 27.44 10.21 0.00 0.00 4.09 37.66 The CFES-IAM will likely receive M H 0.00 72.28 47.65 134.67 0.00 14.38 254.59 greater use as a policy analysis tool Tolal 0.00 137.93 57.86 134.67 0.00 5.41 330.46 at the local level than elsewhere. Such policies as initial attack dis­ Expected annual number of fires by size class patch strength, move up and cover, Fire dispatch 0-0.25 0.25-10.0 10.0-25 25-50 50-100 Escapes Total engine staffing patterns, drawdown level fires levels. and many others can be eval­ L 0.00 34.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 34.20 uated. For example, an analysis of a M 0.00 6.12 O.4B 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.20 local-level policy covering airtanker H 0.00 10.48 2.62 3.6B 0.00 0.92 17.70 dispatch resulted in a revision of the Total 0.00 53.40 3.10 3.68 0.00 0.92 61.18 old policy, saving thousands of dollars in unnecessary airtankcr [PgDn], [PgUp]-Next, previous screen; (F2)-Edil Data; (F1)-Help. dispatches. Figure 4-Data Oil/Put screen for anaivsis zone, (CFES-IAM = California Fire Economics Spin-off Products Simulator-s-Initial Attack: Module: L = tow: M = medium; H = high.)

Development of the CFES has microcomputers (8). FIRDAT calcu­ partment of Agriculture, the Bureau been a time-consuming, oftentimes lates National Fire Danger Rating of Land Management of the U.S. overwhelming, task. In addition to System (NFDRS) indexes and com­ Department of the Interior, and the the actual analysis process, many ponents from historical weather data. six contract counties. These software other products have been spun off All of the historical weather data for design factors are very important in from the development of the CFES. California was obtained from the gaining local-level support for CDF's These products have great utility for National Fire Weather Data Library fire plan. many CDF management tasks. at the Fort Collins Computer For the first time, the CDF has an Center (6). With this data and The Future of the CFES-IAM automated fire-reporting system. FlRDAT, many other planning proj­ From 5 to II years of fire activity is ects can be undertaken from From our work with the University now instantly available for analysis. prescribed fire management to sup­ of California, Berkeley, it seems as This is already being worked into a pression planning. if a Pandora's box of research issues Department-wide fire prevention The design of the CFES software has been opened. Work on the planning process. Central processing lends itself to a planning process at CFES-IAM, version 2, is focusing of these data will continue through the ranger level. This process has on a "stochastic" simulator to better 1988. By 1989, an aotomated report­ provided for better involvement of reflect real world variability in wild­ ing system will be extended to the local-level fire managers in the State­ fire occurrence, behavior, and initial station level. wide planning program by providing attack control efforts (5). To model fire behavior of some a direct feedback mechanism. The A stochastic simulator provides for 50,000 historical fires, the FlRDAT design also provides for better in­ variable inputs in the form of fre­ program was selected from FIRE­ volvement with CDP's cooperators, quency distributions. Many input FAMIL Y and was adapted to run on the Forest Service of the U.S. De- factors such as the time to move

32 Fire Management Notes equipment, fire spread rate, fireline model to include stochastic components. In: Olive-Drab Federal construction rate, and fire occurrence Proceedings on the \lJ8g Symposium on Systems Analysis in Forest Resources; [988 Property can better be accounted for by using March 2Y-April I~ Pucific Grove. CA. I~ their distributions. With this sirnula­ Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-l61. Fort Collins. The Federal Property and Admin­ tor, the outputs will be in the form of CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Far­ istrative Services Act of 1949, as expected values and confidence inter­ es! Service. Rocky Mountain Forest and amended. authorizes the USDA Forest vals for annual acres burned and Range Experiment Station: 235-240. Service to lend Federal Excess Per­ 6. Furman. R. William: Brink. Glen E. 1975. sona Property to State forestry control costs. The National Fire Weather Data Library: agencies for rural fire protection. To obtain these frequency distribu­ what it is and how to lise it. Gen. Tech. Since most of this equipment (80 pcr~ tions, research is continuing on Rep. RM-ll}. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. cenr) comes from the military, it Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. fireline construction rates, peak­ usually is U.S. Army olive-drab or Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experi­ period and diurnal fire behavior pat­ some other military color such as U.S. ment Station. g p. terns, distributions of fire occurrence, 7. George, Charles W. 1985. An operational Navy gray, Air Force blue, or Marine and frequency and severity of multi­ retardant effectiveness study. Fire Manage­ camouflage (that's the stuff you can't ple fire days. Coordination efforts are ment Notes. 46(2):18-23. sec). When put in service, these mili~ also ongoing through the airtanker K. Main. William A.: Straub, Robert J.: tary colors should be painted over by effectiveness research project of the Paanancn, Donna M. [9~2. FIREFAMILY: the State in the Fire District or fire planning with historic weather data. USDA Forest Service Operational Department color scheme. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-73. St. Paul. MN: The State Forester or Fire District Retardant Effectiveness (ORE) study U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest may have former military equipment Service. North Central Forest Experiment (7). Version 2 of the CFES-IAM that was acquired from programs other Station. 31 p. will enhance CDF's ability to look at than the USDA Forest Service. Some questions relating to nighttime fire, of the other channels for olive-drab depth of resources, and probability and other military equipment are the associated with alternative resource State Surplus Property Agency, Gen­ allocation.• eral Services Administration surplus property sales, and other Federal Literature Cited excess property programs. Some States are still using military-type l . Bratten. Frederick W,; Davis, James B.; Flatman. George T,; Keith, Jerold W.; equipment given to them under the Rnpp. Stanley R.: Storey. Theodore G. Defense Civil Preparedness Agency IYB 1. FOCUS: a fire management planning program when it was in operation and system-final report. Gen. Tech. Rep. the U.S. Fish and Wildlife excess PSW--4Y. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department property program. of Agriculture, Forest Service. Pacific The point is this; Not all equipment Southwest Forest and Range Experiment .) painted military colors was lent to the Station. 34 p. Stare Forester by the USDA. That is :z. California Department of Forestry and Fire one reason why the USDA Forest Protection. 1988. Fire protection plan pro­ Service requires that our lent property cedures handbook. ch. 7100. be marked with decals or other forms 3. Cal. Pub. Res. Code ~4130 (Wesl 1(65). -::) 4. Fried. Jeremy S.: Gillcxs. J. Keith. lYHg. of identification. Forest Service-lent The Catifom!a Fire Economics Simulator-c­ I property is identified by aluminum lnitia! Attack Module (CFES-IAM): Ver­ I tags or yellow vinyl labels. If it is sion 1.11 User's Guide (MS-DOS). J not, it should be.• Bulletin 1925. Berkeley. CA: Division uf Agriculture and Natural Resources. Univcr­ Metts Tower and lookout dwelling built by the Francis R. Russ, property manage­ !>j!y of Cantomia. BJ p. CCC on/he Cboctowhatchee Natirmal Forest in ment specialist, Fire and Aviation .s. Fried. Jeremy 5.: Gilless, J. Keith. Il}Hg. Florida (transferred to the War Department in Management, USDA Forest Service, Modificufion of un initial attack .simulalion 1940) (B.W. Muir, 1937). 352873 Washington, DC

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 33 The 1988 Greater Yellowstone Area Fires: A Slide-Tape Story

Robert Swinford

National fire prevention officer, USDA Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management, Washington, DC

The /988 Greater Yellowstone Area/ires slide program was weather history, the area ecosystem, the spread of the Yellow­ initially presented at the Western States Forestry Legislative Task stone fires, and suppression strategy and action. Force meeting in Vancouver, Be, in November /988. The pro­ The program is available for loan through the Fire and Avia­ gram, later enhanced with an audiotape, focuses on four tion Management Washington Office. Contact Robert Swinford. important questions: How did the fires happen? What was done Fire and Aviation Management, P.O. Box 96090, U.S. Depart­ about them? Why did they burn J.5 million acres (607,050 hajJ ment ofAgriculture. Washington, DC 20090~6090: telephone What is happening in the aftermath? It describes the geographic number (703) 235-8666; DG address; R. Swinford;1V01A. area, the administrative organization and its goals, recent

Slides Script Shoshone, and Targee National 1. Fire scene • The year of 1988 will be Forests) and two national parks remembered as one of the worst (the Yellowstone and Grand. wildfire years in history. Over Teton National Parks). 73,000 fires burned more than 5 10. Vicinity map • It is located primarily in million acres (2,023,500 hal in northwest Wyoming and the United States. encompasses roughly I 1.7 2. U.S. map of fires • Three hundred major fires million acres (4,734,990 hal. burned in 22 States; 2.2 million I!. General scenery • The area is world renowned acres (890,340 hal hurned in for its scenery, wildlife, Alaska alone. wilderness, rivers, hunting, 3. Yellowstone sign • However. it was the fires that fishing, outdoor recreation burned in and around Yellow­ opportunities, and geologic and stone, the "Crown Jewel" of thermal features. America's national parks, that l2. General recreation • National park and national were the focus of national and forest managers have met international attention and informally over the last 3 controversy. decades to ensure coordination 4. Fire scene • How did these fires happen? of management and public 5. Fire scene • What was done ahout them? service. 6. Fire scene • Why did they eventually burn 13. Greater • This management coordin­ over \.5 million acres (607 ,050 Yellowstone ation committee was formalized hal? Coordination in 1986 and in 1987 released ! 7. Burned area • What is happening in the Committee plan "The Greater Yellowstone aftermath? Area-an Aggregation of 8. Title slide • This program on the Greater National Parks and National Yellowstone Area fires of 1988 Forests Management Plans for will attempt to answer these the Greater Yellowstone Area." questions and others about the 14. Timber sale • The report descrihes the fires that will probably be condition and extent of natural chronicled as the major wildfire resources in the area- event of the 20th century. 15. Elk • And the management 9. Greater • The Greater Yellowstone programs for those resources. Yellowstone Area Area is made up of parts of six 16. Fire scene • The interagency fire map national forests (the Beaverhead, management objectives are also Bridger-Teton, Custer, Gallatin, described in the report. They are:

34 Fire Management Notes During the summer of 1988. a 'II 17. Fire suppression • Ensure that suppression strategies are compatible with high pressure area over the management objectives of central Rockies, with a low

,oJ adjacent units. pressure area off the Pacific 18. Fire suppression • Ensure fire suppression Coast dominating the weather strategies do not present undue pattern, resulted in above risk to the resources of other normal temperatures for much of units. the Nation including the Greater 19. Smoke column • Manage prescribed fire and Yellowstone Area. fire suppression so that smoke is 25. Severity map • More important for the at an acceptable level and meets Greater Yellowstone Area, west State air quality standards. to southwesterly flow (winds 20. Fire suppression • Each national forest and associated with a well­ national park has a plan that entrenched high pressure delineates certain areas where all system) over northwest fires will be suppressed and- Wyoming during July and 21. Prescribed fire • Other areas where prescribed August prevented precipitation fires may be used within from moving into the area as in specified conditions. normal summers. 22. June drought maps • Critical contributing factors to The thunderstorms that did for four preceding the extent of the Greater occur produced lightning that years Yellowstone Area fires in 1988 started numerous fires but were the weather and fuel brought little rainfall. conditions. It was the fourth 26. Clouds • The prevailing westerly flow year of drought for many parts in the upper atmosphere brought of the country. A review of a series of dry cold fronts with drought conditions in late spring very high winds throughout the and early summer over the past summer, 4 years reveals numerous areas 27. Lodgepole pine • The forest areas involved in of drought severity, especially in stand the Greater Yellowstone Area 1987 and 1988. fires developed after earlier fires :3' 23. August drought • By August 1988, the and are essentially maintained in maps for four cumulative effect of 4 years of an unmanaged condition. ., preceding years below normal moisture resulted 28. Lodgepole pine • The majority of the stands are in extreme drought severity lodgepole pine in early-to-Iate throughout a significant area of stages of succession. the United States. 29. Insect damage • Large areas have been 24. Severity map-- • Fire potential based on infested by the mountain pine July 9 to August 5 drought and other factors was beetle. either "high" (shown in yellow) 30. Dead and downed • Trees killed by the beetle or "extreme" (shown in red) for lodgepole pine usually fall after 5 years, then the entire Northern Rocky become part of the heavy fuel Mountain Area, including buildup. Yellowstone. by early July 31. Fuelbed-snags • Combined with the heavy 1988. and dead and fuels of both standing and fallen

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 35 downed lodgepole snags, highly map designated on July 21 to manage flammable subalpine fir and three prescribed natural fires Engelmann spruce create burning south of Yellowstone potential for high-intensity fires. Lake when the decision was 32. Fine fuels • Measured light fuel moistures made by National Park Service in late August were as low as 2 officials to take suppression percent. A normal range for the action. The Snake River summer period would be 8 to 12 Complex eventually managed a percent. total of seven fires as new 33. Heavy fuels • In many cases, the larger lightning fires started in the fuels were as dry as the small area. fuels. The moisture content of 40. North Fork Fire on • The North Fork Fire started these larger fuels ranged map on July 22, in a wood-cutting between 5 to 7 percent. As a area on the Targee National comparison, moisture content of Forest. It escaped initial attack kiln-dried lumber is about 12 and spread rapidly into percent. Yellowstone National Park. 34. Dark • With these current and 41. Clover-Mist Fire • The Clover-Mist Complex cumulative weather and fuel on map was designated on July 23 to conditions, the stage was set. manage seven separate lightning 35. Fire scene • The first of what became fires in northeastern Yellowstone known as the Greater National Park. Yellowstone Area fires was- 42. Emerald Fire on • The Emerald Fire started by 36. Storm Creek Fire • Storm Creek Fire on the map lightning near Emerald Lake on on map Custer National Forest. Started the Bridger-Teton National by lightning on June 14, it was Forest on August 16. It was managed initially as a prescribed classified a wildfire immedi­ fire. It exceeded the prescription ately, but escaped initial attack. on July 3 and was declared a . 43. Huck Fire on map • On August 20, wind blew a wildfire at 125 acres (51 hal. tree across a powerline in Grand 37. Fan Fire on map • On June 25, the Fan Fire was Teton National Park starting the started by lightning in Huck Fire. Classified as a Yellowstone National Park. It wildfire, it made an immediate was also managed as a run that threatened evacuation of prescribed fire until July 25 a ranch and caused evacuation when it was declared a wildfire of a campground. Although at 3,500 acres (1,417 hal. spotted immediately by a 38. Mink Fire on map • The Mink Fire in the Teton helicopter that made a series of Wilderness of the Bridger-Teton water drops, conditions were National Forest started on July such that the fire escaped. 11 and was managed as a 44. Hunter Fire on • On August 20, the same prescribed fire until it reached map windstorm blew a green aspen 24,000 acres (9,713 hal on July over a powerline near Aspen 14. Ranch in Grand Teton National 39. Snake River • The Snake River Complex in Park, starting the Hunter Fire. Complex Fires on Yellowstone National Park was 45. Fire suppression • This wildfire, the Hunter

36 Fire Management Notes Fire, escaped initial attack and a year when new charts and 'J spread rapidly into the Bridger­ procedures had to be developed Teton National Forest. so fire behavior analysts could 46. Fayette Fire on • The Fayette Fire was started accurately predict the spread and map by lightning on August 21, near intensity of the fires. For Fayette Lake on the Bridger­ example- Teton National Forest. 53. Severe burning • A 15,000 acre (6,071 hal 47. Smokejumper • Initial attack was made by six blowup on the North Fork Fire smokejumpers-but steep was simply called a "stopover." terrain, dense timber, extremely 54. Fire scene • The flanks and rear areas of dry fuels, and severe spotting fires became fire fronts as dry made control difficult, and the cold fronts crossed the Greater fire escaped initial attack. Yellowstone Area. 48. Wolf Lake Fire on • On August 25, the North 55. Fire scene • Rates of spread of 2 miles map Fork Fire was divided into two (3.2 km) per hour in forested incident commands, due to its fuels were common. large size. The fire was about 56. Fire scene • Five- and ten-mile (8- to 16­ 40 miles (64 km) long and km) advances in a single day 104,000 acres (42,088 hal at were predicted and observed. this time. 57. Spotting • Spotting was frequent with 49. Hellroaring Fire • The Hellroaring Fire started new fires starting lh to Ilh miles on map near an outfitter's camp in (.08 to 1.69 km) beyond fire Beaver Creek on the Gallatin fronts. National Forest on August 25. 58. Convections with • Convection cloudcaps were • Immediate suppression action Caps commonplace-17 were counted 50. Suppression was initiated. The fire escaped in one afternoon. Convection initial attack and was 120 acres columns often reached altitudes (49 hal by the end of the first of 20,000 to 30,000 feet (6,096 day. to 9,144 m). 51. Fire scene • The last of the Greater 59. Nighttime burning • Fires often burned at night Yellowstone Area fires was the with as much severity or more Corral Creek Fire on the than during daylight hours. Beaverhead National Forest. 60. Severe burning • The Mink Creek Fire released Caused by an escaped campfire, an estimated 3.5 trillion BTU's oJ it burned 2,860 acres (1,157 hal per hour-i-enough to heat 4,400 and was controlled on Septem­ homes for a year. ber 6. Although it was by 61. Wind-driven fire • Of all the weather factors comparison a small fire, it was influencing fire behavior in the significant in that resources were Greater Yellowstone Area, wind pulled off other large fires had the most direct impact, in the Greater Yellowstone often causing spectacular fire Area to suppress it and protect behavior. structures. 62. Severe burning • The l-day, 14-mile (22.5 krn) 52. Severe burning • In 1988, the fire behavior in run down Jones Creek on the the Greater Yellowstone Area Clover-Mist Fire was wind rewrote the record book. It was driven.

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 37 63. Old Faithful • The September 7, North Fork Yellowstone Area Greater Yellowstone Area fires Complex Fire run on Old Faithful was the map (September 8) had grown to over I million .' combined result of wind-driven acres (404,700 hal. fire following topographic 70. Final Greater • Two more dry cold fronts boundaries. Yellowstone Area moved through the area in early 64. Greater • By mid-July, the fires in the map September, one on the 6th and Yellowstone Area Greater Yellowstone Area the other on the 10th. The last map (July 15) totalled approximately 8,500 cold front, on the 10th, brought acres (3,440 ha). winds again but also brought 65. Greater • During the next several light rain and snow with cool Yellowstone Area weeks, a total of six dry cold damp weather continuing map (July 31) fronts crossed the Greater through September 20, per- Yellowstone Area. Each milling firefighters to finally producing strong southwest to start containing the fires at a west wind gusts between 40 to total acreage of 1.6 million 60 miles (64 to 97 km) per acres (647,520 hal. hour. These are the times the 71. Graphic of data • The final statistics are fires made their major runs with awesome. significant increases in acreages. 72. Steep terrain • The topography of the Greater 66. Greater • By August 12, the acreage Yellowstone Area is a mixture Yellowstone Area had grown to 234,267 acres of deeply glaciated, high- map (August 12) (94,808 hal. elevation mountains that- 67. Greater • Of these fronts, the August 73. Plateau • Give way to relatively flat Yellowstone Area 20 system was the most plateaus and broad valleys. map (August 29) significant wind event with fires 74. Handcrew working • Topography not only growing dramatically. With influenced fire behavior, but sustained winds of 20 to 49 hampered firefighters' efforts to miles (32 to 79 km) per hour contain the fires. Anchor points and gusts of 60 to 70 miles (97 for firelines were scarce. to 113 km) per hour- 75. Severe burning • Major river drainages such as 68. Fire scene • The Clover-Mist Fire alone the Yellowstone, Firehole, and gained 46,500 acres (18,819 Madison created their own hal, the Hellroaring 25,000 micro-weather patterns. Even acres (10,118 hal, the Storm small creek channels became Creek 18,500 acres (7,487 hal, conduits that carried the fires and the North Fork 14,900 acres along like water in a pipe. (6,030 hal. The Continental Divide This was the day the Huck crosses the southern end of the and Hunter Fires started with the Greater Yellowstone Area. Huck Fire racing 4 miles (6.4 Often, winds blow in opposite km) in 45 minutes. directions at the same time on In total, the Greater Yellow- either side of the Divide. stone Area fires increased in 76. Greater • Due to the numerous fires and acreage by 160,000 acres Yellowstone Area complexity of the situation, a (64,752 hal in one day. Command unified area command was 69. Greater • By the end of August, the established on July 23. The

38 Fire Management Notes unified area command was containment and confinement staffed by fire command officers strategies were utilized. from both the National Park 83. Line building • A containment strategy uses a Service and USDA Forest combination of constructed Service. containment lines tied into 77. Greater • They set priorities on existing humanmade or natural Yellowstone Area allocation of forces and barriers. Command equipment to the ongoing fires 84. Fire with natural • Confining a fire restricts the as well as coordinating with barrier fire's spread to boundaries members of the Greater established either before or Yellowstone Coordinating during the fire. Committee. 85. Structural • The protection of life and 78. Objectives graphic • Park Superintendents and protection property was the top priority, Forest Supervisors set the and full control efforts were following objectives for the area utilized around structures with commanders: Make safety the confinement and containment first priority; protect life and strategies employed on the fire property; protect cultural values; perimeters. and keep the local public, 86. Fire scene • The great majority of the visitors, media, and cooperators Greater Yellowstone Area fires informed. burned in National Park and 79. Fire team • Each individual fire or fire National Forest wilderness complex was managed by an lands. Many of the agency fire incident management team that management plans provide decided on the combination of specific policy and guidelines to strategies and tactics for each minimize the extent and impact fire. of traditional fire suppression 80. Suppression • Suppression actions on the practices. Use of powersaws, Greater Yellowstone Area fires dozers. and other motorized were initially the traditional equipment must be approved. perimeter control strategies, 87. Dozer • These approvals were using both direct and indirect obtained, and dozers and other attack. This is the most mechanized equipment were aggressive suppression option used in Yellowstone Park and and involves the completion of a National Forest wilderness areas control line around the fire. where necessary. 81. Burnout • It may also include burning 88. Scratch fireline • Many of the fire management out on the fire side of the plans also provide guidelines for control line and cooling all hot "light-hand-on-the-land', spots that are an immediate suppression tactics. Light-hand threat to the line. guidelines include suggestions to 82. Severe burning • As the fires developed and minimize impact of fire camps conditions made it unsafe and and spike camps, selection of unproductive for firefighters to helispots to minimize continue with the perimeter construction, location of control control efforts, a combination of lines to take advantage of

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 39 natural barriers and light fuels, became commonplace as crews and other measures to minimize were exposed to dense smoke, lasting impacts on the land. dust, and cold nighttime 89. Severe burning • Torching, crowning, and temperatures for extended spotting produced fire behavior periods. that was extremely difficult to 95. Graphic listing • Personnel and equipment contain under prevailing resource data came from throughout the conditions regardless of United States. strategies and tactics utilized. At 96. Graphic detailing • During the Greater Yellow­ one point, 400 miles (644 km) Canadian support stone Area fires, we also of fireline had been constructed enjoyed considerable assistance and only 20 miles (32 hal held. from Canada. While most of the 90. Tree faller • Concern for personnel safety Canadian assistance was utilized was an integral part of all on other western fires, it was strategy and tactical decisions. invaluable and permitted us to There were no fatalities or concentrate existing resources on critical injuries on the Greater the Greater Yellowstone Area Yellowstone Area fires before fires. October. In early October, there 97. Graphic listing • The cost of fighting the was one fatality and one critical suppression costs Greater Yellowstone Area fires injury resulting from falling is estimated at $120 miIJion. . snags. This is a remarkable 98. Graphic listing • There was minimal loss of record considering the condi­ structure loss structures due to the outstanding tions and suppression activities efforts of firefighters. that continued for more than 3 99. Burned area • Natural processes create the months. diversity of vegetation, wildlife, 91. Helicopter and •A helicopter crashed while and landscape patterns that bucket filling a bucket on the Clover­ characterizes healthy eco­ Mist Fire, but the pilot was not systems. seriously injured. 100. Wildlife in burn • In the Greater Yellowstone 92. Handcrew • Crews were overrun or Area, fire is one of the threatened on several fires. Fire processes that has a major role shelters were used on three in shaping the environment. occasions and several spike While no responsible land camps were burned out with the manager would advocate loss of some equipment. \ burning 1.6 million acres 93. Grizzly bear • Safety in grizzly country was (647,520 hal in an ecosystem in also of primary concern. Bear 1 year, the fires did have a warnings and information were beneficial as well as a negative distributed and incorporated into impact. shift plans. Helicopters were 101. Regrowth in burn • Studies of the 1988 fires wiIJ used to head off grizzly bears provide an important addition to folJowing crews on the North existing knowledge of fire Fork Fire. effects on a variety of vegetative 94. Fire camp with • Respiratory problems such as types, wildlife habitats, soils, snow flu, bronchitis, and strep throat and water resources.

40 Fire Management Notes 102. Burned area • A Greater Yellowstone Area included seeding of 27,070 acres 'J Fire Recovery Research (10,955 hal, log terraces Consortium has been organized constructed on 350 acres (142 to coordinate the numerous hal, 121 miles (195 km) of postfire research efforts that are erosion control on trails, 100 underway. Members of the miles (161 km) of stabilization consortium arc the universities on road clearance and stabili­ in the Rocky Mountain area and zation of stream channels. the research branches of the 108. Lodge or store • Damage and loss of private USDA Forest Service and USDI property and the impact on local National Park Service. economies due to reductions in 103. Media • Media and public interest in park visitation is another the Greater Yellowstone Area negative impact of the Greater fires has been tremendous at the Yellowstone Area fires. local, regional, and international 109. Damaged • The U.S. Department of level. At the peak of the media structures Agriculture organized the USDA interest, staff at the fire informa- Fire Recovery Task Force which tion office, established at the with the Small 8usiness Park headquarters, totalled 34 Administration held a total of persons and the office was seven public meetings in the handling 200 media inquiries a Greater Yellowstone Area as day. During the entire summer, well as other areas affected by the office handled over 2,000 the 1988 summer's fires. The media contacts and over 5,000 purpose of the meetings was to public inquiries. explain USDA assistance 104. Burned area • Emergency burn rehabilitation programs, listen to problems, assessments were initiated on offer advice on other sources of the over 500,000 acres (202,350 Government help, and otherwise hal of national forest lands try to alleviate problems in fire­ involved in the Greater Yellow- impacted communities. stone Area fires before the fires 110. Recreation use • Efforts were also initiated, " were contained. nationally and internationally, 105. Fuelbreak • Suppression-related impact by the Forest Service, National was rehabilitated as part of the Park Service, and local ,j firefighting effort .. community organizations to 106. Aerial seeding • Emergency rehabilitation of promote future visitation to the watersheds including seeding, Greater Yellowstone Area. channel clearance, contouring, 11 1. Smoke and fire • The fire management policies and other measures were started of both the National Park as soon as possible in the Service and the Forest Service attempt to provide some were criticized during the fires. measure of vegetative cover The so-called "let burn" policy before the first rains. was blamed for the fires getting 107. Trail stabilization • Emergency rehabilitation of so large. burned over national forest land 112. Fire suppression • The Forest Service policy is in the Greater Yellowstone Area to take appropriate suppression

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 41 action on all wildfires. Naturally direction, and the additional occurring fires in wilderness requirements recommended by " areas are permitted to burn the review. under specified conditions and Revisions in the fire in specific areas with a pre­ management policies of the approved plan. National Park agencies were in place prior to Service policies are similar. the 1989 fire season. 113. Large smoke • Several of the fires in the 115-118. Credits _ plume Greater Yellowstone Area started out as prescribed fires in the park or surrounding national forest wilderness areas. They eventually burned out of prescription and suppression action was taken. As previously mentioned, conditions thwarted suppression efforts on these fires as well as new fires that were attacked immediately. 114. Fire scene o The Greater Yellowstone Area fires and the fire policies of the National Park Service and USDA Forest Service were reviewed after the 1988 fire I_--r-- season. This was accomplished [ through the normal administra­ Company street with mess hall in right foreground ofRochford Camp F-5 tive fire review process and on Black Hills (then Harney) National Forest (Fred R. Johnson, 1933). the fire policy review team ap­ 283157 pointed by the Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior. , I The recommendations from '/ the reviews include strength­ ening fire management policies governing wilderness and parks. The agencies reject as imprac­ tical and unprofessional the practice that fires can be allowed to bum free of prescriptions or appropriate suppression action. The review team also called for both the USDI and USDA to review existing fire management plans for parks and wilderness Enrollees relaxing through sport at Circleville, wv, Camp on the Mononga­ areas to be sure they are in hela National Forest (E.s. Shipp, 1933). 280523 compliance with current policy,

42 Fire Management Notes Mobile Food Service in Remote Areas

Jeannette Wright

Firefighter, Weston County, WY

., When a wildfire starts to burn, kitchen. There arc special lights on were up at 4:00 a.m. to prepare much hard work is required from the the truck to light the dining area, breakfast and to bed as late as 2:30 firefighters and the people behind the when needed. There is also a place a.m. after feeding everyone the eve­ lines. Feeding the firefighters three for firefighters to wash up. Dispos­ ning meal and cleaning up the times a day, for several days in a able towels are provided. kitchen. remote area can be a big challenge. During the last year, the kitchen Aside from sleep, firelighters need a The Crew was called upon to feed firefighters high calorie diet and much liquid in Weston, Campbell, and Crook while on duty. Mobile food service To run this kitchen usually takes Counties. has an important job to see that they five people. Two members of the get the proper diet. Weston County food service crew work outside the The Usual Day has its own mobile fire kitchen that kitchen. seeing that the garbage is was used several times during the taken care of, making sure that the Usually, we start serving breakfast past fire season. The question always generator is kept running, and run­ about 5:30 to 6:00 a.m. It usually arises: Is there a use for a mobile fire ning errands for the food preparers takes about I hour to serve. Imme­ kitchen such as the Weston County and servers in the kitchen who are diately after breakfast, we start Mobile Fire Kitchen in a fire situa­ responsible for all phases of food packing sack lunches. Many times tion'? Is it efficient enough to feed preparation and serving. (I was one we start packing lunches with the the firefighters or should this job be or tne food preparation-serving crew left to the professional caterer? that worked in the kitchen.) The The year 1988 has gone down as crew can feed 30 to 150 people per The question always arises: Is one of the worst years for fire in meal. there a use for a mobile fire Wyoming. Numerous fires through­ While the job is not life threaten­ kitchen such as the Weslon County out the State and the large fire in ing, many times we put in more Mobile Fire Kitchen in a fire Yellowstone National Park blackened hours than the firefighters them­ situation? thousands of acres during the year. selves. There were times when we The main job of the mobile food service is to provide well-balanced and tasty hot meals and nutritious sack lunches. The remote locations and the distance from town create additional problems in doing this.

Equipment

The Weston County Mobile Fire Kitchen Unit is built in a Federal ! excess personal property step-van that has one large grill and oven, a smaller grill and oven, a refrigerator, , and a sink with running hot and cold • water. Along with the fire kitchen is .. -. a truck that has a SOO-gallon (1,892 I) water tank, a tank of liquid pro­ !:L ' I pane, and a generator to supply electricity, water, and the gas for the We5toll County Mobile Fire Kitchell set up sofeedfirefiglucrs ill remote area.

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 43 nonperishable items after supper the Keeping up Morale Caterer and Fire Kitchen Costs night before, leaving the sandwiches and Capabilities--a Comparison to be put in lunch sacks the follow­ One of the "fun" parts of the job ing morning. The sack lunches are is keeping up the morale of the fire­ There are many professional kept in coolers or the refrigerator fighters. After a long day's work, we caterers located throughout the west­ until they are brought out to the feel that a smile is needed while ern United States that are hired under field. serving. So no matter how tired we contract with the USDA Forest Serv­ After breakfast and lunches are are, we keep on smiling and joking ice at Boise Interagency Fire Center. done, we obtain a count on the num­ around. When their services are needed, an ber of people to plan on for the next three meals. Much thought is put into the meals. Once the menu is set, we Sample Menus from the Weston County Mobile Fire Kitchen* shop in the nearest town for groc­ eries, ice, and supplies. (A trip to Breakfast Lunch Supper town sometimes takes over 3 hours.) Then we rush back to camp to start Pancakes Ham and cheese Lasagna preparing supper. Supper always Link sausage sandwich Garlic bread Melon and grapes Roast beef sandwich Tossed salad with takes the longest to prepare and to Butter Potato chips dressing serve, because it is the largest meal Syrup Apple Cheesecake of the day and the crews eat in Coffee Chocolate chip cookies shifts. The last shift may come in to Milk Gum eat as late as 12:00 a.m. We still Hard candy keep supper hot for them even at that Fruit juice hour. Miracle Whip and The kitchen uses the regulations of mustard the professional caterer as a guideline French toast Turkey sandwich Pork chops with rice to determine the amount of meat or Bacon Peanut butter and Green beans cheese, vegetables, bread, milk, and Hash brown potatoes jelly sandwich Rolls and butter fruit needed at each meal. Orange juice Orange Cherry or blueberry Besides the meals, the kitchen has Coffee Orca cookies cobbler Gatorade, coffee, and water available Butter Gum 24 hours a day. Syrup Granola bar I Fruit juice Miracle Whip and mustard Scrambled eggs Beef sandwich Hamburger and bun Fried ham Turkey sandwich Baked beans Biscuits Potato chips Potato salad Grape juice Pear Pickles Coffee Peanut butter cookies Catsup and mustard Butter Gum Chocolate cake Fruit juice Hard candy Miracle Whip and mustard Joni Brown (left) and Jeannette Wright in The .. Westall County Mobile Fire Kitchen. *See menu requirements 10 Request for Proposal (REF 49-89-04).

44 Fire Management Notes order is placed throogh the Logistic Kitchen unit crew, observed: The Government is responsible for " Support Office, Boise, !D. Contract ., Because the caterers cook for such garbage removal, gray water, dust requirements in the April 1987 large numbers of people, sometimes control, refrigeration, and extra per­ "Interagency Mobile Food Services as many as 4,000, they do great with sonnel to help keep the area clean for and Shower Facilities" (NFES No. quantity. But I feel our quality is bet­ the caterers. 1276) state: "Orders will be placed ter because the maximum number of The caterers must have tents and with firms whose service is most people we serve is 150." tables for the dining area. The fire advantageous to the Government con­ While the caterers deal in large kitchen does not have any specified sidering the earliest time services numbers, they too can be very dining area. The people sit on the could commence to meet needs, abil­ friendly, but have little time to give ground or stand up. ity to meet incident needs, and the personal touch that the smaller The caterers must be able to feed a pnce. kitchen crew can. We have the minimum of 350 people per hour on Professional caterers have a lot of chance to get to know some of the a I,OOO-person incident. The fire the same problems and responsi­ people and their likes and dislikes in kitchen just feeds them as fast as bilities as the mobile kitchen. They food. possible. have to organize shifts and cook The caterers have trucks that The professional caterers are better meals. One shift is responsible for deliver the groceries and supplies to equipped to handle large numbers of breakfast; one, for sack lunches; and the location. This saves them time. firefighters with great ease, but the one, for supper. Each shift consists They do not need to run to the near­ mobile fire kitchens, like those in of seven to nine people. They may est town each day. Weston and Fremont Counties, do a also have to prepare a buffet dinner. Weston County charges $250 per good job at feeding smaller groups of Their operation is very impressive. day for the use of the kitchen and firefighters. The State would be well­ Joni Brown, a firefighter working on $75 per day for the use of the truck. served by adding one or two more the Weston County Mobile Fire These charges include the water and mobile fire kitchens. _ fuel. The workers are paid an hourly wage. With these expenses and the References price of the food and supplies, the cost for feeding one person averages Brown. Joni. 1988. Personal interview. out to be $14 per day. November 12. The professional caterers charge a National Interagency Incident Management setup and takedown fee of $300 and System. Incident Command System. 1984. Food unit leader 1-357 student workbook. an average of $6.23 per mile. To NFES Catalog No. 1926. Boise, 10: Boise feed more than 100 people, they Interagency Fire Center, November. charge an average of $27.75 per per­ Soper, Walt. 1988. Personal interview. son per day. To feed fewer than 100, November 10. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Serv­ they charge $30.56 per person per ice. and the Boise Interagency Fire Center. day. The workers are also paid an 1987. Interagency-mobile food service and hourly wage. shower facilities. NFES Catalog No. 1276. The Government may supply the Boise. ID: Boise Interagency Fire Center. caterers with such things as water, April. With hydraulic skillets and enormous toasters. garbage cans and liners, lights for OK's caterers feed the fight against forest eating areas, and insulated cans. fires. 1987. People. September 21: 47-48. Firefighters gathered around Weston County They may be asked to put the meals Mobile Fire Kirchen at mea/time. in the cans.

1989 Volume 50, Number 3 45 Smokey and the American Cowboy

Gene Dowdy

Assistant fire management officer, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Region, Mendocino National Forest, Willows, CA

In June 1988, the Mendocino Smokey's Rodeo Activities Chrysler Corporation to contribute National Forest created a program the use of a truck and trailer for the associating Smokey Bear with the Major activities commenced at the program. Through their national mer­ American Cowboy to spread annual Professional Rodeo Cowboys chandising manager, Chrysler agreed Smokey's fire prevention message at Association (PRCA) convention in to donate the vehicle for Smokey's the professional rodeo. Both Smokey Las Vegas. December I to 3, 1988. use for I year. Bear and the American cowboy are A fire prevention display booth was important symbols in our national set up and furnished information heritage. The program was designed about the program to rodeo commit­ The effect of Smokey and the as a pilot to use this theme in fire tee members and other attendees. A American cowboy program has prevention for a l-year trial period as presentation was made at one of the been encouraging••• , spreading the an interagency effort of the USDA PRCA seminars. A banner with the fire prevention message and Forest Service, the California Depart­ words ."Partners in Fire Prevention" developing partnerships with non­ ment of Forestry and Fire Protection, and the emblems for the PRCA and traditional publics, and the California Bureau of Land the Smokey and the American cow­ Management. boy program hung in the arena. A plaque was presented to the PRCA Program Success The Message and the Medium Commissioner at the close of the activities as recognition of his per­ Smokey appeared at more than 40 The message focused on American sonal support of the project. Smokey rodeos in California during the pilot heritage-the land, livestock, and also told his fire prevention story to year and was seen in person by people-and was tailored to appeal to the National Finals Rodeo and the 500,000 people. In addition, through a large number of people who live in Exceptional Rodeo held in Las the print media and television, or near the national forests. The goal Vegas. NV. approximately 86 million people saw was to market the fire prevention An outgrowth of our partnership Smokey or heard his message message by combining these two with the PRCA was the decision of through the pilot program. symbols. creating a Smokey and the American cowboy theme, to reach a large group of forest users not tar­ geted by other prevention programs. The rodeo was selected because it is one of America's oldest athletic activities, with deep roots and acceptance in almost all States. It is family entertainment and appeals to age groups from 6 years on up. As designed, the pilot included personal appearances by Smokey Bear at rodeo events, media coverage of these events, posters and handouts of Smokey Bear with public service messages, and for event coordinators a Smokey and the American cowboy user's guide-all coordinated to pro­ Smokey, with a little help from his friends: Gene Dowdy, Director of Smokey and the American mote fire prevention information and Cowboy Program; Ken Lawrence, National Marketing Director of the Dodge Division. Chrysler education. Corporation; and Lewis Cryer, Commissioner of the Professional Rodeo Cowboy Association.

46 Fire Management Notes The effect of the Smokey and the " American cowboy program has been encouraging. It is spreading the fire prevention message and developing partnerships with nontraditional pub­ lics. We have completed the activities of the first year of this pilot program and look forward to con­ tinue Smokey and the American cowboy as a regular program in the coming year. _

I ~

Smokey, the traveling bear, ready to move on to the lIexl rodeo.

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